〉 Chapter 31

Astronomy and cosmology

LEARNING INTENTIONS
In this chapter you will learn how to:
• understand the term luminosity as the total power of radiation emitted by a star
• recall and use the inverse square law for radiant flux intensity F in terms of the luminosity L of the source:
L
F=
4πd 2
• understand that an object of known luminosity is called a standard candle
• understand the use of standard candles to determine distances to galaxies
• recall and use Wien’s displacement law λ max ∝ 1
T
to estimate the peak surface temperature of a star
• use the Stefan-Boltzmann law L = 4πσr2T4
• use Wien’s displacement law and the Stefan-Boltzmann law to estimate the radius of a star
• understand that the lines in the emission spectra from distant objects show an increase in wavelength
from their known values
• use Δλ
λ
≈ Δf
f
≈ v
c
for the redshift of electromagnetic radiation from a source moving relative to an
observer
• explain why redshift leads to the idea that the Universe is expanding
• recall and use Hubble’s Law v ≈ H0d and explain how this leads to the Big Bang theory.

BEFORE YOU START

• Your knowledge of electromagnetic waves, including spectra, would be valuable in the understanding of
this chapter.
• Can you recall intensity of a wave and its units?
• The idea of the Doppler effect of sound will be extended to spectra from distant stars. When is the
observed wavelength shorter, or longer?

LOOKING INTO THE PAST

Figure 31.1 shows galaxies as seen through a powerful telescope. Each galaxy may have as many as 1011
stars, and there may be as many as 1011 galaxies in the Universe. Light from these galaxies has a finite
speed: 3.0 × 108 m s−1 in a vacuum. These galaxies are so distant that light from them may have taken
billions of years to reach us. So, what we have in this photograph is an image of the past. Andromeda is our
closest galaxy. The light from this galaxy would take 2.3 million years to reach us. When we see this galaxy
though a telescope, we are looking at its image from 2.3 million years ago! Just to put this into perspective,
someone looking at the Earth from this galaxy now, would see a time when our ape-like ancestors roamed the
planet.
In this chapter, we will deduce that galaxies further away from us are moving faster. This, in turns, implies that
our Universe had a beginning–it was created some 14 billion years ago in an event known as the Big Bang.
Since then, the fabric of the Universe has been stretching, carrying with it the galaxies.
Can you estimate the size and the mass of the Universe?

Figure 31.1: A cluster of distant galaxies; some created only a few million years after the creation of the
Universe.
31.1 Standard candles
All the stars we see in the night sky are from our own galaxy–the Milky Way. Figure 31.2 shows stars in the
constellation of Gemini. The stars do not look the same; they differ in brightness and colour. These stars are not
all the same distance from us, and they do not all emit the same power. So, we cannot deduce their distance
from just how bright they appear in the night sky.

Figure 31.2: Stars have different colours and brightness. Can you tell which star is the closest?

In astronomy, luminosity of a star is defined as the total radiant energy emitted per unit time. This is the same
as the total power emitted by a star. In SI units, luminosity L is measured in W or J s−1. The Sun is the nearest
star to us, and astronomers have determined its luminosity to a high degree of accuracy. The luminosity of the
Sun (solar luminosity), often written as L⊙, is about 3.83 × 1026 W.
As you will see later, you can determine solar luminosity from the intensity of solar radiation reaching the Earth.
In astronomy, a standard candle is an astronomical object of known luminosity. Astronomers can determine the
distance of a standard candle by measuring the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation arriving at the Earth.
Standard candles have been successfully used to determine the distance of far-flung galaxies. It is amazing that
we can do this just by observing the starlight reaching us on Earth.
The two well-known standard candles are Cepheid variable stars and Type 1A supernovae.

Cepheid variable stars

In 1908, Henrietta Leavitt discovered that the brightness of Cepheid variable stars varied periodically, and the
period of this variation was related to the average luminosity of the star. By measuring the period, astronomers
could determine the luminosity of the star. The star’s distance could then be calculated from the observed
radiant intensity at the Earth. Finding a Cepheid variable star in a distant galaxy meant that the distance of the
galaxy itself could be calculated.

Type 1A supernovae
Type 1A supernovae stars implode rapidly towards the end of their lives, and scatter matter and energy out into
space. This implosion event can be brighter than the galaxy itself. The luminosity of the star at the time of the
implosion is always the same. From this, astronomers can estimate the star’s distance from the Earth.
31.2 Luminosity and radiant flux intensity
The Sun is the nearest star to the Earth. The second nearest star is Proxima Centauri, 4.0 × 1016 m away.
Distances as large as 4.0 × 1016 m are extremely difficult to visualise–they are way beyond any of our day-to-
day points of reference. So, astronomers tend to use an alternative unit for distance – the light-year (ly). A light-
year is the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in a time of one year. Therefore:
1 ly = speed of light in vacuum × one year in seconds

1 ly ≈ 3.00 × 108 × 365 × 24 × 3600

1 ly ≈ 9.5 × 1015 m
Proxima Centauri is 4.2 ly away. It would take light from Proxima Centauri 4.2 years to reach us.
(Note: You do not need to know about light-years, but they help to visualise vast distances.)
Table 31.1 summarises some data on the brightest stars–do not forget that the Sun is a star too.

Rank order Name of star Distance / light- Temperature / K Luminosity / L⊙

years
1 Sun 1.58 × 10−5 5800 1.0

2 Sirius 8.6 9900 25

3 Canopus 310 7000 1100

4 Alpha Centauri 4.4 5800 1.5

5 Arcturus 37 4300 170

6 Vega 25 9600 40

Table 31.1: Data on the six brightest stars, including the Sun. The luminosity is given in terms of the solar
luminosity L⊙; 1 L⊙ = 3.83 × 1026 W.

We can see from Table 31.1 that the observed brightness of a star is linked to both its distance from the Earth
and its luminosity. We would expect a luminous star, such as Canopus, to be bright in the night sky. Alpha
Centauri is brighter in the night sky than Arcturus, not because of its luminosity, but because of its closeness to
us. You will see later that the luminosity of a star depends not only on its surface temperature but also on its
physical size.
Can we relate the brightness of a star to its luminosity? Yes, as long as we understand the underlying
assumptions that:
• the power from the star is uniformly radiated through space
• there is negligible absorption of this radiated power between the star and the Earth.
With these assumptions, we can determine the intensity of electromagnetic radiation observed at the Earth.
The observed intensity is known as radiant flux intensity F. This is defined as the radiant power passing
normally through a surface per unit area.
Figure 31.3 shows how F can be calculated for a star at a distance d from its centre.
power of star
radiant flux intensity = surface area of sphere
The power of the star is its luminosity L, and the surface area of a sphere is 4πd2.
Therefore:
L
F= 2
4πd

The SI units for radiant flux intensity are W m−2.

For a given star, the luminosity L is constant, so according to the equation, the radiant flux intensity F obeys an
inverse square law with distance d. So, doubling the distance from the centre of the star (2d) will decrease F by
a factor of 4, and tripling the distance (3d) will decrease F by a factor of 9, and so on.
You can demonstrate this inverse square law using a bright filament lamp and a light-meter in a darkened
laboratory – see Practical Activity 31.1.

Figure 31.3: The power of the star spreads out uniformly through a spherical shell.

Distance of galaxies
L
Astronomers on the Earth can determine the radiant flux intensity F of a distant star. The equation F =
4πd 2
can then be rearranged to determine the distance d of a star of known luminosity L, for example, a standard
candle such as a Cepheid variable star in a distant galaxy.
Now look at Worked examples 1 and 2. In Worked example 1, the radiant flux intensity from the Sun at the Earth
is calculated. In Worked example 2, the distance of a star in the Andromeda galaxy is calculated from its radiant
flux intensity at the Earth.

WORKED EXAMPLES

1 The radius of the Sun is 6.96 × 108 m and its luminosity is 3.83 × 1026 W.
The orbital radius of the Earth is 1.50 × 1011 m.
Calculate the radiant flux intensity at the surface of the Sun and at the position of the Earth.
Step 1 Calculate the radiant flux intensity at the Sun’s surface:
 L
F =
4πd 2
3.83×1026
= 8 2
4π×(6.96×10 )

= 6.29 × 107 Wm −2
Step 2 Calculate the radiant flux intensity at the Earth’s position.
We can do this using the inverse square law relationship between F and d.
The distance increases by a factor of:
1.50×1011
6.96×10
8 = 215.52
Therefore, F will decrease by a factor of 215.522
So,
6.29×107
F = 2
215.52

= 1.35 × 103 W m −2
1
Note: An alternative would be to just use F = , with L = 3.83 × 1026 W and d = 1.50 × 1011 m. Try
4πd 2
it, you will get the same answer. You do not need the radius of the Sun to get the right answer.
2 The radiant flux intensity, measured at the Earth, from a Cepheid variable star in Andromeda is 1.4 ×
10−16 W m−2. The luminosity of the star is 1.0 × 1030 W.
Calculate the distance of this star.
Step 1 Rearrange the equation for radiant flux intensity.

L
−−L −
F= ⇒d=√ 4πF
4πd 2

Step 2 Substitute and calculate the distance of the star.

−−−−−−−−
1.0×1030
−
d = √ 4π×1.4×10−16

= 2.4 × 1022 m
This distance is equivalent to 2.5 million light-years.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 31.1

Inverse square law for radiant flux intensity

We can simulate the inverse square law nature of light spreading from a star using a bright filament lamp and
a light-meter. Commercial light-meters are not calibrated to show radiant flux intensity F in W m−2. Light-
meters measure a quantity known as illuminance. We can assume that illuminance, often in a unit known as
lux, is directly proportional to radiant flux intensity.
Carry out the experiment in a darkened room.
Measure the illuminance at various distances d from the centre of the lamp.
Since radiant flux intensity is inversely proportional to d2, and directly proportional to illuminance, a graph of
illuminance against 12 will be a straight line through the origin.
d
In a laboratory, there will always be some reflection of light from the walls and ceiling. The best place and
time for the experiment is outdoors at night!
Questions
Where necessary, take:
L⊙ = 3.83 × 1026 W
1 ly ≈ 9.5 × 1015 m
1 State two factors that affect radiant flux intensity from a star.
2 The radiant flux intensity F of light from a lamp at a distance of 10 cm is 0.32 W m−2. Calculate F from the
same lamp at a distance of 15 cm. State any assumption(s) you make.
3 Use data from Table 31.1 to determine, to two significant figures:
a the distance of Sirius from the Earth in metres.
b the luminosity (in W) of
i Canopus
ii Vega.
c the radiant flux intensity measured at the Earth from:
i Sirius
ii Alpha Centauri.
4 This question is about Sirius and Arcturus.
With the help of calculations and data from Table 31.1, show that Sirius is brighter than Arcturus.
5 The radiant flux intensity from a star measured at the Earth is 2.7 × 10−9 W m−2. The luminosity of the star
is 1300 L⊙.
Calculate the distance of this star from the Earth in metres.
31.3 Stellar radii
The Sun can be seen as a glowing ball of gas in the sky. If you briefly look at the Sun through a special filter, like
a welder’s helmet, you can identify it as a yellow disc in space. The Sun is enormous – it only looks small
because it is far away from us. We can determine the diameter of the Sun fairly easily (see Practical Activity
31.2). However, when we look at stars in the night sky, they appear as tiny specks of light – there is no disc to
be seen (Figure 31.4). The stars are just too far away. Even the closest stars viewed through powerful
telescopes appear as specks of light.
How can astronomers determine the size of stars? In this topic, you will see how two simple laws can be used to
determine stellar radii.

Figure 31.4: Even the closest stars appear as specks of light – so how do astronomers determine their size?

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 31.2

The diameter of the Sun

You can estimate the diameter of our closest star, the Sun, using a simple pin-hole camera. You can make
this camera using a shoe-box. One end of the box has a sheet of darkened paper (or aluminum foil) with a
tiny hole made with a sharp pin. The opposite end of the box has a sheet of tracing paper, which acts as a
screen. A circular image of the Sun is formed on the screen when the camera is pointed towards the Sun.
See Figure 31.5.
 Figure 31.5: You can determine the diameter D of the Sun using a simple pin-hole camera.

Measure the distance x between the pin-hole and the screen. The distance of the Sun from the Earth is 1.5 ×
1011 m. The diameter D of the Sun can be determined using simple trigonometry:
d D
tan θ ≈ x
≈ 1.5×1011

Therefore:

1.5×1011 ×d
D= x

Question
6 a A student conducted the experiment from Practical Activity 31.2. The results from the experiment are
shown below:
x = 300 mm d = 3 mm
Use this data to estimate the diameter of the Sun.
b The actual value for the diameter of the Sun is 1.4 × 109 m.
Determine the percentage difference between your calculated value and the actual value.

Wien’s displacement law

The hottest stars are blueish-white in colour. Cooler stars are a deep shade of red. We can see almost the same
effect with the filament of a lamp. Increase the temperature of the filament by increasing the current in the
filament. At first, the filament will glow dull red when it is cooler, then reddish-orange, and eventually white as it
gets hotter.
There is a link between the observed wavelength of light and temperature. Table 31.2 shows the colour of a star
in the night sky and the range of its surface temperature.
A hot object, such as a star, can be modelled as a black body. A black body is an idealised object that absorbs
all incident electromagnetic radiation falling on it. It has a characteristic emission spectrum and intensity that
depend only on its thermodynamic temperature. Figure 31.6 shows typical intensity against wavelength graphs
for objects at different temperatures.

Colour of star Surface temperature of star / K

blue Greater than 33 000

blue to blue-white 10 000 – 30 000

white 7500 – 10 000

yellowish white 6000 – 7500

yellow 5200 – 6000

orange 3700 – 5200

red Less than 3700

Table 31.2: The observed colour of a star is related to its temperature.

Figure 31.6: The intensity–wavelength graph depends on the temperature of the object. For an object at a
thermodynamic temperature T, the intensity against wavelength curve peaks at a wavelength λmax.

The higher the temperature of a body:

• the shorter the wavelength at the peak (maximum) intensity
• the greater the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation at each wavelength.
In 1893, German physicist Wilhelm Wien discovered a relationship between the thermodynamic temperature T
of the object and the wavelength λmax at the peak intensity:

λmaxT = constant

The relationship is known as Wien’s displacement law . The experimental value of the constant is 2.9 × 10−3 m
K.
The surface temperature of the Sun is 5800 K. This gives a λmax value of about 5.0 × 10−7 m or 500 nm. Light of
this wavelength appears yellow (which is not surprising for the Sun).

Questions
7 Use the data given in Figure 31.6 to show the validity of Wien’s displacement law for 5000 K and 4000 K.
8 For a temperature of 5800 K, the wavelength at peak intensity of electromagnetic radiation is 500 nm.
Calculate the surface temperature of a star with wavelength 350 nm at peak intensity.
9 Copy this table.

Star Surface temperature T / K λmax / nm

Sun 5800 500

Polaris 6000

Canopus 7000

Gacrus 810
 Use Wien’s displacement law to complete the table. Write your answers to two significant figures.

The Stefan-Boltzmann law

A quick inspection of Table 31.1 shows that the luminosity of a star does not depend just on the surface
temperature of the star. Luminosity also depends on the physical size of the star–its radius. For example, the
super red giant star KY Cygni has a surface temperature of 3500 K but its luminosity is 200 000 times that of our
Sun. KY Cygni is cooler than the Sun, but its large surface area makes it very luminous.
The luminosity of a star depends on two factors:
• its surface thermodynamic temperature T
• its radius r.
In 1879, Slovenian physicist Josef Stefan developed an expression for the luminosity L of a star. This is the
Stefan-Boltzmann law:

L = 4πσ r2T4

KEY EQUATIONS
Wien’s displacement law:

λ max T = constant
λ max ∝ T1
Stefan-Boltzmann law:

L = 4πσr 2 T 4

where σ is a constant known as the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. The experimental value for σ is 5.67 × 10–8 W
m–2 K–4.

Using Wien’s displacement law and the Stefan-Boltzmann law

to determine stellar radii
The radius of a star can be calculated from Wien’s displacement law and the Stefan-Boltzmann law. The
procedure would be as follows:
1 Use Wien’s displacement law to determine the temperature T of the star. This would involve determining the
wavelength γmax at maximum intensity for the star, and then using a reference star (such as the Sun) to
determine T.
2 Use the Stefan-Boltzmann law to determine the radius r of the star. The luminosity L of the star can be
determined by measuring the radiant flux intensity F of the star.
The procedure is illustrated in Worked example 3.

WORKED EXAMPLE

3 The surface temperature of the Sun is 5800 K and wavelength of light at peak intensity is 500 nm. The
wavelength at peak intensity for Sirius-B (a white dwarf star) is 120 nm. The luminosity of this star is
0.056 times that of the Sun. The luminosity of the Sun is 3.83 × 1026 W.
Calculate the radius of Sirius-B.
Step 1 Use Wien’s displacement law to calculate the temperature of Sirius-B.
 λmaxT = constant
5800 × 500 = T × 120
T = 24 167 K ≈ 24 200 K
Step 2 Use the Stefan-Boltzmann law to calculate the radius of Sirius-B.
L = 4πσr 2 T 4
−−−−
L
−
r = √ 4πσT 4

−−−−−−−−−−−−−
0.056×3.83×1026
−
= √ −8 4
4π×5.67×10 ×24167
6
≈ 9.4 × 10 m
Sirius-B is roughly the size of our Earth! It is a very hot star, but not very luminous because of its
small size.

Question
10 The luminosity of the star Aldebaran is 520 times that of the Sun. The wavelength of light at peak intensity
for Aldebaran is 740 nm and the wavelength of light at peak intensity for the Sun is 500 nm.
a Explain whether Aldebaran is cooler or hotter than the Sun.
b Calculate the ratio:
radius of Aldebaran / radius of the Sun.
31.4 The expanding Universe
The Big Bang theory is a model of the evolution of the Universe from an extremely hot and dense state some
13.8 million years ago – the event was called the Big Bang.
The Big Bang was also responsible for the birth of the fabric of space (and time) – this fabric has been
expanding ever since then. At the early stages after the Big Bang, fundamental particles (such as quarks) and
forces (such as gravitation) came into existence. Subsequent expansion led to cooling and formation of atoms,
stars and galaxies. The one question that cosmologists cannot answer (yet) is why the Big Bang happened in
the first place. There are lots of thoughts and theories, but nothing that can be tested.
In this topic, we will explore evidence for the Big Bang by using the ideas of physics developed in the earlier
chapters of this book–notably spectra (Chapter 12) and Doppler effect (Chapter 12).

Hubble’s law
Astronomers can see the light from distant galaxies using powerful telescopes. The telescopes can look at the
light through a diffraction grating. Analysis of the spectrum of the light from distant galaxies shows that they are
all moving away from us. The more distant a galaxy, the faster it moves. How do we know from the spectrum
that galaxies are moving away from us (receding)?
We examined the Doppler effect of sound in Chapter 12. The observed wavelength of sound was longer for a
receding source and shorter for an approaching source. The same happens with electromagnetic waves. The
observed wavelengths of all spectral lines from distant galaxies are longer than the ones observed in the
laboratory. This is known as redshift. Figure 31.7 shows the red-shifting of the absorption spectral lines from a
cluster of galaxies some 1 billion light-years away.
The redshift of spectral lines from distant galaxies must imply that all galaxies are receding from us. This is what
American astronomer Vesto Slipher discovered in 1917. Another American astronomer, Edwin Hubble,
combined his own observations with Slipher’s discovery to create Hubble’s law.
Hubble’s law states that the recession speed v of a galaxy is directly proportional to its distance d from us.
Therefore,

v∝d

or

v = H0d

Figure 31.7: The absorption lines in the spectrum of the galaxies are all shifted to longer wavelengths –
redshifted. The top spectrum is the spectrum from a ‘stationary source’, the Sun.
where v is the recession speed, d is the distance of the galaxy and H0 is the Hubble constant.
The SI unit for H0 is second−1, or s−1.
The experimental value for H0 is about 2.4 × 10−18 s−1. Figure 31.8 shows a recession speed v against distance
d graph for galaxies. The straight-line of best fit passes through the origin, and the gradient of the line is equal to
H0.

KEY EQUATION
Hubble’s law:

v = H0d

Figure 31.8: Hubble’s law shows that recession speed of galaxy ∝ distance from us. The gradient of the best-
fit line is equal to H0 in s−1. The scatter of the data shows considerable uncertainties in the observation.

Question
11 A galaxy is at a distance of 9.5 × 1024 m from us and is moving away with a speed of 2.1 × 107 m s−1.
a Calculate the Hubble constant based on this data.
b Estimate the speed in km s−1 of a galaxy at a distance of 1.9 × 1025 m.

Doppler redshift
It is worth pointing out that the term redshift does not imply spectral lines becoming red; all spectral lines show
an increase in wavelength. The fractional increase in the wavelength depends on the recession speed v of the
source (galaxy).
For non-relativistic galaxies – those moving with speeds far less than the speed of light in a vacuum c – we can
use the relationship:

Δλ Δf v
λ
≈ f
≈ c

where λ is the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves from the source, Δλ is the change in the wavelength, f
is the frequency of the electromagnetic waves from the source, Δf is the change in frequency, v is the recession
speed of the source and c is the speed of light in vacuum.

KEY EQUATION
Doppler redshift:

Δλ Δf v
λ
≈ f
≈ c

Astronomers and cosmologists often assign a value for the term ‘redshift’. For example, a galaxy shows redshift
of 7.0 % means that:

Δλ Δf v
λ
≈ f
≈ c
≈ 0.070

Worked example 4 shows how redshift can be used to determine the speed of a distant galaxy.

WORKED EXAMPLE

4 In the laboratory, an emission spectral line is observed at a wavelength of 656.4 nm. The same spectral
line, in the spectrum from a distant galaxy, has wavelength 663.1 nm.
Calculate the speed v of the galaxy.
Step 1 Calculate the change in the wavelength of the spectral line.
The observed wavelength is longer; therefore, the galaxy is receding.
Δλ = 663.1 − 656.4 = 6.7 nm
Step 2 Now calculate the speed v using the Doppler redshift equation.

Hint: You do not need to convert the nm to m, because the ratio Δλ will be the same; just make
λ
sure you use the same unit for Δλ and λ.
Δλ v
λ
≈ c
6.7 v
656.4
≈ 3.0×108
v
0.0102 ≈ 3.0×108

v ≈ 0.0102 × 3.0 × 108

v ≈ 3.06 × 106 m s−1
v ≈ 3.1 × 106 m s−1

Questions
12 The fractional change in the wavelength of the observed light from a galaxy is 0.15; its redshift is 15 %.
 Calculate its recession speed. State any assumptions made.
13 The Tadpole galaxy has a recession speed of 9400 km s-1.
Calculate the fractional change in the wavelength of the observed spectrum.

Evidence for the Big Bang

All galaxies in the Universe are moving away (receding) from each other, and not from the Earth. An observer in
another galaxy will reach the same conclusion. The galaxies have motion because space itself is stretching.
This is quite difficult to visualise. The best we can do is to imagine the galaxies as dots on the surface of an
ever-expanding balloon (see Figure 31.9).

Figure 31.9: The galaxies are modelled as dots on the surface of a balloon. Expansion of the balloon makes
all the dots move away from each other.

The expanding balloon model can also be used to explain the redshift of light from galaxies. As the Universe
expanded, the wavelength of photons was stretched out.
Hubble’s law provided the first evidence for the birth, and the subsequent expansion, of the Universe. Distant
galaxies appear to be moving faster. However, we must remember that the light has a finite speed, so as we
stare deeper into space, we are looking further into the past. The further back in time we go, the faster the
galaxies are receding from each other. Rolling back time in this way – like playing a movie in reverse – can only
lead to the conclusion that the Universe must have had a beginning … the Big Bang.
How long ago was the Big Bang? We can estimate this from the Hubble constant H0. In Question 11, the speed
of the receding galaxy at a distance of 9.5 × 1025 m was 2.1 × 107 m s−1. If we assume that this speed has
remained unchanged, we can estimate the time when our galaxy and this receding galaxy were at the same
place (the time of the Big Bang):

di t
 distance
speed = time
9.5×1025
2.1 × 107 = time
9.5×1025
time = 2.1×107

= 4.52 × 1018 s
So, the age of the Universe is roughly 4.5 × 1018 s, or 14 billion years.
Support for the Big Bang theory comes from many other experimental evidences. One of these is worth
mentioning here – the temperature of the Universe itself. The expansion of the Universe led to cooling; theories
predicted the current temperature of the Universe should be about 2.7 K. Data collected and analysed from
telescopes onboard satellites have shown that the peak intensity of the electromagnetic radiation coming from
all directions of space occurs at a wavelength of about 1 mm (microwaves). The intensity against wavelength
graph is similar to the ones shown in Figure 31.6. According to Wien’s displacement law, this corresponds to a
temperature of about 3 K.
Physics does make you think. Everything around us, including us, was created during the Big Bang; we could,
therefore, suggest that we all have the same age!

Question
14 Use the information given in the table in Question 9 about the Sun to show that the current temperature of
the Universe matches with microwaves of wavelength 1 mm at peak intensity.

REFLECTION
Without looking at your textbook, list all the laws from this chapter.
Draw a flow diagram to show how the radius of a star can be determined.
Use the internet to find the most distant object in the Universe and its recession speed.
What was the most important thing you learned personally when working through this chapter?