4.

SPIRIT LEVELLING

To equip student with the knowledge and skills to determine height differences of points on
the ground using a spirit level

4.1 Define the terms

I. Vertical Plane
II. Horizontal Plane

Line of sight given by an instrument, it is a surface or line at which the force of gravity intercept
at a particular point.

III. Level plane, level surface or level line

It is a surface or line on which all points are normal or at right angles to the force of gravity. The
surface of a lake is an example of a level surface.

IV. Benchmark
 It is a permanent point whose height or elevation with reference to the datum is known.
 a point with known height above mean sea level (or other reference datum). These are
permanent points (e.g. unchanged by weather conditions) and are provided by the
Department of Lands and Surveys.

V. Datum plane, datum surface

It is the level surface to which elevations of points may be referred. The surface commonly
adapted is the mean sea level (MSL).

VI. Reduced level

 It is the height of a point above or below the datum.
 The height of any target point is referred to as Reduced Level (RL), because it is reduced
to a known datum.

VII. Town survey mark

VIII. Foresight

The last reading taken before the instrument is shifted to another position.

IX. Back sight

It is the first reading taken after the instrument has been set

X. Change point
It refers to the last point taken before the instrument is moved. It is rather a link between two
level stations.

XI. Bubble sensitivity and its determination in the field

The bubble tube is the chief component of the dumpy and tilting levels. Its sensitivity i.e. its
ability to show the slightest deviation off the horizontal will depend on the type of the level. A
precise level will have a more sensitive bubble than an ordinary level.

The sensitivity of a level is usually stated as 20” per 1mm division or 40” per 1mm division. The
20” bubble tube will move off Centre by 1mm division when tilted by 20”. The 40” bubble tube
will have to be tilted by 40” to make it move 1mm division off Centre. The 20” bubble tube is
the more sensitive of the two.

The sensitivity depends on the following:

1. The radius of curvature of the bubble-tube, the bigger the radius the more sensitive
the bubble tube
2. The length of the vapour bubble. The longer the bubble the more sensitive the bubble
tube
3. The internal radius of the bore of the tube. The larger the radius the more sensitive the
bubble tube.
4. The degree the inner surface of bubble tube is polished. The higher the polish the
more sensitive the bubble tube.
5. The viscosity and surface tension of the liquid used. The lower the better.

Leveling

Surveying is the science of taking measurements between points on the earth’s surface and
plotting these points on a map or plan. The measurements taken are length (distances), angles
(vertical and horizontal) and differences in height. The technique of measuring height differences
is called leveling. Levelling refers to height measurements for representing the relative
difference in height (altitude) between various points on the earth’s surface. There are many
methods of leveling viz:
 Spirit leveling – with the help of a spirit bubble tube
 Tachometry – using a theodolite and tachometer
 Barometric leveling – using a barometer, pressure measuring device or altimeter
 Hydrostatic leveling – using the fact that water will find its own level
 Hypsometric leveling – using the boiling point of water

Basic equipment
(a) A device which gives a truly horizontal level (the Level).
(b) A suitably graduated staff for reading vertical heights (the Levelling Staff).

Types of levels
(a) Tilting – adjustment of level bubble needed before every measurement.
(b) Dumpy – adjustment of level bubble needed only once after level set up.
(c) Automatic levels – self levelled instruments.

The use of leveling

 To design highways, railroads, canals, sewers. Water supply systems etc., having grade
lines that best conform the existing topography
 To lay out construction projects according to planned elevations
 To calculate volume of earthworks and other materials
 To investigate drainage characteristics of an area etc.

Spirit leveling

This method depends on taking readings on a graduated vertical staff with a horizontal line of
sight.

The vertical through a point is the direction of gravity (as shown by a plumb line) through a
point

The horizontal direction through a point is the direction perpendicular to the vertical through a
point

Calculation of height differences

 The level is set up as shown, and using the staff at points A and B, height readings are
recorded. This is just the height read through the telescope horizontal line of sight (known as
line of collimation). If no reduced level is known only the difference in height can be found
between A and B, not their absolute levels.

Staff Reading at A is 1.135m

Staff Reading at B is 1.875m
=> difference in height is = 1.875 – 1.135 = 0.740m

If we know that RLA = +120.000m (above datum), then:

RL B = 120.00 – 0.740 = +119.260m i.e. a fall from A.

If RL B was known, we would calculate a rise in level. Hence, the following can be defined:

Rise – staff reading is less than previous reading.

Fall – staff reading is greater than previous reading.

The above definitions are used in the Rise & Fall method a level booking and reduction.

A second way to calculate the reduced levels is by using the Height (level) of collimation line
(or plane).
Height of Plane of Collimation (HPC) = +120.000 + 1.135 = +121.135m

=> RL B = HPC – (Staff Reading at B) = +121.135 – 1.875 = +119.260m

The above method is used in the relevant booking and reduction.

Note :
i. the level need not be on the line AB. It can be set up at any convenient point from which the
two staves are visible

ii. if the level is set up at a second position and staff readings are taken at A and B as S3 and S4
then (S3-S4) will also be equal to OB

iii. it is best to set up the level at points that are equidistant from the two staves, making lines of
sight equal

iv. the bigger staff reading is at the lower point. In the figure S1>S2 and A is lower than B
 4.2 Describe and state the use of the following instruments:

There are three (3) types of levels in use namely:

I. Dumpy (now not in common use)

II. Tilting
III. Automatic

Description

One important feature common to the 3 levels is the telescope; this provides the line of sight or
line of collimation. The telescope is capable of being moved in a horizontal plane about the
vertical instrumental axis. The line of sight or line of collimation is the line joining the centre of
the object glass to the centre of cross hairs of the diaphragm.

Assignment: draw cross section of a level

I. Dumpy

A sensitive bubble-tube is rigidly attached to the telescope and the axis of the bubble tube is
adjusted to be at right angles to the axis of the instrument (about which the telescope turns) when
the bubble tube is leveled i.e. the axis of the bubble tube made horizontal, the axis of the
instrument is vertical.

The line of collimation is adjusted to be parallel to the axis of the bubble tube. This ensures that
when the dumpy is carefully leveled its axis will be vertical and the line of collimation horizontal
irrespective of the direction of the telescope.

II. Tilting

As in the dumpy, a sensitive bubble tube is rigidly attached to the telescope and the telescope
attached to the instrument axis about which it can be turned. However, in addition, there is a
device by which the telescope can be tilted to a small degree about the instrument axis. As in the
dumpy, the line of collimation is adjusted to be parallel to the axis of the bubble tube. In use, the
tilting level is approximately leveled with the aid of a circular bubble. This makes the axis of the
instrument approximately vertical. The sensitive bubble however is exactly leveled with the
tilting screw at every pointing of the telescope. This ensures a horizontal line of sight at each
pointing.

III. Automatic

The instrument does not have a sensitive bubble tube. It is provided with a circular bubble which
enables the instrument to be leveled within a few minutes of the arc to the horizontal. The
telescope has a built in optical compensating device that is usually based on a pendulum system
inside the telescope which corrects for the residual mis-leveling.

IV. Leveling staves and accessories

4.3 Discuss the temporary and permanent adjustments of the three types of levels

Temporary adjustments

These are the rules to be followed when working with the instruments

The dumpy level

1. Set the tripod legs firmly on stable ground

2. Level the instrument using the circular bubble. Do this by adjusting the legs of the tripod
and finally by one or more of the foot screws
3. Level the instrument accurately by using the sensitive bubble. This is done as follows
i. Set bubble tube parallel to the join of any two foot screws and centre the bubble
using both screws
ii. Turn the bubble through 90° and centre the bubble using the third foot screw
iii. Repeat i. and ii. Until the bubble is central
4. Adjust the eyepiece for clear vision of the cross hairs
5. Sight the staff and focus the telescope for a clear vision of staff graduations
6. Improve focusing by eliminating parallax between the cross hairs and the image of the
graduations

The tilting level

1. Same as 1 above
2. Same as 2 above
3. Same as 4 above
4. Same as 5 above
5. Centre the sensitive split bubble by manipulating the tilting screw
6. Same as 6 above

The automatic level

1. Same as 1 above
2. Same as 2 above
3. Same as 4 above
4. Same as 5 above
 5. Same as 6 above

Permanent adjustments

Although there are some similarities in both the tests and adjustments for the various types of
levels, to avoid confusion we separately deal with the three main types of levels

The dumpy level

i. Spirit level adjustment

The aim of this adjustment is to ensure that the bubble of the level tube remains central for all
telescope pointing and that the bubble tube axis is at right angles to the vertical axis of the
level.

The leveling procedure for the dumpy is exactly the same as that for the plate bubble of the
theodolite. However, because we wish to have the bubble central in all directions that the
telescope points to, we must centre the bubble with the bubble tube parallel to two foot
screws and then with the bubble tube at right angles to the same two foot screws. Now turn
the telescope through 90° about the vertical axis until the bubble tube is again parallel to the
two foot screws first used. If the bubble remains central, no adjustment is required.

If the bubble does not remain central, correct half the error with the foot screws and the
remaining half with the adjusting screws at one end of the bubble tube. Repeat the test over
the same pair of foot screws and then in a position at right angles to this, and repeat the
adjustment until the bubble remains central in all positions.

ii. Collimation adjustment

The aim is to check that the line of collimation is parallel to the axis of the spirit level tube. That
is, the line of sight should be at right angles to the vertical axis and should sweep out a horizontal
plane.

Two methods are often given to test a level for collimation error but because of its simplicity,
and because it is the one most commonly used, we shall describe only the two-peg method.

Drive two pegs, A and B, into the ground about 100m apart. Set up and carefully level the
instrument at point C, midway between A and B. now take staff readings to correctly held staves
on pegs A and B. the difference in the readings gives the true difference in height between the
pegs. Any error in collimation will be cancelled out because both lines of sight are the same
length. Move the instrument to a point close to peg B but at the minimum focusing distance from
a staff held on peg B. read both staves once again, and if the height difference is the same the
instrument is in adjustment.
If the instrument is not correctly adjusted, apply the true difference of level to reading c and so
deduce d1 ,the reading of A that would be observed by a horizontal sight from D. move the
diaphragm of the instrument by using its adjusting screws until the horizontal cross line is set on
the deduced reading d1. The staff on peg B should be reobserved as a check and the adjustment
repeated if necessary.

Because this test is important for all three main types of levels, we shall assume readings and
give a worked example.

Set up at C

Staff reading a = 1.400

Staff reading b = 1.250

True difference in height A to B = 0.150m

This means that peg B is 0.150m higher than peg A.

Set up at D

Staff reading a = 1.625

Staff reading b = 1.850

Difference in height A to B = 0.225m

This proves the existence of collimation error. Find correct reading d1 on the staff at peg A as
follows.

Staff reading a= 1.625

+ true difference in height A-B = 0.150

Correct reading d1 = 1.775m

The true difference in height is added in this case because the level of peg A is lower than peg B,
and so the staff at A gives a higher reading.

While still set-up at D, carry out the adjustment by using the diaphragm adjusting screws to bring
the cross lines onto the correct d1 reading of 1.775m.

The test should be repeated and the diaphragm cross lines further adjusted if necessary.

The tilting level

 i. Adjustment of the circular bubble

The aim is to ensure that the circular bubble is central when the vertical axis is approximately
vertical. The bubble-tube adjustment of the dumpy level does not apply to the tilting level
because in the latter the bubble tube is never fixed permanently at right angles to the vertical
axis. However, you can level the instrument approximately using the circular bubble, and if this
is not adjusted to lie within the marked circle, considerable movement of the tilting screw may
be necessary when you take sights in different directions.

To test the adjustment, set the tilting screw to about the Centre of its run or to zero if it is
calibrated for setting grades, and level the instrument exactly as you would a theodolite, using
the bubble tube as a plate bubble.

If the circular bubble is not centered when the instrument has been leveled, you can re-Centre the
circular bubble using the capstan screws on its mounting.

ii. Adjustment of the line of collimation

The aim is to ensure that the line of collimation will be horizontal when the bubble of the bubble
tube is central or the split bubble is in coincidence.

Carry out the two-peg test described above for the dumpy level. Remember however, that the
tilting level can be leveled with the circular bubble only and that for each reading, the telescope
bubble must be centered or the split bubble brought into exact coincidence with the tilting screw.

If the staff readings from position D do not give the correct difference in level as found from
position C, turn the tilting screw so that the horizontal cross line gives the reading on the staff
that has been deduced to give the true difference in level between pegs A and B.

This movement, which tilts the telescope, also moves the bubble from its central position but the
line of sight will now be horizontal. Centre the spirit level bubble using the capstan screws of the
bubble tube. Again check and repeat as necessary.

The Automatic level

i. Adjustment of the circular bubble

The aim is to ensure that the circular level bubble remains central as the telescope is rotated
about its vertical axis.

Check periodically to verify that the circular bubble is leveling the instrument within the range of
the compensator movement applicable to the type of instrument you are using. To test the
adjustment, set up the instrument and centre the circular bubble with the foot screws or by
adjusting the ball-and-socket mounting. Rotate the instrument about the vertical axis. If the
bubble does not remain exactly central in the circle, adjustment is necessary.

If the bubble is off centre or outside the permitted tolerance, remove half the discrepancy with
the leveling screws (or movement of the ball-and-socket joint) and half by the capstan screws
under the circular bubble. Repeat the process until the bubble remains central in all directions of
the telescope. The circular bubble now indicates that the axis of the instrument is very close to
the vertical.

ii. Adjustment of the line of collimation

The aim is to ensure that the line of collimation is horizontal when the circular bubble is
centered. Once again, use the two peg test as described for the dumpy and tilting level, to check
the line of collimation.

If adjustment is required, you should refer to the manufacturer’s instruction book because some
instruments need the diaphragm adjusted but others need the compensator adjusted.

It may be simple to adjust the diaphragm like the dumpy level but do not attempt to adjust the
compensator. The settings are usually too precise to be corrected except under laboratory
conditions.

SERIES LEVELLING

When is required to determine the height difference between two points far apart (that cannot be
seen from one instrument station then the leveling has to be done in laps using two or more
stations

Back sight intermediate sight fore sight reduced level remarks

S1 A

S3 S2 CP1

#Note – S2 and S3 ARE BOTH TAKEN on the same substation CP1 , HENCE ARE
RECORDED ON THE SAME ROW

Reduced levels refer to heights of points above or below a level surface adopted as a datum.

4.4 Explain the principle of spirit leveling as well as the recording and reduction of
observations by:
The two common methods are presented below using the same example. For vertical control the
level survey should start and close on points of known height (same point or different). If the
survey starts and closes on the same point (e.g. a TBM), as below, this is termed as a closed level
survey.

RL(TBM) = +50.000m
Instrument stations: 1, 2, 3.
Target points: TBM, A, B, C, D, E, F.

I. The Rise and Fall method

It consists of determining the difference of level between consecutive points by comparing each
point after the first with that immediately preceding it. The difference between their staff
readings indicates a rise or a fall according as the staff reading at the point is smaller or greater
than that preceding point. The RL of each point is then found by adding rise or subtracting fall to
or from the RL. The Rise and Fall method provides complete check on IS. It is commonly used
for differential leveling.
 RISE = F.S < B.S
FALL = F.S > B.S
(Note that a FS always follows a BS in order to connect the survey with subsequent stations.
Target points B and E are change points for the instrument.)

Arithmetic checks (necessary for checking the reduction)

Ʃ (BS) - Ʃ (FS) = 3.255 – 4.040 = - 0.785m

Ʃ (RISES) – Ʃ (FALLS) = 0.575 – 1.360 = - 0.785m => OK
LAST (RL) – FIRST (RL) = +49.215 – 50.000 = -0.785m => OK.

Since this is a closed survey the value calculated is the misclosure error (for perfect
measurements it should have been zero since TBM is the same point!)

Adjustment

(set up no./no. of set ups) * misclosure

II. The height of collimation method as well as adjustment of such to produce

final reduced levels
The HPC method consists of finding the elevation of the plane of collimation for every set up of
the instrument and then obtaining the reduced levels (RL) of points with reference to the
respective plane of collimation. It is generally used in profile leveling and in setting out levels
for constructional work.

This method is simpler but with one check less, so care should be taken in reduction. The
booking part is the same. You should always remember that the HPC is constant for the same
instrument station, so needs to be calculated only once.

For each station, HPC = (known RL) + BS, and each RL = HPC – (IS or FS)

Arithmetic checks (necessary for checking the reduction)

Ʃ (BS) - Ʃ (FS) = 3.255 – 4.040 = - 0.785m

LAST (RL) – FIRST (RL) = +49.215 – 50.000 = -0.785m => OK.

So we can see that both methods give the same results for the RL of the target points. It is
required to know and understand both methods of reduction.

Adjustment
(set up no./no. of set ups ) * misclosure

Working example

1.  The level is set up at some convenient position I1 and BS of 2.191m is taken to TBM 1.

2.  The staff is then moved to points A and B in turn and intermediate sights of 2.505m and
2.325m are taken

3.  A change point must be used in order to reach point D.

4.  The position of the change point is at C, the staff is moved to this and a FS of 1.496m is taken
5.  While the staff remains at C, the instrument is moved to another position, I2

6.  A BS of 3.019m is taken from the new level position to the staff at change point C
7.  The staff is moved to D and E in turn and readings of 2.513m (IS) and 2.811m (FS) are taken
where E is another change point (CP)

8.  The last step is to move the level to I3, a BS of 1.752m taken to E and a FS of 3.824m is taken
to TBM2.

The final staff position is at a TBM, this is most important as all levelling field work must start at
and end at a bench mark – otherwise it would be difficult to detect errors when levelling. When
levelling, all readings must be identified as back sight, fore sight or intermediate sight.

4.5 Use the level and accessory equipment observing:

I. Inverted staff readings

This is a levelling technique that is used to obtain the heights of points above the line of sight
such as ceilings and undersides of bridges. To obtain these, the staff is held upside down in an
inverted position with its base on the elevated points. An inverted staff reading is booked in a
level table with a minus sign.
When calculating heights with these readings, the normal procedure is followed taking into
account the minus sign. Never use an inverted staff reading as a change point because it is
difficult to keep the staff in the same place for more than one reading.

II. Reciprocal leveling

To find accurate relative elevations of two widely separated intervisible points (between which levels
cannot be set), reciprocal leveling is being used.

To find the difference in elevation between two points, say X and Y, a level is set up at L near X and
readings (X1 and Y1) are observed with staff on both X and Y respectively. The level is then set up near Y
and staff readings (Y2 and X2 ) are taken respectively to the near and distant points. If the differences in
the set of observations are not same, then the observations are fraught with errors. The errors may arise
out of the curvature of the earth or intervening atmosphere (associated with variation in temperature and
refraction) or instrument (due to error in collimation) or any combination of these.

Let the true difference in elevation between the points be rh:

Thus, the true difference in elevation between any two points can be obtained by taking the mean of the
two differences in observation.

III. Setting out levels

4.6 Discuss sources of error in leveling and precautions to be taken to minimize them

The sources of errors may be classified under:

a. Instrumental errors
b. Errors in handling equipment
c. Errors due to disturbance of equipment
d. Errors in reading and booking
e. Errors in sighting
f. Errors due to natural causes

a. Instrumental errors
i. The level being out of collimation adjustment. The line of collimation must be
parallel to the axis of the bubble tube (or horizontal in the case of the automatic
level)
ii. Residual errors of adjustment
iii. Zero error of the staff i.e. the base of the staff not corresponding to 0.00m. If one
staff is used there will be no error.
iv. The staff graduations wrongly marked
v.

Control
 i. Check and adjust the level instrument before use
ii. Keep the lengths of sight for the backsight and foresight readings nearly equal at
each setting of the level instrument
iii. If two staffs having zero errors z1 and z2 are used, the resulting error will be z1~ z2
if the number of instrument stations is odd and there will be no error if the number
of instrument stations is even.
iv. The staff graduations must be true (this is important in accurate or precise
levelling)

b. Errors in handling equipment

i. Taking readings with the bubble not centered. Instrument must be leveled
correctly.
a. Dumpy – with the sensitive bubble
b. Tilting – with the tilting screw at every pointing
c. Automatic – with the circular bubble
ii. Taking readings with the level staff inclined to the vertical position
iii. Forgetting to open the staff fully when using telescopic staves

Control

i. Check the position of the bubble before and after each staff reading
ii. Ensure the staff is vertical by using a target bubble which must be checked before
it is used. Swing the staff forwards and backwards past the vertical position in the
direction of the level instrument and take the lowest reading on the staff
iii. Always check that the staff has been opened fully before taking any reading

c. Errors due to disturbance of equipment

i. The settlement of level staff or change point between a backsight and foresight
reading
ii. Settlement of the level instrument between a backsight and foresight

Control

i. Keep the level instrument on firm ground

i. Stakes can be driven into marshy ground and level set up on the stakes
ii. Proper choice of change points eliminates error in settlement. Turning or change
points must be on firm ground and preferably an identifiable point, if this is not
possible then use a change-plate.
ii.
d. Errors in reading and booking
i. Misreading the level staff
 ii. Reading against a stadia hair instead of the leveling hair.
iii. Misbooking the staff readings
a. Making an entry in the wrong column or row.
b. Omitting to make an entry.
iv. Computational errors of the staff readings
v. Error in the whole metre and first decimal place.

vi. Mixing up inverted images for upright images or vice versa. (an inverted image
upwards instead of downwards or an erect image downwards instead of upwards).

Control

i. Observe the metre above and below the cross hair

ii. Always identify the three hairs and read against the longer middle hair.
iii. Check that figures have not been interchanged in the booking
iv. Apply all necessary checks which are done at the bottom of each page
v. Take additional care.
vi. Always check on the first decimal reading on either side of the leveling hair.

e. Errors in sighting
i. Parallax. The telescope must be used correctly
a. The eyepiece must be adjusted for clear vision of the diaphragm
b. The telescope must be focused by eliminating parallax between the leveling hairs
and the graduation images.
i. Constantly reading too high or too low caused by defective vision

Control

i. Eliminate parallax by focusing properly the cross hairs and then the object using
the main focusing screw
ii. Be systematic in reading the staff. Check your leveling on a line which has been
leveled before
f. Errors due to natural causes
i. Curvature and refraction
ii. Shining of sun on level causing unequal expansion of the various parts of the level
instrument can disturb the bubble
iii. Changes in the length of staff due to direct heat rays
iv. Wind blowing the staff from its vertical position
v. Shimmer due to irregular refraction
 Control

i. Make back sights and foresights of equal lengths or apply the curvature and
refraction correction
ii. Shade the level instrument with an umbrella
iii. The staff must be made of a steel alloy called invar if you are leveling in hot
areas, because it has a very small coefficient of expansion
iv. If it is windy avoid high staff readings since the staff will not be vertical. The
error is greatest when taking high staff readings
v. Use short sights.

4.7 Analyze the effects of curvature and refraction in leveling

For long sights and accurate leveling the effects of curvature of the earth and refraction of the
line of sight need to be taken into consideration.

Curvature

The earth has a curved face which is assumed to be a level surface but the line of sight swept
out by the instrument is a horizontal line and not a level line. Therefore, all points on the line
of sight are not equidistant from the surface of the earth and consequently the points read on
the staff.

From the diagram X is the instrument station and B is the point where the staff is held. On
looking through telescope we sight along X’B” the horizontal line of sight and the staff
reading BY is taken. D is the horizontal distance from the instrument to the target B. The
points X’ and B’ are on the same level and the true reading is therefore BB’.

The effect of curvature is to increase the staff reading hence the error is positive and the
correction is always negative

R2 + D2 = (R+ec)2

R2 + D2 = R2 + 2Rec+ ec2

D2 = 2Rec+ ec2

D2/2R+ ec = ec

Since ec is too small compared to the radius of the earth, the formula will approximate:

D2/2R = ec

Taking the value of R as 6361km the formula will approximate:

D2/(2*6361) = ec

ec = 0.0786 D2 (m)

Refraction

Refraction is effected by atmospheric pressure, temperature and geographic location. It is a

well-established law of physics that light rays do not remain straight but are refracted or bend
down towards the medium. Consequently, the rays of light to the instrument are not straight
as defined by the line X’B” but it follows a curved path A’Y, concave towards the earth as
the air near the earth surface is denser than the upper layers of the earth.

Refraction has the effect of reducing the levels of reading i.e. the observer will take a staff
reading which is less than what is supposed to be taken. The error due to refraction is
negative and the effects of refraction is 1/7 that of curvature but is of opposite nature, hence
the correction of refraction is additive to the staff reading.

er = YB”

er = 1/7 (B’B”)

er = 1/7 * 0.0786 D2 (m)

er = 0.0112 D2 (m)

But combined curvature and refraction correction is:

 Since the effects of curvature is to increase the staff reading and that of refraction is to
decrease them and also that the effects of curvature is greater than that of refraction, the
combined effects is to increase the staff reading hence the combined correction is subtractive;
ec - er = 0.0674 D2 (m)

4.8 Explain the concept of contouring using both direct and indirect methods and
setting our gradients and the use of travelers and boning rods

Definition of terms

i. Contour line – it is an imaginary line joining points of equal elevation above or

below mean sea level
ii. Contour interval – it is the distance between two successive contour lines
iii. Horizontal equivalence – it is the distance between two adjacent contour lines
and it depends upon the slope of the ground
iv. Contouring – is a process of joining contour lines i.e. the process of tracing
contour lines on the earth’s surface
v. Gradient – it is the slopeness of the earth’s surface

A simple definition of a contour is that it is a line joining all points of equal level. Thus contour
lines on a plan illustrate the conformation of the ground.

Characteristics of contour lines

i. They are circular

ii. They are represented by coloured brown lines on the map
iii. Two contour lines of different value do not intersect
iv. When they are sparsely spaced it indicates gentle slope, when they are closely packed
together it indicates a steep slope.
v. When the lowest value is at the centre it indicates a depression and when the highest
value is at the centre it indicates a hill or mountain
vi. Contour lines don’t just end anywhere on the map
vii. All points on the contour line have the same altitude
viii. A single contour line cannot split into two or more contours of the same value

Methods of contouring

a. Direct method

In this method, the contours are located directly in the field by using HPC method, the points are
marked on the ground in each contour line. These points are then surveyed and plotted on the
plan. Contours are then drawn through them. This method is most suitable for small area
especially in hilly terrain and its very accurate but also very laborious.

b. Indirect method

Here, points are located and surveyed not necessarily on the contour line but the spot heights are
taken along the series laid down over the area. Common methods adopted are the Grid method
and Tachometric method.

Uses and purposes of contour maps

 Interpretation of relief
 Assessment of topography
 Plotting sections
 Testing intervisibility between two or more points
 Calculation of earthworks (volumes)
 Construction of lines of constant gradient
 For tracing contour gradients
 Measurement of drainage or catchment areas
 In delineating the limits of construction work. For example, the points of intersection, of
contours (strike lines) of a constructed or proposed slope, with ground contours of equal
elevation, when joined up show the limits or slope stake positions of the construction.

Factors that affect the contour interval

 Desired accuracy on elevations read from the map

 Characteristic features of the terrain
 Legibility of the map
 Cost of producing the map

Sectioning

This consists of surveying the variations in height of the ground along any such line so that they
may be represented to scale on a drawing

Information required
  Levels must be taken along the line so that the changes in height can be recorded
(Reduced Level)
 Horizontal measurements must be obtained along the line to define the relative positions
of the points at which the levels were observed (chainages)

These sections are classified into two categories, viz:

i. Longitudinal sections
ii. Cross sections

i. Longitudinal sections

These are sections which follow some particular line defining a part of a new construction and
are usually along the centre lines of the proposed work such as new roads, pipe lines etc

Longitudinal sections provide data for the following:

a. Deciding the most suitable and economic levels and gradient to which the
ground should be worked in its longitudinal section
b. Supplying details where there is either cut or fill. Supplying this detail at any
point along the section of the amount of cut (the depth of excavation) or the
amount of fill
c. Recording the places where neither cut nor fill occur

Cross sections

Since longitudinal sections only provide information along a line, ground details on either side of
that line are not available for works of narrow widths such as pipe lines, sewer etc; the absence
of this information is not important as there will usually be little change in ground character
close to the centre line.

On the other hand, where roads, bridges etc are to be built the slope of the ground at right angles
to their line must also be determined.

Cross sections provide data for the following:

a. Deciding the most suitable and economic levels to which the ground is to be
worked in the transverse directions i.e. at right angles to its length
b. Supplying details for calculating the position, height and slope of any
necessary embankments or cuttings
 c. Calculating earthwork quantities for costing purposes and the suitable
provision of earth moving plans

4.9 Use levels in profiling and determination of earthwork volumes

Profile leveling is a method of surveying that has been carried out along the central line of a track of land
on which a linear engineering work is to be constructed/ laid. The operations involved in determining the
elevation of ground surface at small spatial interval along a line is called profile leveling. The route along
which a profile is run may be single straight line, as in case of a short sidewalk; a broken line, as in the
case of a transmission line or sewer; or a series of straight lines connected by curves, as in case of a
railroad, highway or canal.