UNIT 1

Box Jacking
What Does Box Jacking Mean?

Box jacking is a tunneling method that involves the jacking of rectangular reinforced cement
concrete (RCC) sections into the ground. The practice is used in highway construction as well
as in trenchless operations such as constructing culverts under road and rail embankments.

Precast reinforced concrete box sections are jacked horizontally through the ground using
high capacity hydraulic jacks. Only that portion of the earth that the jacked box will occupy
is excavated. This method does not require any intermediate ground support, and since it is
built away from the roadway, shoring or traffic control is also not necessary.

Box jacking is also called tunnel jacking or jack box tunneling.

The box jacking method was adopted in the 1960s based on the success achieved
with pipe jacking techniques. As a trenchless construction method, box jacking
offers the advantage of minimal disruption while the tunneling is underway. It has
been used for railway or subway tunnels, as well as the installation of culverts and
other smaller projects.
One of the best examples of box jacking is the huge Central Artery/Tunnel Project
in Boston, Massachusetts. Precast concrete sections with walls two-meters thick
were used in the construction that started in 1999. Jackhammers and other
equipment were used to excavate, and powerful jacks moved the sections along
until the three tunnels were complete.

Benefits of Box Jacking

The box jacking method can adapt to shallow overburden and higher structural
section utilization compared to circular pipe jacking. Since the method is trenchless,
it has a minimum impact on surface traffic and on surrounding structures and does
not require intermediate ground supports. The process is simple, safe, economical,
and well-established. The method can be used in many applications, including:

• To install storm drains.

• Pedestrian trails.
• Under crossings for livestock and wildlife, in many industrial settings.
• For roadways.

The Box Jacking Method

The precast concrete boxes are either constructed at the site or transported to the
site before the operation can begin. First, a shaft is sunk up to the level of jacking,
and supports are provided to facilitate the jacking process. The box is lined up and
placed exactly in line with its final position, and the soil at the face is excavated
using an excavator or a tunneling shield provided at the face. The spoil is removed
for safe disposal.

As excavation proceeds, the hydraulic rams push the concrete box into the ground.
During jacking, a lubricant is pumped around the box to facilitate easy passage. The
process is continued till all the concrete box sections are inserted into the ground
safely. Once the installation is completed, grout is injected to displace the lubricant.

BOX JACKING EXPLANATION

• •It is the process in which a pre-cast R.C.C box or a rigid box is pushed into the soil
with the help of hydraulic jacks
• •It is non-intrusive method beneath the existing surface.
• •It is more often used when a subway or a aqueduct or a underground structure is to
be constructed.
• •It enables the traffic flow without disruption.

Procedure

• It involves the advancement of a site-cast rectangular or other shaped box using

high
• capacity hydraulic jacks.
 • An open ended reinforced concrete box is cast on a jacking base.
• A purpose designed tunneling shield is provided at its leading end and thrust jacks
• are provided at its rear end reacting against a jacking slab
• The box is then jacked carefully through the ground
• Excavation and jacking take place in small increments of advance.
• Measure are taken to ensure stability of the tunnel face and to prevent the ground
• from being dragged forward by the advancing box
• When the box has reached its final position the shield and jacking equipment are
• removed.

R.C.C BOX JACKING

o Is adopted where it is not possible to constructed in situ R.C.C boxes

o These boxes are used for canal siphon, road under bridge and culvert for conveying
o water/service pipes
o The R.C.C box is cast over the thrust bed which is provided with –pockets both in
o longitudinal and traverse jacks
o The box is provided with a shield in front in front called “Front shield”
o Which pierces through the soil by cutting

• •First the box section is designed and cast at the site or can be transported to the site
according to the requirement.
• •The foundation boxes are jacked into the ground designed to carry the dead and the
live loads.
• •Then the high capacity jacks are placed at the back and it pushes the box into the
ground.
• •A purpose designed tunneling shield is provided in the front end.
• •Then the box is jacked carefully through the earth.
• •Excavation and jacking are done in small increments in advance.
• •Measures should be taken to prevent the soil being dragged towards the box.

Throustboring method

• Is a process of simultaneously jacking pipe through the earth while

removing the
• soil inside the encasement by means of a rotating auger.
• In unstable soil conditions, the end of the auger is kept retracted back
inside the
• encasement so as not to cause voids.
• In stable conditions, the auger can be successfully extended beyond the
end of the encasement.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN JACKING

o ™ •Settlement of the above ground.

o ™ •Seepage of ground water.
 o ™ •Caving in of soil etc.

FREEZING OF GROUND

o ™ •This method is used when we encounter the problem of ground water

seepage and settlement of ground.
o ™ •In this method a brine solution is continuously passed through the pipes
fixed in the soil.
o ™ •The temperature of the brine would be -30°c.
• So when this brine solution is circulated through these pipes it freezes the
ground and the ground behaves like an ice block.
• ™ •The spacing of the freezing pipes will vary according to the type of soil, its
permeability and other factors.
• ™ •Generally it is kept at a spacing of 1.2 m

PROBLEMS IN FREEZING

o ™ •The main problem in the freezing method is the UPHEAVING of the

above ground.
o ™ •To avoid the upheavement problem we should be careful in the ground
freezing process and the temperature of the brine solution.

ADVANTAGES

• ™ •Timely completion of project.

• ™ •No disruption of traffic.
• ™ •No need to divert the traffic.

DISADVANTAGES

• ™ •Cost of project increases.

• ™ •Skilled personnel required.
• ™ •Safety precautions to be done properly.

PIPE JACKING
ABOUT THE TECHNIQUE

• ™ •It is generally referred as “Micro tunneling”

• ™ •Pipes are pushed through the ground behind the shield using powerful jacks.
• ™ •Simultaneously excavation takes place within the shield.
• ™ •This process is continued until the pipeline is completed.
• ™ •The method provides a flexible, structural, watertight, finished pipeline as the
tunnel is excavated.
 • ™ •No theoretical limit to the length of individual pipelines.
• ™ •Pipes range from 150mm to 3000mm diameter can be installed in straight line or
in curvature.
• ™ •Thrust wall is provided for the reaction of the jacks.
• ™ •In case of poor soil, the thrust wall may punch inside the soil.
• ™ •Then piles or ground anchoring methods can be used.

PROCEDURE

• ™ •The thrust pit and the reception pit are excavated at the required places.
• ™ •Then the thrust wall is set up in the thrust pit according to the requirement.
• ™ •In case of mechanized excavations, a very large pit is required.
• ™ •But in case of manual excavation, a small pit is enough.
• ™ •Thrust ring is provided to ensure the even distribution of stress along the
circumference of the pipe.
• ™ •The number of jacks vary upon the frictional resistance of the soil, strength of
pipes etc.,
• ™ •The size of the reception pit is to be big enough to receive the jacking shield.
• ™ •To maintain the accuracy of alignment a steer able shield is used during the pipe
jacking.
• ™ •In case of small and short distance excavations, ordinary survey method is
sufficient.
• ™ •But in case of long excavations, remote sensing and other techniques can be used.

GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS

THRUST SETUP
Pipe jacking and utility tunneling methods are types of trenchless construction methods,
which involves the requirement of workers to enter the bore hole. Following are the types
of trenchless construction methods as shown in figure-1.

Fig.1: Trenchless Construction Methods

We will discuss pipe jacking and utility tunneling methods in this article.
Contents: [show]
Pipe Jacking Method in Trenchless Construction
Pipe jacking method involves the installation of a pipe (prefabricated) through the ground.
The driving takes place from a drive shaft to the reception shaft. The drive shaft consists of
jacks, that moves the pipe. During the execution of the process, the hydraulic jack makes use
of thrust power to move the pipe forward into the ground. The rams of the jacks are
retracted after installation of each pipe. This facilitates the preparation of next pipe in a
position to repeat the same
procedure.

Fig.2: A Real Site Pipe Jacking Work

The soil is transported out of the jacket pipe as well as the driven shaft, as the excavation
proceeds. This is done either manually or mechanically. As mentioned above, the pipe
jacking is a worker's entry method, which involves workers to be there at both excavation
and the soil removal processes inside the pipe. So, for personnel safety and health of
workers, a minimum pipe diameter of 42 inches minimum is required at all conditions.
Slurry systems, vacuum extraction systems, wheeled carts or skips, auger systems are some
of the modes by which the soil is conveyed. The process of soil excavation is mainly
conducted based on the soil conditions. A collapse of soil during excavation is not
recommended. So, if a pre-check of the soil conditions show any possibility of collapse, it is
recommended to undergo soil stabilization first and then proceed with excavation.
Mechanical excavation within a shield or using tunnel boring machine are some of the
methods used for excavation of soil. Even hand mining can also be employed based on the
size of the project. The working space should be adequate so that it facilitates proper
storage, the handling and to occupy the shaft. The shaft size mainly varies with the type of
excavation equipment that is used and the type of jacking. In a safer side, a working space of
10 to 25 feet longer than the length of pipe has to be prepared. In terms width, 4 to 10 feet
wider than the pipe diameter would be
best.
As too many workers are employed, a care on unanticipated problems has to kept in mind
throughout the fulfillment of the project. The first main concern is the subsurface soil
behavior. If the water level is not above the pipe invert, the sandy clay is the best soil for
such projects. The decision on best excavation method for the site under consideration will
help in avoiding many problems at the site. This decision is taken based on certain factors
like groundwater level, unanticipated obstructions like boulders, change in soil conditions if
any. Other factors that are to be considered are the design features of the shaft. It must be a
good design to withstand the large thrust. It is always told to avoid over excavation, which
can cause voids. These voids if arises have to be fixed with the help of grouting techniques.

The tunnel construction takes place between two accessible shafts. The procedure can be
explained in the following steps:
1. Soil Excavation
There are mainly three methods of excavation carried out, which is chosen based on the soil
conditions. The first method is hand mining, which is the simplest method of all the
methods available for excavation. This method makes use of picks, shovels or any
pneumatic hand tools. This method proceeds with the help of a protective shield, that
provides face stability during excavation. The method is simple and is helpful when the site
consists of varying soil conditions. But this method is time-consuming. Another method
is open face mechanical excavation, that is quite faster than the hand mining, as it uses
mechanical devices. Here also, shields are provided, with power excavation devices. The
shields provide access to the front face if any adjustments have to made, which cannot be
done manually under unexpected situations. The third method is Tunnel Boring Machine
(TBM), which employs rotary cutter or disk cutters that are driven either hydraulically or
electrically. The most improved version of TBM makes use of pressure chamber. This
method has high cost and has limited access. This method is restricted in circular tunnels.
2. Removal of Spoil
Based on space, the method of excavation conducted and the total tunnel length, the best
spoil removal system is chosen. The most common method used are mentioned below:

• Slurry systems
• Auger systems
• Vacuum extraction systems
• Belt or chain conveyors
• Wheeled cart or skips
• Positive displacements pumps
3. Installation of Segmental Liner
After the above excavation, removal of the spoil, the liner sections are brought through the
already set lining. The new liner is connected to the existing ones. The liner plates are steel
or reinforced concrete made which are prefabricated ones. The steel plates are of higher
demand compare to concrete plates, due to a higher strength to weight ratio.
4. Control of line and grade
The control is mainly done with the help of theodolite and the laser systems. The current
position of the tunnel systems can be estimated with the help of theodolite. The laser
system shows any kind of variation in already set alignment. This makes use of led lights.
But one of the drawbacks is that it shows variation with temperature changes. The
gyroscope is a higher sophisticated control device used mainly in curved tunneling. During
the excavation, the change in direction is carried out by applying different forces to the
jacking cylinders. The utility tunneling procedure is labor intensive in nature. But it can be
adopted in a site with varying soil conditions. Read More: Trenchless Technology in
Construction Trenchless Construction Methods and Their Details and Uses
Diaphragm Wall

Diaphragm wall is method of creating cast in-situ reinforced concrete

retaining wall using slurry supported trench method, Hence they are also
known as slurry walls.

These walls provide rigid, cost effective solution for permanent retaining wall
and shafts with less construction joints.

Construction Procedure of Diaphragm

Wall
1. Site Logistic and Slurry Plant Setup :

Diaphragm wall installation requires sufficient work area to setup slurry plant
and to assemble reinforcing cages prior to placement in wall. This work may
be difficult in congested sites . To reduce area requirement of site cage,
prefabrication is possible.

Slurry plant includes slurry mixer, storage tanks and descending units.
Sufficient storage tanks must be used for bentonite slurry hydration.

2. Pretrenching :

It is performed to remove shallow obstructions and provide stable support for

guide walls. This is performed as open excavation backfilled with flowfill/
excavated under self hardening slurry.

3. Guide Wall Construction :

Guide walls provide template for wall excavation panel layout, support top of
trench, restrain end slopes, serves as platform to hang reinforcement provide
reference elevation for inserts, support tremie pipes, hold down cage during
concreting and provide reaction for jacking out some types of end slopes.
Guide walls are reinforced concrete whose top should be atleast 4 feet above
ground water table to allow construction in dry condition.

4. Panel Excavation (Vertical Segment) :

Special clamshell also known as grabs/buckets are rectangular shaped and

used to excavate vertical slots are known as panels. Digging mechanism may
be cable or hydraulic operated.

The excavation are performed in panels which are in vertical segments. Trench
stability is mostly provided by fluid weight of bentonite and arching action
of soil around trench. Bentonite slurry is placed in trench added to maintain
atleast 3 feet above ground water table and within 2 feet of top of guide wall.
5. Endstop Placement :

Endstops are used to control concrete placement so that secondly adjacent

panels are not excavating monolithic concrete. Endstop may be permanent or
removed after concrete placement. Permanent Endstops are typically wide
flange shaped. Removal Endstops can be pipe/Special keyway Endstops.

6. Panel Descending :

Panel may be descended to remove excess sand in slurry and bottom panel.
Removal of sand from slurry decreases density of slurry so that tremie
concrete doesn’t mix with slurry or trap pockets of sand.

7. Reinforcing Cage Placement :

Reinforcing cage is inserted into panel excavation concrete is placed around

reinforcing cage using tremie methods to form concrete panel.

8. Tremie Concrete :

Tremie pipes are placed in panel at bottom concrete with 8-10 inch slump is
then tremied into panel. Concrete mix provide 4000-6000 psi strength with
high slump and contain fairly high cement content often other pozzolona,
plasticizers and chemicals.
Various methods adopted to construct a diaphragm wall

Slurry trench technique

1. Soil mixing method

2. RC continuous diaphragm wall
3. Precast diaphragm wall
4. Glass diaphragm walls

Slurry trench technique

• The technique involves excavating a narrow trench that is kept full of an
engineered
• fluid or slurry
• The slurry exerts hydraulic pressure against the trench walls and acts as shoring to
• prevent collapse
• Slurry trench excavations can be performed in all types of soil even below ground
• water table

Soil mixing method

• This is the method used to make continuous walls by churning up piled soil using
an auger, pouring in cement milk and marking soil mortar columns in the ground
using the soil as aggregate
• This is an in situ mixing and churning method
• In the method after completing excavation of the groove wall using an excavator,
soil cement is produced by mixing and churning excavated soil
• The excavated soil is classified and graded with cement milk after being put
through a tremie
• Then the soil cement is poured into the groove wall, after which the steel material
is built as the core material
RC continuous diaphragm wall
• This method of building a very long continuous diaphragm wall
• Excavate a given groove between the surface and under ground using a stabilizing
• liquid
• Insert a given steel bar pour in concrete, thereby building a reinforced concrete
wall
• Underground
Precast diaphragm wall

• With this method, a continuous trench or longer panels are excavated under
selfhardening cement- bentonite (CB) slurry.
• The precast concrete wall sections are lifted and positioned by a crane
• The CB slurry sets to form the final composite wall
• The trench is excavated under bentonite slurry, which is then displaced with CB
• slurry.
Glass diaphragm walls
• For contained enclosure, a diaphragm wall system consisting of special glass panels
• with a sealing made out of glass are used.
• The panels are 50cm wide and upto 15cm long

Common uses of diaphragm wall walls

• To provide structural support for the construction
• To provide retaining wall
• To provide deep diaphragms

Application of Diaphragm Wall

• As permanent and temporary foundation wall foundation walls
for deep foundation for
• deep basements
• In earth retention schemes for highway and tunnel projects
• As permanent walls for deep shafts for tunnel access
• As permanent cut - off walls through the core of earth dams
• In congested areas for retention systems and permanent
foundation walls
• Deep groundwater barriers through and under dams
• In areas with dense and historic urban infrastructure.
• Where very rigid earth retention system is required.
• They are used where noise and vibrations must be limited.
• Where dewatering is not possible.
• Where geology and ground water precludes use of conventional
earth retention system.
Compared to other wall types, Diaphragm walls are stiff with respect to
ground movement control. Diaphragm wall are often attractive in granular
soils with high ground water table, When low permeability layer underlies
granular soil. Diaphragm walls are terminated in underlying low permeability
layer which consist of soil/rock keying into low permeability layer reduce
ground water seepage below wall.

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES AND DETAILS

A tunnel construction is an underground passage provided beneath earth surface or water.

Different methods of tunnel construction and their details are discussed. In most of the
cases tunnel construction is expensive but it saves time and provides comfort. Large
excavation of soil or rock etc. is necessary for a tunnel construction. With the availability of
modern equipment, excavation and backfilling has become easier. Tunnels can be used for
roadways, railways and even as waterways also. In many cities, underground metro rail
networks work inside a
tunnel.

Contents: [show]
Methods of Tunnel Construction
There are various types of construction techniques developed for construction of tunnels
which are discussed below:

• Cut and cover method

• Bored tunnel method
• Clay kicking method
• Shaft method
• Pipe jacking method
 • Box jacking method
• Underwater tunnels
Cut and Cover Method of Tunnel Construction
Cut and cover method of tunnel construction is generally used to build shallow tunnels. In
this method, a trench is cut in the soil and it is covered by some support which can be
capable of bearing load on it. The cutting can be done by two methods. One is bottom up
method in which a tunnel is excavated under the surface using ground support. Another
method is top-down method in which side support walls are constructed first by slurry
walling method or contiguous bored piling. Then roof is located on the top of
the walls and excavation is carried out. Finally, base slab is constructed. Most of the
Underground metro rail stations are constructed using cut and cover
method.

Bored Tunnel Method

Bored tunnel method is modern technology. In this case, tunnel boring machines are used
which automatically work and makes the entire tunneling process easier. It is also quicker
process and good method to build tunnel in high traffic areas. Tunnels boring machines
(TBM’s) are available in different types suitable for different ground conditions. These
machines can be used in difficult conditions such as below the water table etc. A special
pressurized compartment is provided for TBM to work in below water table conditions. The
workers should not enter that compartment except for repair works. Care should be taken
while TBM is in working conditions. The only difficulty with this TBM is its heavy weight.
So, transportation is difficult and
costlier.

Clay Kicking Method of Tunnel Construction

This method is used for strong clayey soil conditions. This is an old method and used for
small works like sewage pipes installations etc. In this method, a hole is excavated into the
ground and after some depth tunnel is excavated which is done by the clay kicker which lies
0n a plank at 45o angle. An excavating tool is provided under clay kicker foot. The excavated
using that tool is collected by other workers. This is well famous because it is the method
used by Englishmen to put mines under the German empire during First World
War.

Shaft Method of Tunnel Construction

In this method tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground surface. The shaft is
built up to the depth where tunnel is required. Shaft is a permanent structure which is like
well with concrete walls. At required depth, tunnels are excavated using TBM’s. Shafts are
provided at both inlet and outlet of tunnels. Intermediate shafts are also provided if tunnel
is too long. After the construction process, these shafts can also be used
for ventilation purpose as well as emergency
exits.

Pipe Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction

Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under existing structures like road ways,
railways etc. In this method, specially made pipes are driven into underground using
hydraulic jacks. Maximum size of 3.2-meter diameter is allowed for
tunnels.

Box Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction

Box jacking method is similar to pipe jacking, but in this case instead of pipes, specially
made boxes are driven into the soil. A cutting head is provided at the front side of the box.
Excavated matter is collected within the box. Larger size tunnels can be excavated using box
jacks up to 20
meters.

Underwater Tunnel Construction

An underwater tunnel is a structure which is built under water to make a way through it. If
construction of bridge is not possible then under water tunnel is good
choice.
Under water tunneling is costly process but have advantages over bridge or ferry links.
Immersed tubes or bored tunnel are two most common methods which are used to
construct under water tunnels

Various types of tunneling technique
Tunneling techniques are
1. Drill jumbo
2. Loading and firing
3. Drilling
Drill Jumbo
Drill jumbos used in tunnels are also known as tunnel jumbos. A drill jumbo is a
portablecarriage having one more carriage having one or more working platforms equipped
with columns, bars or booms to support and guide the drills, enabling the drills to perform
drilling operation at any desired pattern. These platforms have arrangement for the
supporting the compressed air pipes, water pipes. The booms are operated by hydraulic
fluid or air and supports the drifters, and are equipped with control enabling the operator to
spot a drill in any desired position conforming to the drilling pattern. The platforms are
constructed as per the size of tunnel and can be raised or lowered so as to allow mockers or
hauling equipment to pass under the jumbo several drill can be operated from each
platform for speedy excavation The jumbos either on rails on pneumatic tyres depending
upon the type of work. The jumbo can be equipped with electricity feeding cables,
pneumatic concrete placers etc. Mobile jumbos of modern design with four wheel drive and
centrally articulated steering speeds production and reduces tunneling costs
 Loading and firing
Drilling pattern when followed produces most economical and efficient breakage of
rock for a given tunnel, and is determined by conducting tests using different patterns.
Explosive selected for working in tunnels should have low fumes characteristics. Ammonium
nitrate explosives are therefore preferred over dynamics due to less toxic fumes

Drilling
For driving a tunnel number of holes are drilled as per drilling pattern in size and
depth as decided depending upon the size of the tunnel and its formation Drifters are
generally used for drilling in the tunnels where in water is used to remove the cuttings from
the holes instead of compressed air to reduce the amount of dust in the air. Holes are
drilled slightly deeper than the advance per round to taken care of loss in depth during
blasting. Depth advanced due to drilling and blasting operation is called as one round.

Sheet piles
 Contents
[hide]

§ 1 Introduction
§ 2 Timber sheet piles
§ 3 Reinforced concrete sheet piles
§ 4 Steel sheet piles
§ 4.1 Normal sections
§ 4.2 Straight web sections
§ 4.3 Box sections
§ 4.4 Composite sections
§ 5 Installation
§ 6 Related articles on Designing Buildings

Introduction

Sheet piles are sections of sheet materials with interlocking edges that are driven into the ground to
provide earth retention and excavation support. Sheet piles are most commonly made of steel, but
can also be formed of timber or reinforced concrete.

Sheet piles are commonly used for retaining walls, land reclamation, underground structures such
as car parks and basements, in marine locations for riverbank protection, seawalls, cofferdams, and
so on.

The selection of sheet piling is dependent on factors, such as:

§ The type of work, for example. whether it is permanent or temporary.

§ Site conditions.
§ The required depth of piles.
§ The bending moments involved.
§ The nature of the structure.
§ The type of protection required.

Timber sheet piles

Timber sheet piles are generally used for short spans in temporary structures, and to
resist light lateral loads. They are typically connected together by tongue and groove joints. The
disadvantage of timber piles is that they require preservative treatment and are not generally suitable
for soils consisting of stones.

Reinforced concrete sheet piles

Reinforced concrete sheet piles are formed using precast concrete members, usually connected
together by tongue and groove joints. They are commonly used in
permanent river embankments, canals and other marine structures. The toes of the piles are usually
cut with an oblique face to facilitate easy driving and interlocking, while the heads are finished off by
casting a capping beam.

Steel sheet piles

Steel is the most common form of sheet piles as it has good resistance to high driving stresses,
excellent water-tightness, and can be increased in length either by welding or bolting. They are
connected by interlocking.

There are four basic forms of steel sheet piles:

Normal sections

These include Larssen and Frodingham sheet piles, which are systems of interlocking steel piles.
They have good driving qualities and are designed to provide good strength for low weight.

The interlocking system facilitates easy positioning of the piles (pitching) and driving, as well as
providing a close-fitting joint to form an effective water seal. In some cases, a sealant can be brushed
into the joints prior to pitching which expands in thickness to form a watertight joint.

Larssen sheet piles are stronger and easier to drive because of their uniform section shape.
Frodingham sheet piles are usually supplied interlocked in pairs, which makes them easier and
quicker to handle and pitch.

Straight web sections

These are piles that are interlocked and driven to form cellular cofferdams which may be filled
with material such as gravel and small rocks.

Box sections

These are formed by two or more sheet pile sections welded together and are suitable when
heavy loads and high bending moments are anticipated.

Composite sections

These are commonly used in waterfront protection where large bending moments and heavy
axial loads are anticipated. A typical composite pile is a double Frodingham section welded to
the flange of a universal I-beam.

Installation
Prior to installation, piles should be carefully inspected for straightness, cracks, and the integrity of the
interlocking components.

Driving must be carefully monitored and should stop immediately if the pile ceases to penetrate
the soil, before moving on to the next pile along. In some cases, several adjacent piles will be unable
to penetrate to the design depth. At this point, effort should be made to remove the obstacle, either by
partial excavation or using a water jet. There is an acceptable number of ‘under-driven’ sheet piles,
but this will vary according to the specific design requirements.

Sheet piles have a tendency to deviate from a vertical plane during driving and instead lean sideways.
This is due to encountering obstacles within the soil which act as deflection. Guide controls should be
used to counter this.

One technique is to drive piles in panels. This involves pitching and driving two piles to part or full-
penetration at either end of a panel of piles. The panel is therefore supported by the
‘bookended’ piles during driving to their final position. The pair left on the end then forms the support
of the next panel along.

Another technique is to use trestles and walings to support and position sheet piles during driving.

Vibratory hammers are often used to install sheet piles, although if soils are too hard or dense,
an impact hammer can be used. At certain sites where vibrations are a concern, the sheets can be
hydraulically pushed into the ground.

Advantages of Sheet Piles

a. Reusable

b. Recyclable

c. Can be used in both temporary and permanent constructions.

d. Available in a wide range of shapes and sizes.

e. Requirement of less maintenance.

f. Can be installed in very less time.

Methods of Dewatering||
Procedure || Necessity
we explain various methods of dewatering foundation excavation like sump
pumping, Deep well construction method, freezing method of dewatering,
chemical consolidation methods of dewatering, cement grouting method of
dewatering, well point method of dewatering, electro-osmosis. also share
necessity of dewatering, defination of dewatering, in which situation
dewatering methods are use and so more explain in detail.

Table of Contents
• Dewatering :
• Necessity of dewatering:
o In which situation dewatering is required?
• Methods of Dewatering:
o 1. Sump Pumping:
o 2. Deep well construction:
o 3. Freezing methods of dewatering:
o 4. Chemical consolidation of soils:
§ Advantages of Chemical Grouting:
o 5. Cement grouting:
o 6. Well Point System of Dewatering:
§ Procedure of Well Point System:
§ Types of well-point system:
§ 1. Single stage system:
§ 2. Multiple stage system:
§ Precautions to be taken in well point system:
o 7. Electro – Osmosis:
• Methods of Dewatering Quick Details Stories
• Frequently Asked Questions
o What are the different methods of Dewatering?
o What is Dewatering in civil engineering?
o When Deep Well system of Dewatering is preferred?

Dewatering :
If water is leaking into the trench during foundation excavation, it is very
important to dispose of it. If water is not removed from the trench, it is difficult
to make concreting or masonry in the foundation. And the concrete or
masonry becomes weak. The action of removing water from the underground
construction (mostly for foundation), is called dewatering.
Necessity of dewatering:
• Ease of concreting or masonry in foundation.
• To protect concrete or masonry from the effects of water.
• To prevent soil erosion around the base (pit).
In which situation dewatering is required?
Dewatering is required for the safety of the structure around the pit in the
following conditions:
• Deep excavation
• Construction in water logged area
• Docks
• Pile Foundation
Also Read: What is Slurry Wall Construction?
Methods of Dewatering:
The various methods of dewatering are as follows:

1. Sump Pumping
2. Deep well construction method
3. Freezing
4. Chemical consolidation of soils
5. Cement Grouting
6. Well point system.
7. Electro-osmosis
1. Sump Pumping:

In this methods of dewatering water is disposed by adjusting the pump of the

trench. Centrifugal pumps are generally more useful.
This method is used for shallow bases in waterlogged areas. In this way
ditches are dug on both sides of the trench. The ditches size is usually 20 cm
in diameter of a semicircle.
Sumps are made at a distance of 40 m to 60 m in the ditches. The size of the
Sumps (latch) is kept as 1m x 1m x1m. The water flows into the ditches and
collects in the Sumps. Water is pumped out from the Sumps continuously.
Also Read: Different Causes of Foundation Failure
2. Deep well construction:
This methods of dewatering is more suitable when digging operation (digging
trench) is lower than water table or artesian water present in soil. This method
is useful when the groundwater level needs to be lowered further.
3. Freezing methods of dewatering:
• In this method, 15 to 60 cm diameter casing pipe is lowered into
the ground.
• A suitable mesh or filter layer is placed at the bottom of the
casing.
• At the bottom of the casing is a submersible pump inserted.
• The pumping capacity should be 30 cm or more.
• When the depth of excavation is greater and the area of
excavation is greater, deep wells are constructed at appropriate
distances from the edge of excavation every 10 m to 30 m
depending on how low the groundwater level has to be lowered.
• A separate pump is kept for each well.
• A well point necklace is also arranged along the slope of the
deep excavation.
Also Read: How to construct Foundation in Black Cotton Soil

In this methods of dewatering, a wall of frozen clay is made by, freezing the
moist soil of the area where the excavation is to be carried out.
The process of freezing method of dewatering is as follows:
• Large pipes of 10 to 15 cm diameter are laid in the ground around
the area where excavation is to be done.
• The spacing between such pipes is 1 to 1.5 m.
• These pipes are closed at the lower end.
• Small pipes of 5 cm diameter are laid, which are open
or perforated at the lower end.
• The upper ends of all small pipes are connected to the
refrigeration plant by a single pipe.
 • In these small pipes, 23°C to 30°C cold water or other liquid is
circulated.
• Coldwater escapes from a small pipe and climbs up into a large
pipe and returns to the refrigeration plant.
• This cold water freezes the moist soil and forms a wall of frozen
clay.
The following precautions should be taken in the method of freezing:
• The freezing area should be as small as possible. If the area is
large, advantage of Arch action can be taken by arranging the
pipes in a circle. If the area is small, the pipes should be
arranged rectangularly or squarely.
• Frozen clay wall should extend to the impervious layer below the
ground.
• This method is effective only for water-bearing sand, gravel or
alluvial soils.
• This method is suitable only for short term works, as operating
cost is very high in this method and the stability of frozen soil is
not long lasting.
• This method is very expensive, so it should be used only when
dewatering cannot be done in any other way.
Also Read: What is Autoclave Aerated Concrete
4. Chemical consolidation of soils:
•In this methods of dewatering, the soil around the area to be
excavated is hardened with a solution of chemical compounds
like silicate of soda and calcium chloride.
• In this method also pipes are lowered into the ground. When a
pipe is lowered into the ground, a chemical is forced into it.
• The first chemical insertion is done after the pipe reaches the
appropriate depth.
• The pipe is then slowly pulled out and at the same time another
chemical is forcibly inserted into the pipe.
• The chemical reaction between these two chemicals makes the
soil hard. This method is very costly.
The following points should be kept in mind while choosing chemicals.
• Chemicals should be able to improve soil properties. This should
increase the strength of the soil and reduce the permeability.
• Chemicals should be cheap, non-toxic, non-explosive.
• Chemicals should be in low viscosity liquid form so that they can
be easily inserted into the soil.
• Chemicals should not be chemically reacted with pipes or pumps.
• The chemicals should be free from impurities in soil and water.
Advantages of Chemical Grouting:
• It hardens in cold and hot environments, so it can be used at any
temperature.
• It can be used to close narrow cracks up to 0.05 mm wide.
 • Its viscosity is equal to the viscosity of water. So chemical grout
can be ejected into the soil in which water can be ejected.
• Some chemicals have great strength like polyester resin have a
compressive strength of 1400 kg/cm2 and a tensile strength of
360 Kg/cm2.
Also Read: Different Types of Partition wall
5. Cement grouting:

• Cement grout is used in this methods of dewatering. Cement

grout is a mixture of cement, sand and, water.
• In this process several holes are made in the ground. Cement
grout is forcibly inserted into each of these holes.
• The grout is filled in the hall until the grout comes out of the hall.
• Cement grout freezes in stone cracks and clay cavities, making
the stone or clay water-tight and monolithic.
The following points should be kept in mind in case of grouting:
(a) Holes:
There are no standard rules for depth, diameter, spacing of holes. The depth,
direction, bending angle, etc. of the hole varies according to the type of stone.

(b) Cement grout:

Cement grout should be easily workable and uniform. Generally 30 to 90
liters of water is used for 1 bag of cement. The grout should not contain
cement lumps. Grouting pressure should be maintained according to the
cracks in the stone. Portland cement grout is only useful for cracks up to 1.6
mm wide.
Grouting in soft soil:
Minimal channels of resistance are prepared before starting grouting in soft
soil. For this at a short distance two bottom perforated pipes are pushed into
the soil and water is forcibly inserted in one of them and water is forcibly
inserted in the first pipe till water appears in the other pipe.

In this way, minimum barrier channel is formed between the two pipes. In this
way many other minimal barrier channels are formed in the soil.

Then the cement slurry is forcibly inserted in the pipe through which the water
has inserted.

Is inserted by force and the cement slurry is continued to be inserted until a

cement slurry appears in the second, perforated pipe.

This is how a waterproof layer is formed by forcibly inserting grout into the soil
around the channel. And that way the springs of water in the base trenches
can be stopped.

Also Read: Types of Geosyntehtics material

6. Well Point System of Dewatering:

In this methods of dewatering the ground water flow is diverted into deep
well-points in the ground and the part to be excavated is kept free from
ground water.
Well points are prepared at a distance of about 1m around the area to be
excavated.

The important parts of a well point system are as follows:

(a) Well point:
• A well point is a pipe whose length is approx. 1m and have a
diameter of 40 mm to 50 mm.
 • The well point has a valve at the bottom end which opens when
water is forced into the pipe and closes when suction occurs.
• The in-flow pipe is perforated and has a thin mesh around it.
(b) Riser:
•A riser is a vertical pipe lowered into the ground with a well point
at the bottom.
• Risers range in diameter from 40 mm to 50 mm.
(c). Swinger arm:
The pipe that connects the riser to the header is called swinger arm.

(d) Header:
A header is a pipe with which the Swinger arm of different well points are
connected. The header pipe is finally connected to the pumping unit. The
header pipe is arranged on the ground. They range in diameter from 15 cm to
25 cm.

Procedure of Well Point System:

The following Procedure is adopted in the well point:

• Well points are prepared at a distance of about 1m around the

area to be excavated.
• Water is released at the rate of 20 to 25 liters per second at
these well points, which causes the soil to be dug and the well
point to sink deeper into the ground.
• The water edge is maintained for a short time even after the well
point has reached the prescribed depth. This creates annular
space around the well point as the water rises.
• The water flow is then stopped and filtered
material like sand and gravel is filled in the annular space
around the well point which stops the filling of soil particles as
well as debris at the well point.
• Well – points are attached to the header with riser, tee-piece,
and Swinger arm.
• The header pipe is paired with a suction pump to create a
vacuum in the well-point and riser, so that water from the
surrounding land enters the header through the well-point and
descends to the ground water table.
Types of well-point system:
There are three types of well point system:

1. Single stage system

2. Multiple stage system
3. Vacuum System
1. Single stage system:
Water can be lifted from a depth of 5 m with a suction pump. Therefore this
method is used where the depth of excavation does not exceed 5 m. The
plant is not disturbed until the excavation work is completely completed.

2. Multiple stage system:

When excavation depth is more than 5 m below ground level (W.T.), well-point
system is done in phases.

In the first stage excavation is carried out to a depth of 5m by arranging the

required well-points. In the second stage additional well points are dug into the
ground and excavated to a further depth of 5m. This is a way, how well-points
are arranged and excavated to a greater depth. The sides of the excavation
are given a proper slope.

Precautions to be taken in well point system:

Pumping rate:
Pumping rate should be higher than the flow rate of water coming from the
surrounding land, Which causes early water table can be lowered.

Connections:
All well-point connections should be air tight.

Air lock:
The slope of all pipes should be kept in the direction of the pump set so that
no air lock is created.

Deep-well pumps:
Multiple well point systems should use deep well pumps when the slope of the
excavation sides is not stable. Such pumps should be used only for important
works as they are expensive.

Stand by pumps:
To keep additional stand by pump set so that the work does not get stuck
due to pump malfunction
7. Electro – Osmosis:

• When the soil is microscopic, it is difficult to draw water from it, as

the permeability of such soils is very poor. Such soils hold
water by capillary.
• The electrical properties of the water in the cavity, between the
soil particles are used to dispose of water from such soils.
• In saturated soil, two electrodes, one positive and the other
negative, are lowered.
• A direct current is passed between these two poles.
• The water in the soil is repelled by the anode and is attracted by
the cathode.
• Cathodes are keep in well-points.
• Water stored near the cathodes well. This water are removed
by pumping.
• This way the water level in the ground can be lowered.
• This method is suitable for dewatering in silts, clayey silts, fine
clayey silty sands.
• The removal of water from the soil increases the stability of the
slope and increases the shear strength of the soil.
Building Dams

A Dam is an obstruction or barrier built across a river or natural stream to

create a reservoir for impounding water. The side on which water gets
collected is called as upstream side and the other side of the barrier is known
as downstream side.

Types of Dams
1. Earth Dams :
Earth dams are made up of soil that is pounded down solidly. It is built in
areas where foundation are not strong enough to withstand the weight of
concrete dam and where the earth is easily available. some of the examples of
Earth dams are given below :

• Green Mountain Dam in U.S.A which is located on Colorado river.

• Swift dam in Washington, U.S.A.
2. Rock-fill Dam :
Rock-fill dams are constructed from loose rocks and boulders piled in river
bed. A slab of R.C.C is often laid across the upstream side to make the dam
water tight. Examples of this types of dams are given below :
 • The salt spring dam, California, U.S.A..
• San Gabriel dam in U.S.A.
3. Gravity Dam :
Gravity dams are one of the most expensive dams to be constructed. They are
more durable and solid than rock-fill and earth dam. They can be constructed
on site, where the natural foundation is strong enough to bear the self-weight
of dam.

• Bhakra dam in Himachal Pradesh, India.

• Hoover dam in Nevada, U.S.A.
4. Hollow Masonry Dam :
The construction of hollow masonry dam is similar to that of gravity dam. They
contain less concrete or masonry about 30% to 40%. Generally the weight of
water is carried by deck of R.C.C or by arch action. These types of dams are
difficult to built are are adopted only when the skilled labour is available.

5. Steel Dams :
These types of dams are not used for major works. Steel dams are often used
as temporary coffer dams needed for the construction of permanent dams.
Steel cofferdams are usually reinforced with timber or earth fill.

6. Timber Dam :
Timber dam is basically constructed with framework of timber struts and
beams. These types of dams are one kind of a temporary dam, although a well
designed timber dam may exist for more than 20 years. This types of dams
needs to be regularly maintained.

7. Arch Dam :
This types of dams are curved in plan and carries at major part of its water
load horizontally to the abutment by arch action. Arch dams are very
complicated in design and even for construction. It is preferred when the site
is extremely high and narrow valley portion is available.

8. Buttress Dam :
This types of dams are built across number of piers or buttresses. This types of
dams requires skilled labours for its construction.
Site Selection Criteria for Dam
• Suitable foundation must be available.
• For economy, the length of the dam should be as small as
possible and for given height it should store maximum amount of
water.
• A suitable site for the spillway should be available in or nearby
vicinity.
• The bed level at the dam site should preferably be higher than
that of the river basin. This will reduce the height of the dam and
will facilitate the drainage problem.
• The reservoir basin should be reasonably water-tight.
• Material required for the construction of the dam should be easily
available locally.
• The value of the land and property submerged by the proposed
dam should be as low as possible.
• The dam site should be easily accessible, such that it can be
economically connected to important towns.
• Site for establishing labour colonies and healthy environment
should be available near by vicinity.

Selection of Type of Dam

1. Topography :
• A narrow U-shaped valley flowing between high rocky walls
would suggest a concrete dam.
• A low-rolling plane country would suggest an earth fill dam.
• A narrow V-shaped valley indicates choice of an arch dam.
2. Geology and Foundation Conditions :
The foundation strata should be strong enough to carry weight of dam. Hence
the dam site must be surveyed by geologists so as to detect the thickness of
foundation strata, presence of faults, fissured material etc. The various types of
foundations generally encountered are :-

• Solid-rock foundation :
Similar like granite, gnesis etc. Almost every type of dam can be built as it is
strong enough to withstand the self weight of the dam and external forces
acting on the dam.
 • Gravel foundation :
This type of foundation is suitable for earth and rock fill dams. For this
foundation, low concrete gravity dams upto height of 15 meter may also be
suggested.

• Silt and fine sand foundation :

This type of foundation suggests the adoption of earth or very low gravity
dam, upto height of 8 meter.

•Clay foundation :
This foundation may be accepted for earthen dam after special treatment.

3. Availability of Materials :
In order to achieve economy in the dam, the materials required for its
construction must be available locally at short distance from the construction
site.

4. Spillway size and location :

The cost of constructing a separate spillway may be enormous or sometimes
suitable site for construction of spillway may not be available. In such cases
combining the spillway and dam into one structure may be desirable.

5. Earthquake zone :
If dam is located in earthquake zone, its design must include the earthquake
forces.

6. Height of Dam :
Earthen dams are usually not provided for height more than 30 meter. Hence
for greater height, gravity dams are generally preferred.

7. Other consideration :
It includes life of dam, the width of roadway to be provided over the dam,
overall cost of the construction and maintenance.

This is a typical sequence of events for constructing a dam and creating a reservoir:

1. Diverting the river

2. Preparing the foundation for the dam
 3. Building the dam
- Concrete dam
- Embankment dam
4. Filling the reservoir
5. Testing that valves and floodgates work
6. Monitoring the behaviour of the newly built dam

Diverting the river

A dam is usually constructed across a river to create a reservoir in the valley behind by storing
the water that flows into it naturally. Sometimes, they are built across dry valleys, or valleys
with small streams, to create a storage area for water that is transported from elsewhere.

The diversion tunnel excavated through soft rock for the stream at Baoshan 2 Reservior
in Tiwan
Streams and rivers have to be diverted to create a dry area to construct the dam. Small rivers
and streams are usually diverted through a tunnel, or a channel that is constructed around the
side of the dam. Soft soils and rocks are excavated to form the route, while harder rocks have
to be blasted with explosives.

Sometimes, dams are built across wide rivers with large volumes of flowing water. It would be
impracticable and too expensive to construct a separate channel to divert the water. Instead,
a dry construction pit is formed on one side of the river, leaving the other side open for the
water to flow through. The first portion of the dam is constructed in the dry pit. When it is
finished, another dry area is formed on the other side of the river, and the remaining part of
the dam is built. Meanwhile, the river flows through openings in the completed portion of the
dam, and the reservoir can start to fill behind it.

Preparing the foundation

The rock foundation for a gravity

dam being prepared
A dam is built on a soil or rock foundation, depending on the type of dam. The foundation must
be strong enough to carry the weight of the dam, and the water pressures acting on the dam.
The dam foundation is below the original ground level. It is covered by weaker soils or rock
that have to be removed either by excavation or by blasting with explosives.
Sometimes, areas of weaker soils or rocks are found below the planned foundation level and
these have to be removed and replaced with stronger materials

Some rock foundations have cracks and fissures in them. These have to be filled with grout to
stop water leaking out from the reservoir through the cracks once the dam is completed. This
is done by drilling holes down into the rock, and by pumping grout into them, which spreads
outwards to fill the cracks.

Building a concrete dam

A concrete batching plant on the

construction site for a gravity dam
As so much concrete is required in a concrete dam, it is mixed together in a special building
called a concrete batching plant, which is built on the construction site. For very large dams,
there may be a number of batching plants. The concrete can be placed in the dam by two
different methods.

Pouring Concrete
The traditional method is to pour a wet mixture of concrete into a mould made in the required
shape of the dam. The mould, called formwork, is usually made from sheets of timber. The
mould is not made to the full height of the dam, as the dam is built upwards in stages of about
1 to 2 metres at a time. The concrete is left to dry before the next section is formed on top.

The concrete can be transferred from the batching plant to the dam by a number of methods.
Sometimes, a system of conveyor belts is used and sometimes the concrete is taken by trucks
to the bottom of the dam where it is poured into skips which are lifted to the top of the dam
by cranes.
Compacting Concrete with Rollers

Concrete being placed and compacted

on Stillwater gravity dam in the
United States
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) dams are formed by spreading a drier of mix of concrete and
compacting it down using rollers. The dam is raised in steps of about 600 mm. The edges are
formed first, by making low concrete walls on the upstream and downstream faces of the dam.
Concrete is then transported to the area between the walls and spread in a thin layer using
bulldozers. Rollers are then driven over the concrete to compact it down.

Building an embankment dam

Masjed-e-Soleiman embankment dam

under construction in Iran
Embankment dams are constructed upwards in a series of thin layers. For each layer, the fill
material is transported to the dam by trucks and dumped there. Then bulldozers are used to
spread the material in a thin layer. The thickness of the layer depends on the material being
used. Earthfill layers are about 300 mm thick and rockfill layers can be up to 1 metre thick.
The layers are compacted down using rollers.

When the dam has a core, that is also constructed in layers to keep it at the same height as
the rest of the dam.
T

Once the dam has been raised to its full

height, a protective layer is formed on
its upstream face. This layer protects
the dam against damage by waves, and
sometimes provides waterproofing too.