Solution of University Exam Paper

Emerging Domain in Electronics Engineering

KEC-101T
Section A
Question 1
a)

b)
D)
to change in the gate to
GS) at a constant drain to source voltage (VDS = Constant). This value is
maximum at VGS = 0. This is denoted by gmo.

c)
The op amp common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of the common-mode gain to
differential-mode gain.

d)
BJT FET
BJT stands for bipolar junction transistor, FET stands for the field-effect transistor,
so it is a bipolar component so it is a uni-junction transistor
BJT has three terminals like base, emitter, FET has three terminals like Drain,
and collector Source, and Gate
The operation of BJT mainly depends on The operation of FET mainly depends on
both the charge carriers like majority as the majority charge carriers either holes
well as minority or electrons
BJT is the current controlled device FET is the voltage-controlled device
It depends on the temperature Its heat stability is better
It is a low cost It is expensive
BJT size is higher as compared with FET FET size is low
Its output impedance is high due to high Its output impedance is low due to low
gain gain
Its base terminal is negative with respect Its gate terminal is more negative with
to the emitter terminal. respect to the source terminal.
It has a high voltage gain It has a low voltage gain
BJTs consume high power FETs consume low power
BJTs have a negative temperature BJTs have a positive temperature
coefficient coefficient
e)
0010 1011 0100. 1100
= 10 1011 0100.110
= 2 B 4.C
= 2B4.C
f)
Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown
The process in which the electrons The process of applying high voltage and
move across the barrier from the increasing the free electrons or electric
valence band of p-type material to the current in semiconductors and insulating
conduction band of n-type material is materials is called an avalanche breakdown.
known as Zener breakdown.
This is observed in Zener diodes This is observed in Zener diode having a
having a Zener breakdown voltage Zener breakdown voltage Vz greater than 8
Vz of 5 to 8 volts. volts.
The valence electrons are pulled into The valence electrons are pushed to
conduction due to the high electric conduction due to the energy imparted by
field in the narrow depletion region. accelerated electrons, which gain their
velocity due to their collision with other
atoms.
The increase in temperature decreases The increase in temperature increases the
the breakdown voltage. breakdown voltage.
The VI characteristic of a Zener The VI characteristic curve of the avalanche
breakdown has a sharp curve. breakdown is not as sharp as the Zener
breakdown.
It occurs in diodes that are highly It occurs in diodes that are lightly doped.
doped.

g)

=
h)
Microprocessor Microcontroller

A microprocessor consists of a Central A Micro Controller contains a CPU, Memory,

Processing Unit only. I/O all integrated into one chip.

A microprocessor is used in personal A microcontroller is used in an embedded

computers. system.

A microprocessor is less compact in A microcontroller is more compact in size.

size.

The structure of the microprocessor is The structure of a microcontroller is fixed.

flexible.

The volatile memory (RAM) for the The volatile memory (RAM) for the
microprocessor is in the range of 512 microcontroller is in the range of 2 KB to 256
MB to 32 GB. KB.

The hard disk (ROM) for the The hard drive or flash memory (ROM) is in
microprocessor is in the range of 128 the range of 32 KB to 2 MB.
GB to 2 TB.

A microprocessor is a processor in A microcontroller is a controlling device in

which memory and I/O output which memory and I/O output component are
component is connected externally. present internally.

A microprocessor is less efficient. A microcontroller is more efficient.

A microprocessor has a fewer number of A microcontroller has a larger number of

registers. registers.

Microprocessors are based on the Von Microcontrollers are based on Harvard

Neumann model. architecture.

The power consumption for the The power consumption for the
microprocessor is high. microcontroller is less.

The program for the microprocessor can The program for the microcontroller is fixed
be changed for different applications. once it is designed.

A microprocessor is available in 32-Bit A microcontroller is available in 8-bit, 16-bit,

and 64-bit. and 36-bit.

The overall size of the microprocessor is The overall size of the microcontroller is small.
large.
The cost of the microprocessor is high. The cost of the microcontroller is low.

The circuit of a microprocessor is more The circuit of a microcontroller is less

complex. complex.

A microprocessor is complicated and A microcontroller is inexpensive and

expensive, with a large number of straightforward with fewer instructions to
instructions to process. process.

i)
The process of deliberately adding of desirable impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to
increase the conductivity is called doping.
The Conductivity of semiconductors is very poor at room temperature. To get a significant
amount of conductivity we need to increase the temperature of the semiconductor to a high
value. But it is practically impossible to use the semiconductor devices at a very high
temperature above 50°C. Now, doping can increase the conductivity of semiconductors by a
significant amount even at room temperature. At this one can use semiconductor devices
comfortably at room temperature. So, we need the doping in semiconductor materials to
increase their conductivity without increasing the temperature which enables us to use
semiconductor devices at room temperature.
j)
RADAR (radio detection and ranging) is a detection system that uses radio waves to
determine the distance (ranging), angle, or velocity of objects.
RADAR is also utilized in applications particularly in controlling air traffic, observation of
weather, navigation of ship, environment, sensing from remote areas, observation of
planetary, measurement of speed in industrial applications, space surveillance, law
enforcement, etc.

Section B
Question 2
a)

distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.

The half-wave rectifier is an example of the simplest form of diode clipper consisting of one
resistor and a diode. Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or negative
region of the applie
There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel.
The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, whereas
the parallel clipper has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.
Input is in series with diode so it is called series clipper.
When Vi > V, diode is ON. Replace diode with short circuit equivalent
and apply KVL

KVL in above loop

Vi V Vo = 0
So Vo = (Vi V)
When Vi < V, diode is ON. Replace diode with open circuit equivalent
and apply KVL

Current is zero so Vo = 0
Certain portion of input is clipped by this circuit.
Parallel Clipper
Input is in parallel with diode so these types of clippers are called parallel
clipper or shunt clipper.

Input Waveform
 Output Waveform

Let us assume that VB =5 V i.e VB < 10 V.

b)

The constructional detail of n-channel D-MOSFET is shown as

OR
The n-channel D-MOSFET is a piece of p-type material with a n channel embedded and an
insulated gate on the left
The free electrons flowing from source to drain must pass through the narrow channel
between the gate and the p-type region (i.e. substrate).
A thin layer of metal oxide, usually silicon dioxide (SiO2) is deposited over a small portion
of the channel. A metallic gate is deposited over the oxide layer.
As SiO2 is an insulator, therefore, gate is insulated from the channel.
The substrate is connected to the source internally so that a MOSFET has three terminals
such as Source (S), Gate (G) and Drain (D).
Since the gate is insulated from the channel, we can apply either negative or positive voltage
to the gate. Therefore, D-MOSFET can be operated in both depletion-mode and
enhancement-mode.
The symbol for n-channel D-MOSFET is shown as

or

The gate appears like a capacitor plate. Just to the right of the gate is a thick vertical line
representing the channel.
The drain lead comes out of the top of the channel and the source lead connects to the
bottom. The arrow is on the substrate and points to the n-material; therefore, we have n
channel D-MOSFET.
 Circuit Operation of D-MOSFET
.

OR
The gate forms a small capacitor. One plate of this capacitor is the gate and the other plate is
the channel with metal oxide layer as the dielectric.
When gate voltage is changed, the electric field of the capacitor changes which in turn
changes the resistance of the n-channel.
Since the gate is insulated from the channel, we can apply either negative or positive voltage
to the gate.
The negative gate operation is called depletion mode and positive gate operation is
called enhancement mode

1. Depletion mode:

OR

Since gate is negative, it means electrons are on the gate

These electrons repel the free electrons in the n-channel, leaving a layer of positive ions in a
part of the channel as shown in fig above. In other words, the n-channel is depleted of some
of its free electrons.
Therefore, lesser number of free electrons are available for current conduction through the n-
channel. This is same as increasing the channel resistance.
The greater the negative voltage on the gate, the lesser is the current from source to drain.
Thus by changing the negative voltage on the gate, we can vary the resistance of the n-
channel and hence the current from source to drain.
As the action with negative gate depends upon depleting the channel of free electrons, the
negative-gate operation is called depletion mode.
Transfer Characteristics Output Characteristics

The transfer characteristics of n-channel depletion MOSFET shown in figure a indicate that
the device has a current flowing through it even when V GS is 0V. This indicates that these
devices conduct even when the gate terminal is left unbiased, which is further emphasized by
the VGS3 curve of Figure (b).
Under this condition, the current through the MOSFET is seen to increase with an increase in
the value of VDS (Ohmic region) untill VDS becomes equal to pinch-off voltage Vds sat =Vgs-VT.
After this, IDS will get saturated to a particular level (saturation region of operation) which
decreases with the decrease in VGS ( < 0 V) i.e. for VGS3 > VGS2 > VGS1.
Further, the locus of the pinch-off voltage also shows that V ds sat decreases with decrease in
VGS.As the gate voltage decreases, the channel starts to deplete and hence decrease in the
drain current as shown in the output characteristics.
However, it is to be noted that, if one needs to operate these devices in cut-off state, then it is
required to make V GS negative and once it becomes equal to -VT, the conduction through the
device stops (IDS = 0) as it gets deprived of its n-type channel.

c) i)
Step-1: 9's complement of 0364 is obtained by subtracting each digit from 9
9 9 9 9
-0 3 6 4
9 6 3 5
Step-2: Now add 1 to the 9's complement to obtain the 10's complement:
9635 + 1 = 9636
Step-3: Now Add this 10's complement of subtract end to minuend
 9 7 5 4
+ 9 6 3 6
1 9 3 9 0
The left most bit of the result is 1, called carry and it is ignored.
So answer is 9390.
ii)
Step-1:
1's complement of 110011 is obtained by replacing 1 by 0 and 0 by 1

1's complement of 110011= 0 0 1 1 0 0

Step 2:
Now Add this 1's complement to the subtract end

1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1
+ 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 1
Here there is no carry, answer is - (1's complement of the sum obtained 100011)

1's complement of 100011 is

1 1 1 1 1 1
- 1 0 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 1 0 0

So answer is -011100
d)

Transistor AM Modulator:

A circuit which does amplitude modulation is called AM modulator.

Fig. above shows the circuit of a simple AM modulator. It is essentially a CE amplifier
having a voltage gain of A. The carrier signal is the input to the amplifier. The modulating
signal is applied in the emitter resistance circuit.
c. Since
the modulating signal is part of the biasing circuit it produces low-frequency variations in
the circuit. This in turn ca
carrier varies in accordance with the strength of the signal. The amplitude modulated
output is obtained across RL.
Generation of AM Waves

The modulating signal and carrier are connected in series with each other and their
sum V1(t) is applied at the input of the non-linear device, such as diode, transistor etc.
Thus,

The input output relation for non-linear device is as under:

where a and b are constants.

Now, substituting the expression (1) in (2), we get

Or,

Or,
 The five terms in the expression for V2(t) are as under :
Term 1: ax(t) : Modulating Signal
Term 2 : a Ec fct ) : Carrier Signal
2
Term 3 : b x (t) : Squared modulating Signal
Term 4 : 2 b x(t) cos ( fct ) : AM wave with only sidebands
2 2
Term 5 : b Ec cos fct ) : Squared Carrier
Out of these five terms, terms 2 and 4 are useful whereas the remaining terms are not
useful.

Demodulation of AM WAVE:
The process of extracting an original message signal from the modulated wave is
known as detection or demodulation. The circuit, which demodulates the
modulated wave, is known as the demodulator.
An ideal envelope detector produces an output wave which exactly follows the
envelope of the input signal. The envelope detector is best suited for the narrowband
AM wave.
The circuit diagram is as shown :

For the positive half cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward biased and the capacitor starts
charging to the peak value of the input signal. When the input signal falls below the peak value
the diode is reversed biased and remains off because the capacitor voltage which is close to the
peak value is greater than the input signal. The capacitor starts to discharge through the load
resistance RL at a slow rate. The capacitor discharges till the input signal is lesser than the
capacitor voltage i.e till the next positive cycle.
e)
The important characteristics of an ideal op amp are as follows-
 Infinite open loop voltage gain.
Infinite input resistance.
Zero output resistance.
Zero offset voltage.
Infinite bandwidth.
Infinite CMRR.
Infinite slew rate.
Zero power supply rejection ratio.
1. The ideal op amp draws no current at both the input terminal i.e I1= I2= 0.Thus
the input impedence is infinite .Any source can drive it and there is no loading on
the driver stage.
2. The gain of the ideal opamp is infinite. Hence the differential input for the opamp
is zero. In an open-loop state, the differential signal at the input has an infinite
voltage gain
3. The output of an ideal op amp is a perfect voltage source, no matter how the
current flowing to the amplifier load changes, the output voltage of the amplifier is
always a certain value, that is, the output impedance is zero
4. The ideal operational amplifier will amplify the input signal of any frequency with
the same differential gain, which will not change with the change of signal
frequency.
5. The output voltage is independent of the current drawn at the output terminal.
Thus the output impedance is zero which means it can drive as many circuit as it
want.

Here, in the above circuit, we connect an external resistance R1 and feedback resistance Rf at
inverting input. Now, by applying Kirchhoff Current Law, we get,

Let us assume the input voltage applied to the non-inverting terminal is vi.
Now, if we assume that the op-amp in the circuit is ideal op-amp, then,

Therefore, equation (i) can be rewritten as,

The closed-loop gain of the circuit is,

This term does not contain any negative parts. Hence, it proves that the input signal to the circuit
gets amplified without changing its polarity at the output.
 SECTION C
Q3 (a)
Define Voltage Multiplier. Draw the circuit and explain the working of voltage Tripler and
Quadrupler circuit.
ANS: A voltage multiplier circuit is an arrangement of capacitors and rectifier diodes
that is frequently used to generate high DC voltage s. This kind of circuit uses the
principle of charging capacitors in parallel, from the AC input and adding the voltages
across them in series to obtain DC voltages approximately in the multiple of the source
voltage. Individual voltage multiplier circuits (frequently called stages) can be
connected in series to obtain even higher output voltages.

Using the method of extension of full-wave voltage doubler circuit, any voltage multipliers
(Tripler, Quadrupler etc) can be created. When both the capacitor leakage and load are small, we can
achieve tremendously high DC voltages by means of these circuits that include several sections to
step-up (increase) the DC voltage.

Here; all through the first positive and negative half cycle is same as that of half-wave
voltage doubler. Throughout the next positive half cycle, D 1 and D3 conduct and C3 charges
to 2VSmax. Throughout the next negative half cycle, D 2 and D4 conducts and C4 charges to
2VSmax. When more diodes and capacitors are added, every capacitor will get charged to
2VSmax. At the output; odd multiples of VSmax can be attained.

b) Draw the V-I characteristics of zener diode. Determine the network of figure given
below, determine the range of Vin that will maintain VL at 8V and not exceeded the
maximum power rating.
ANS:
Zener Diode is a reverse-biased heavily-doped PN junction diode which operates in the breakdown
region. The reverse breakdown of a PN- junction may occur either due to Zener effect or avalanche
effect. Zener effect dominates at reverse voltages less than 5 volt whereas avalanche effect
dominates above 5 V. Hence, first one should be called Zener diode. But for simplicity, both types are
called Zener Diodes. The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode can be set by controlling the doping
level. For Zener diodes, silicon is preferred to Ge because of its high temperature and current
capability. This post includes explanation of operation of Zener diode and V-I Characteristics of
Zener Diode.
NUMERICAL SOLUTION

Q4)
a) Describe the construction and working of a NPN transistor in CE configuration with
respect to size and doping. Also, draw the input and output characteristic graph.

ANS) The construction and terminal voltages for a bipolar NPN transistor are shown above. The
voltage between the Base and Emitter ( VBE ), is positive at the Base and negative at the Emitter
because for an NPN transistor, the Base terminal is always positive with respect to the Emitter. Also
the Collector supply voltage is positive with respect to the Emitter (VCE ). So for a bipolar NPN
transistor to conduct the Collector is always more positive with respect to both the Base and the

Emitter.

NPN Transistor Connection

Then the voltage sources are connected to an NPN transistor as shown. The Collector is
connected to the supply voltage VCC via the load resistor, RL which also acts to limit the
maximum current flowing through the device. The Base supply voltage V B is connected to
the Base resistor RB, which again is used to limit the maximum Base current.

B)

base current is 250µA. Calculate IE and IC.

ANS:
(Q5) (A)(i)
Draw and explain the working of Integrator and Differentiator using OP-amp.

ANS:
(5 A ii) Write Short note on basic elements of communication system.

1. Information Source: This is the first stage through which the transmission of information takes
place. And during this stage, there is the sender whose main task is to generate the message and
ensure that the message reaches the receiver through the process of transmission.

2. Transmitter: This is the second stage of the communication and this stage is just concerned with
the message which needs to go through the processes of encoding, transmission, and reception.

2. a. Encoding: The third stage of communication is encoding and during this stage, the message goes
through the process of encoding by the sender. This means that the message is encoded symbolically
in forms of words, pictures, gestures, or through other important means.

3. Channel: This stage refers to the manner in which the encoding of the information takes place.
This can also be looked on as a stage which is concerned with the manner in which the information
goes through the process of transmission. The medium of communication could be a post, telephone,
fax, and many other means. It is important for the sender to choose an appropriate mean for proper
reception to take place.
5. Decoding: Decoding is the process through which the receiver converts the message to understand
the information which was intended to be communicated. And this stage of decoding and
understanding always takes place after encoding. It is followed by the stage of reception.

6. The Receiver/Reception: The sixth stage is that of reception and during this stage, the receiver
gets the message and tries to make proper sense of it. The receiver is also the last member which is
involved in the chain of encoding, transfer of information, and reception.

(5b)(i)
ential gain Ad=4000 and CMRR is 100.

(ii) Determine the output of the following circuit. Given V1=V2=0.15V.

 (Q6) (a)(i)

Describe briefly Satellite Communication.

ANS: A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular path. A communication
satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater station in space. It is helpful in telecommunications,
radio and television along with internet applications.
A repeater is a circuit, which increases the strength of the received signal and then
transmits it. But, this repeater works as a transponder. That means, it changes the
frequency band of the transmitted signal from the received one.
The frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space is called as Uplink frequency.
Similarly, the frequency with which, the signal is sent by the transponder is called
as Downlink frequency. The following figure illustrates this concept clearly.

(6 a ii) Explain Positive and Negative Clamper using suitable circuit diagram and
input/output waveform.

ANS: A clamper is an electronic circuit that changes the DC level of a signal to the desired
level without changing the shape of the applied signal. In other words, the clamper circuit
moves the whole signal up or down to set either the positive peak or negative peak of the
signal at the desired level.

The dc component is simply added to the input signal or subtracted from the input signal. A
clamper circuit adds the positive dc component to the input signal to push it to the positive
side. Similarly, a clamper circuit adds the negative dc component to the input signal to push it
to the negative side.
 (6b)
An audio frequency signal 5Sin ( X500t) is used to amplitude modulate a carrier of 25Sin
5
( t).
(Q7a) Minimize using K-
5, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15). d(0, 2, 8).
ANS:
(7b)
the function with help of K-map and realize the simplified function using basic logic
gates.