Problems of Unit-1 with Solutions [2022-23]

Subject Code BAS-103

1 1 1
Q-1. Show that matrix = 1 is unitary matrix, where is complex root of
√
1
unity.

Q-2. Test the consistency and hence solve the following system of linear equations.

x + 2y + z = 2, 3x + y − 2z = 1 , 4x − 3y − z = 3 and 2x + 4y + 2z = 4

Ans: = 1, = 0, = 1 (unique solution)

Q-3. Determine for what value of and μ the system of the linear equations

+ + = 6, + 2 + 5 = 10, 2 + 3 + = μhave

(i) Unique solution

(ii) No solution
(iii) Infinite no of solution.

6 −2 2
Q-4. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of matrix = −2 3 −1
2 −1 3

2
Ans: − 12 + 36 − 32 = 0 → = 2, = 2, =8 = 8, = −1
1

1 1
− 1 −1
, =2, = 2 2 , = 2 & = 0
0 2

2 −1 1
Q-5. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix = −1 2 −1 and find the inverse
1 −1 2
of the matrixA and find the value of polynomial in matrix form A − 6A + 9A − 5A + +

3 1 −1
Ans: A = 1 3 1 and λ − 6λ + 9λ − 4 = 0 → λ = 1,1,4 and −A + +
−1 1 3
Q-6. Find two non singular matrices P, Q such that PAQ is in normal form.

1 1 1
whereA = 1 −1 −1
3 1 1

Q-7. Discuss for all values of ‘k’ for the system of linear equationsx + y + 4z = 6, x + 2y −
2z = 6 , kx + y + z = 6 as regards existence and nature of solutions.

Q-8.Examine the following set of vectors for linear dependence and if linear dependent then
find the relation between them.

= (1,2,4), = (2, −1,3), = (0,1,2), = (−3,7,2)

Q-9.Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix

1 2 2
A= 0 2 1
−1 2 2

3 −1 1
Q-10.Two of the eigen values of the matrix A = −1 5 −1 are 3 and 6.find the eigen
1 −1 3
values of and .
 1 1 1
Q-1. Show that matrix = 1 is unitary matrix, where is complex root of unity.
√
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sol. Let = 1 . Then ̅ = 1 and = ( ̅) = 1 .
√ √ √
1 1 1

We know that a matrix A is said to be unitary matrix if A = I.

1 1 1 1 1 1
A = 1 1
1 1
3 1+ + 1+ +
= 1+ + 3 1+ +
1+ + 1+ + 3
3 0 0 1 0 0
= 0 3 0= 0 1 0 =I
0 0 3 0 0 1

Thus A = I. Hence A is unitary matrix.

Note- Properties of complex root of unity 1, , and

1. 1 + + =0
2. 3=1
3. =
4. =

Q-2. Test the consistency and hence solve the following system of linear equations.

x + 2y + z = 2, 3x + y − 2z = 1 , 4x − 3y − z = 3 and 2x + 4y + 2z = 4

Sol. The above system of equations can be written as in matrix form

AX = B

1 2 1 2
3 1 −2 1
=
4 −3 2 3
2 4 2 4

Then the augmented matrix C = A ⋮ B

 1 2 1 ⋮ 2
3 1 −2 ⋮ 1
C=
4 −3 2 ⋮ 3
2 4 2 ⋮ 4

Now, reduce the above matrix in Echelon form by using row elementary transformations.

Operating row operation R → R −3R , R → R − 4R , R → R −2R

1 2 1 ⋮ 2
0 −5 −5 ⋮ −5
~
0 −11 −5 ⋮ −5
0 0 0 ⋮ 0

Operating row operation R → − R

1 2 1 ⋮ 2
0 1 1 ⋮ 1
~
0 −11 −5 ⋮ −5
0 0 0 ⋮ 0

Operating row operation R → R + 11 R

1 2 1 ⋮ 2
0 1 1 ⋮ 1
~
0 0 6 ⋮ 6
0 0 0 ⋮ 0

Operating row operation R → R

1 2 1 ⋮ 2
0 1 1 ⋮ 1
~
0 0 1 ⋮ 1
0 0 0 ⋮ 0

Above matrix C is an Echelon form. Thus we can easily seen that ρ(C)= ρ(A) =3=
no. of unknowns. Thus the system of equation has unique solution. Hence the given system is
consistent. Now, we find the solution.

1 2 1 2
0 1 1 1
=
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0

x + 2y + z = 2 (1)
 y+z=1 (2)

z=1 (3)

From (2), y + 1 = 1  y = 0.

From (1), x + 0 + 1 = 2  x = 1.

Hence x = 1, y = 0, and z = 1.

Q-3. Determine for what value of and μ the system of the linear equations

+ + = 6, + 2 + 5 = 10, 2 + 3 + = μ have

(i) Unique solution

(ii) No solution
(iii) Infinite no. of solution.

Sol. The above system of equations can be written as in matrix form

AX = B

1 1 1 6
1 2 5 = 10
2 3 μ

Then the augmented matrix C = A ⋮ B

1 1 1 ⋮ 6
C= 1 2 5 ⋮ 10
2 3 ⋮ μ

Now, reduce the above matrix in Echelon form by using row elementary transformations.

Operating row operation R → R −R , R → R − 2R

1 1 1 ⋮ 6
~ 0 1 4 ⋮ 4
0 1 −2 ⋮ μ − 12

Appling row operation R → R −R

1 1 1 ⋮ 6
~ 0 1 4 ⋮ 4
0 0 −6 ⋮ μ − 16
Above matrix C is an Echelon form. The following are the rule for existence of the solution.

1- If ρ(C) ≠ ( ), the system has no solution.

2- If ρ(C) = ( ) = no. of unknowns, the system has a unique solution.
3- If ρ(C) = ( ) < . , the system has infinite number of solutions.

Condition-1 For No solution

Here ρ(C) ≠ ( )
If − 6 = 0 or = 6 and μ − 16 ≠ 0 or μ ≠ 16
Condition- 2 For Unique Solution
Here ρ(C) = ( ) = no. of unknowns = 3
If − 6 ≠ 0 or ≠ 6, and μ ∈ R
Condition- 3 For Infinite Solution
Here ρ(C) = ( ) < . =3
If − 6 = 0 or = 6 and μ − 16 = 0 or μ = 16

6 −2 2
Q-4.Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of matrix = −2 3 −1 .
2 −1 3

Sol. Characteristic equation of matrix A

| − |=0

6−λ −2 2
−2 3−λ −1 = 0
2 −1 3−λ

On expanding determinant the characteristic equation will becomes

−( ) +( ℎ ) − =0

3 −1 6 2 6 −2
− (6 + 3 + 3) + + + − 32 = 0
−1 3 2 3 −2 3

− 12 + 36 − 32 = 0 (1)

It can be easily seen that = 2 satisfied the eqn (1). So ( − 2) is a factor that eqn.

− 12 + 36 − 32 = 0

( − 2) − 10 ( − 2) + 16 ( − 2) = 0
 ( − 2)( − 10 + 16) = 0

( − 2)( − 2)( − 8) = 0

= 2, 2, 8.

Thus 2, 2, 8 are the eigen values of matrix A.

Let = be an eigen vector (non-zero column vector) for the matrix A corresponding to

repeated eigen value (scalar) λ = λ & = 2 therefore

( − ) =0

6−λ −2 2 0
−2 3 − λ −1 = 0 (1)
2 −1 3 − λ 0

Now put = 2. Then Eqn (1) will becomes,

4 −2 2 0
−2 1 −1 = 0
2 −1 1 0

Now, reduce the above matrix in Echelon form by using row elementary transformations.

Operating row operation ↔

2 −1 1 0
−2 1 −1 = 0
4 −2 2 0

Operating row operation R → R +R , R → R − 2R

2 −1 1 0
0 0 0 = 0
0 0 0 0

After multiplying we get, 2 − + = 0.

So, we assumed that x2= k2 and x3= k3. Thus x1= .

Thus eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value =2 X1= , where k2 and k3 are

arbitrary constant.

Let = be an Eigen vector (non-zero column vector) for the matrix A corresponding

Eigen value (scalar) λ = = 8.therefore

( − ) =0

6−λ −2 2 0
−2 3 − λ −1 = 0
2 −1 3 − λ 0

Put = 8. Then Eqn (1) will becomes,

−2 −2 2 0
−2 −5 −1 = 0
2 −1 −5 0

Operating row operation R1 → − R1,

1 1 −1 0
−2 −5 −1 = 0
2 −1 −5 0

Operating row operation R2 →R2 + 2R1, R3 →R3 - 2R1

1 1 −1 0
0 −3 −3 = 0
0 −3 −3 0

Operating row operation R3 →R3 - R2

1 1 −1 0
0 −3 −3 = 0
0 0 0 0

Operating row operation R2 →- R2

1 1 −1 0
0 1 1 = 0
0 0 0 0
After multiplying we get, + − =0

+ =0

We assumed that x3= k3. Then x2= - k3 and x1= 2k3. Thus eigen vector corresponding to the eigen
2k 2
value = 8 X2= − = −1 , where k3 is a nonzero arbitrary constant.
1

Hence the eigen values and eigen vectors of matrix A are = 2, 2, 8 and = , =

2
−1 , respectively.
1

2 −1 1
Q-5. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix = −1 2 −1 and find the inverse
1 −1 2
of the matrixA and find the value of polynomial in matrix form A − 6A + 9A − 5A + + .

Sol. Characteristic equation of matrix A

| − |=0

2− −1 1
−1 2− −1 =0
1 −1 2−

On expanding determinant we get

−6 +9 −4=0

By Cayley-Hamilton theorem,

−6 +9 −4 =0 (1)

Now,

2 −1 1 2 −1 1 6 −5 5
A2 = −1 2 −1 −1 2 −1 = −5 6 −5
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 5 −5 6
 6 −5 5 2 −1 1 22 −21 21
A3 = −5 6 −5 −1 2 −1 = −21 22 −21
5 −5 6 1 −1 2 21 −21 22
−6 +9 −4 =0

22 −21 21 6 −5 5 2 −1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
−21 22 −21 − 6 −5 6 −5 + 9 −1 2 −1 - 4 0 1 0 = 0 0 0
21 −21 22 5 −5 6 1 −1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0
−6 +9 −4 =0 (2)

From (1) and (2), Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.

Again from (1), we have −6 + 9 − 4 = 0.

Multiplying by A-1, we get

A2- 6 A+9I – 4A-1= 0

A-1= (A2- 6 A+9I)

3 1 −1
A = 1 3 1
−1 1 3
Next, A − 6A + 9A − 5A + +

A 2( −6 + 9 − 4 )- A2+A+I

A2(0) - A2+A+I

- A2+A+I

6 −5 5 2 −1 1 1 0 0
− −5 6 −5 + −1 2 −1 + 0 1 0
5 −5 6 1 −1 2 0 0 1
−3 4 −4
−1 3 −1
1 −1 3
−3 4 −4
Thus A − 6A + 9A − 5A + + = −1 3 −1 .
1 −1 3
Q-6. Find two non-singular matrices P, Q such that PAQ is in normal form.
1 1 1
Where A = 1 −1 −1
3 1 1
Sol. Let A = I AI

(Order of pre multiplication identity matrix is 3 because number of rows in matrix A is 3 and
order of post multiplication identity matrix is 3 because number of columns in matrix A is 3)

1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 −1 −1 = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0
3 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Appling row operationsR → R −R , R → R −3R (row operation applying only pre factor)

1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 −2 −2 = −1 1 0 A 0 1 0
0 −2 −2 −3 0 1 0 0 1

Appling column operationsC → C −C , C → C −C (column operation applying only post

factor)

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 −1 −1
0 −2 −2 = −1 1 0 A 0 1 0
0 −2 −2 −3 0 1 0 0 1

Appling row operation R → R −R ( row operation applying only pre factor)

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 −1 −1
0 −2 −2 = −1 1 0 A 0 1 0
0 0 0 −2 −1 1 0 0 1

Appling column operation C → C −C (column operation applying only post factor)

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 −1 0
0 −2 0 = −1 1 0 A 0 1 −1
0 0 0 −2 −1 1 0 0 1

Appling column operation C → C now we get(column operation applying only post factor)

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 = −1 1 0 A 0 − −1
0 0 0 −2 −1 1
0 0 1
 1 0 0 1 0
Hence P = −1 1 0 & = 0 − −1
−2 −1 1
0 0 1

[P and Q are not unique because it is depends on elementary operations, but PAQ always in
normal form]

Q-7. Discuss for all values of ‘k’ for the system of linear equationsx + y + 4z = 6, x + 2y −
2z = 6 , kx + y + z = 6 as regards existence and nature of solutions.

Sol. The above system of equations can be written as in matrix form

AX = B

1 1 4 6
1 2 −2 = 6
1 1 6

Let an augmented Matrix C = A ⋮ B

1 1 4 :6
C= 1 2 −2: 6
1 1 :6

Now reduce the above matrix in Echelon form by using row elementary transformations.

Appling row operation R → R −R , R → R − kR

1 1 4 : 6
~ 0 1 −6 : 0
0 1− 1− 4 :6− 6

Appling row operationR → R −(1 − k)R

1 1 4 : 6
~ 0 1 −6 : 0
0 0 7 − 10 : 6 − 6

Above matrix C is an Echelon form, If the system of equation is consistent then ρ(C) = ρ(A)

4- If ρ(C) = ( ) = no of unknowns , the system has a unique solution.

5- If ρ(C) = ( ) < , the system has an infinite number of solutions.

Condition-1 If 7 − 10k ≠ 0 or k ≠ then ρ(A) = 3 and ρ(C) = 3

 ρ(C) = ρ(A) = 3(no. of unknowns) if k ≠
Therefore the system of linear equations has a unique solution (consistent)

Condition-2 If 7 − 10k = 0 or k =

Then ρ(A) = 2 and ρ(C) = 3

ρ(C) ≠ ρ(A) if k =

Therefore the systems of linear equations have no solution (inconsistent).

Q-8. Examine the following set of vectors for linear dependence and if linear dependent then
find the relation between them.

= (1,2,4), = (2, −1,3), = (0,1,2), = (−3,7,2)

Sol. Let the , , , are the scalars and , , , be the vectors then the linear
combination of vectors.

+ + + = 0…………………………. (1)

(1,2,4) + (2, −1,3) + (0,1,2) + (−3,7,2) = 0

+2 + 0. − 3. =0

2 − + + 7. =0

4 +3 +2 +2 =0

Now the system of homogeneous equation in matrix form

1 2 0−3 0
2−11 7 = 0
4322 0

Reduce the above matrix in Echelon form by using elementary row transformations.

Appling row operationR → R − 2R and R → R −4R

1 2 0−3 0
0−51 13 = 0
0−52 14 0
Appling row operation R → R −R

1 2 0−3 0
0−51 13 = 0
0011 0

Above matrix is an Echelon form, so the rank of matrix A is equal three.

Hence ρ(A) = 3 (number of non zero independent rows)

Number of vectors ≠ Rank of matrix

4≠3

If the rank of the matrix of the given vectors is less than the numbers of vectors, then the vectors
are linearly dependent. Therefore the vectors , , , are linearly dependent.

Now the solution of above homogeneous linear equations

+2 + 0. −3 =0

−5 + + 13 =0

+ =0

Now let =

=−

12
=
5

−9
=
5

From Equation (1)

−9 12
. + . − + =0
5 5

−9 + 12 −5 +5 =0

This is the required relation in the four vectors.

Q-9.Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix

 1 2 2
A= 0 2 1
−1 2 2

Sol. Characteristic equation of matrix A is | − |=0

1−λ 2 2
0 2−λ 1 =0
−1 2 2−λ

On expanding determinant we get

−5 +8 −4=0

= 1satisfied the above equation so = 1 is a factor,

( − 1) − 4 ( − 1) + 4( − 1) = 0

( − 1). ( − 4 + 4) = 0

( − 1). ( − 2). ( − 2)) = 0

= 1,2,2

= 1, = 2, =2

These are theeigen values of matrix A.

Eigen Vector:

Eigen Vector for the corresponding eigen value = =1

Let = be an eigen vector (non-zero column vector) for the matrix A corresponding to

eigen value (scalar) = = 1.therefore ( − ) =0

1−λ 2 2 0
0 2−λ 1 = 0
−1 2 2−λ 0

0 2 2 0
For = =1 0 1 1 . = 0
−1 2 1 0

Convert above matrix in Echelon form by applying row elementary transformations ↔ ,

 −1 2 1 0
0 1 1 . = 0
0 2 2 0

Applying row elementary transformations → −2

−1 2 1 0
0 1 1 . = 0
0 0 0 0

After multiplying we get − +2 + =0

+ =0

=−

Now let = then =−

=2 +

= −2 +

= − where is an arbitrary constant.

Thus the eigen vector of matrix A corresponding to an Eigen value = = is

− −1
= = = − = −1 Where ≠0
1

Here we get infinite number of Eigen vectors by giving different values of . The simplest
−1
Eigen vector is = −1 for = 1
1

Let = be an Eigen vector (non-zero column vector) for the matrix A corresponding

Eigen value (scalar) λ = λ & = 2.therefore

( − ) =0

1−λ 2 2 0
0 2−λ 1 . = 0
−1 2 2−λ 0
 −1 2 2 0
For = =2 0 0 1 . = 0
−1 2 0 0

Convert matrix in Echelon form by applying row elementary transformations → −

−1 2 2 0
0 0 1 . = 0
0 0 −2 0

After multiplying we get − +2 +2 =0

=0

−2 =0

Hence
=0

Now let = then

=2 +2 = 2 + 2.0 = 2

where is an arbitrary constant.

Therefore the eigen vector of matrix A corresponding to repeated eigen values

2 2
= = = 2is = = = = 1 where ≠0
0 0

2
Hence the simplest eigen vector is = = 1 for = 1.
0

Here same eigen vector is obtained , corresponding to repeated eigen values

2
= = = . The simplest Eigen vector is = = 1 for =1
0

−1 2
Hence the eigen values and eigen vectors of matrix A are = 1,2, 2 and = −1 , = 1
1 0
respectively.
 3 −1 1
Q-10.Two of the eigen values of the matrix A = −1 5 −1 are 3 and 6.Find the eigen
1 −1 3
values of and .

Sol. Let , and be the eigen values of the matrix A.

Given = 3, =6

Sum of the eigen values =sum of the principal diagonal elements of A

+ + =3+5+3

3+6+ = 3+5+3

=2

Now the eigen values of the matrix A are = 3, = 6& =2

Now the eigen values of the matrix are , &

Since the eigen values of the matrix are , &

Now the eigen values of the matrix are , &

Since the eigen values of the matrix are 27, 216&8

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have t pne t
Net, fan Sel naid, w
DivF VF

( i + ) (a+4z 3/2
3 (4+z?) (1y42a)3/L
(+242) /1
(442?)"i-a(3)(a+7+7)(a
(2
(a+4 z)"-9(3)(a +a+22)
(2y )

(x* +2)
( 422) 3 -z(3)(x+4z) (2z)
(x422)3
 (x4z) /2 a z-31+1 4z-3+1+2
(a +z 13 -32

vF-0Theruteru F Selunidal
Thu
L be a Rcalan þotntmalhen 4 3 dz
F 3 dx + d

d ( da +î dy + * du)
Fdi
=
V di
a3+7 (fd +1d + dz)
( 4z)
Xd d y +zdz

( 4 z ) 32

O d+dy +2d z
( a 4 zy 3/2

2xda +y dy +22dz
-
4E) (x )
2
/
( + 4z2)

ik
Thuy RCalan petenti
 r u n i theeom e Singd Ceyd whe

at he Juctose i h Veh ca(o t), (TT, 01 (T.

o Oncd hen Ce euyGuAn 'kthere m
Seh e Can wwe he ine Inttm
(Sinyd Coddy)
e Siryda+ t clyd

T, TT/2)
( C

n e
une o Si ven
R n
aJu t beundary
beunda
whuu C, C2, C3, ond C4
in aboe fsun. ohd
0xT/2
Cy=o,
Je heue al ong
Singd+ coly dy
) =9
nne
e
4TI/2
XTT, 0
aons C
C2 -TT
Cey d -

(Siry d + Colydy)
TT 0 o ncl -TT
lorg C3 B -

d
(Siry da+ Celda )

CSiryd1+ Celydy) = Cefy dy:

-1

C4
Theneferu ( S i n da +cely d)
11e-1 -
= 2( -1)
pnoue h
t t
hu
we heue ts
the rrusn' 4h"
o eufy
(Sinydx +e ceiyds
( ( c e l g ( ¢ s i n g
))dx dy

SS
Now g)-(Simg))dady
-1T
T12 2(
da dy
-2cely
da + c d
(¬ Sing

GrunA
th" A eufiecl
Thu 3JdX
the long fsi
VOU1 Cnun theerom in J i o n bcunda
bounoleo
l
Cunve cthe
+d whene CR cleaed

ondy N ALC)

Sel
 e Con uute 4h ine int{nal a

( ) dx+ x°dy
Ca4 2)da+ x'dy
OA Onc o <1,
2 dy 2 dr
e hauA alons- OA x

( xat+x) da+ a 23 da
I
(3 ") da I9
3
4

dy da orcl
alons A O0

34x=*]:?

heruferu([(ay4y2) da +a"dy 1 20 -1 20

noue tth
ha t
we ho e proue
th",
To y the Gnuen'
utf
) -2 (xy +g) dad
eru
x'd3
S (a3+) dx
+

ond =X
JA he usion bourdacd by y
AIG R

(21--29 )dady (13)d3dy

(1-13) dx
 20

(9 ) da +
ady
th J e r u fud.
HenCe Gnun 12 J-9J4jz
F=
he divengence thearu m farn
Verufy
Verufy
boundlucl by
the planeI0 X*1,Y=0,
okn Gven he cub
2 0 2=1
Seludion- 7F ( + +
) (+z31-yS+ye f)
42-2 +
= 42-.

Valume inyne VF dv
(42-) da dy dz
((27y2) dxdy
(2-1 dady

2- 4*

EValut F n dS, wheru S coheigH eRix blane Ruteca

 C
(o,0,
7
( , o)
A (1,0b
m:-Rd
- k , ds= d xdy
s- dr
2:0,dz0,
OABC,
OoW the face

sEidt(SiË )dx dg-

Oen4he face BCDE, J=dyo
3 d s - dadz

4221-j + zÃ) (0) dx dz

F nds: 0

-dadz

dz o,
m: Kk, ds- dx dy
ds=dx dy
0en the face EFG,2-4,

SF:mds ( 4x(ui-y1 4gur ] k da d

dady
d s ds=dyd2
dxso, m: -3,
dydz
OCO, X=o,
Oen yhe feca = o

SFnds ((o-'3+z?)()dj dz
m , d$=dadz
OVa thu fa AOGF,o,dy=o.

Fds: ( z i ) (i) dadz

= o

m: , dS: dyd2
COuun he fsce ABE F, X1, diso ,

SSFnds: (S (4z1- +yz ®)-(i) ds dz

 4-2 dy dz2
Rcehet OvOn he whele funlec
On aeclns we

+o4042)
F.m ds -(o-ut

Oncl ue heue
Fncm 0
JSJ.v Fdy- fF.m ds
he enem R VerufLed
Hence diresence
Inttneed
VeTul the Steee' thearnem fan a rFe X7 0 , +7 0,J 1 , 0
Verufy
Jnouno h e eguar uhat c icle J
n the lone Z- 0

SclutCn-
X= a

xF
0

=(o-0) - (o-o) ]+ (y- 0) K

((vxF) n d s = ( R ) fd d (n
S dad

Io obtain ing inttine ( + a y ) . ( i d a a)dy )

(Fdn
 (da +ydy)
C
þoth OA 5 CO
Rhoun in fsut
Where c ie the
Fda Fdn:Fda+F d n F d + F
CO d n
AB BC
OABCO OA

E
Aln
Along 0A, 0 , dy- 0, 0E

Fdn(ada 43ydy ) [adz

OA

< Q
Alon
Alons A B, =0, d o,

F dn:(xda 43jdy) dy
AB A
dy-o 9xéo,
Aler B
FF dn-(xdx +3gdy) =
Sadx =
e 0
Alonyd Co, X=0, dizo, 9
( Fdn:(xdxt 91dg)= od +(o) dy= 0

Co CO
thaes Indna i , we heu
Putir the vauw
ot
Fdn
Fnom euetion O
Ond ,
CVF).mds- F d
JR VoufLed
Hence Stekek theerom
Stad
Statemendt eGruen k 1heeru m okc'Theere m, Gnd
GauteTheorem DivongenCe
Saludion
S+qdement e Guen herte m
If (aà) (X,), Ond ik Continuo oven o

ugien B bouncl cd by Rimplu cdoted CwT C Jn X plone

then
(da+vdg) = - d a dy

Satment SHuke Thecruo m

Sunfoc intcjnd the Combahent Cuu F alor ora
S fa Ce the
the hema t the Runface S, tuken oen

Sbeuncud by Cune C iA egual to th ine Inteyna

t h e vecton þuin+ -function F aleng the cleeed Cume
G. Mahemahcally
i
F dn = Cunl F m ds, whunu m -cetd +CPJ

+CHv k i Q unit xtenn nem to hy Snf¢a

ds
totrT Satmen e Ga uft Theerum eDivegen a
The Rufe Ce integnal the huimal Cembonent 0
eten-functien E akeh auncuho cloked Sunfe S
equel o
thh+f9me the divensinc
OVen h F6ECh
velume V encleteod by the Swnf
Sunf4 Cet S.
Mathermetica
F ds div d
S V