Lesson 1

What is Communication?
-Communication is both an art and a science. It often Encompasses acts of speaking and listening reading and writing.
Effective communication
- may involve the transfer of morals, principles and Judgments from one person to another.
Encoding
The sender will initiate the Communication process by developing an idea into a message.
Decoding
The message then interchanges through the channel to the receiver, who finalizes the communication
process by interpreting and Assigning meaning to the message.
Noise
There are many reasons why a message flops to create a collective comprehension or meaning, one of
which is noise.

Psychological noise- It can be any personal opinions, typecasts, or standpoints that get in the way of you
accepting what the sender is saying.
Physical noise – This pertains to the physical sounds that make it difficult to hear someone’s message
such as the uncontrolled sounds of an air- conditioning unit, sounds of the moving vehicles, chirping of
the birds much like when you are to give to someone your number at the bar with that music pounding
in your ears.
Physiological noise-This refers to things like hunger, fatigue, headache, Stress or really anything that
prevents you from giving your full attention to Someone sharing his thoughts

Semantic noise- This occurs when the communicator finds a hard time to Sympathetically understand
the words, language, dialects, vernaculars or even Grammatical structure of a message.

Factual noise- This is a form of interference caused by efforts to recall small Details and in the process,
missing and omitting the main points of the Information shared during discussion.
Senders and Receivers - A person who sends a message is called the sender. A person who gets the
message is called the receiver.

Messages- are the thoughts and moods that create the Content of communication

Verbal- symbols are Language syntax and Language semantics.

Nonverbal-- symbols such as Gestures, body stance, tone Of voice, facial expressions, Paralanguage and
etc. are Messages sent without Words.

Channels - or media are the sound and light waves, human senses (e.g. aural, visual, tactile, olfactory and
gustatory) by which messages are sent.
Feedback- consists of the verbal and nonverbal responses/reactions of the receivers to the messages they
received from the senders.
 LESSON 2
COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES AND ETHICS TOWARDS EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a two-way process of openhandedly giving and receiving pieces of
information through a number of channels. Whether a person speaks offhandedly to
another person, conducting lecture to a conference or meeting, writing an article or
preparing an official report, the following basic principles are deemed necessary to
consider:

1. Know your target audience;

2. Know the purpose of your engagement in communication;
3. Know your topic very well;
4. Anticipate objections from your listeners;
5. Present your viewpoints to your listeners well;
6. Achieve credibility with your audience;
7. Follow through on what you say;
8. Communicate a little at a time;
9. Present pieces of information in various ways;
10. Develop a real and useful ways to get feedback from the receivers; and
11. Utilize varied or multiple communication techniques.

HOW TO BE AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATOR?

1. Care about your communication success. Most of your communication has a

purpose or goal. Whether the purpose is to simply share ideas, to influence other
people’s outlook in life, or just to say hello to a friend, your effectiveness as
communicator
2. Know what you are talking about. Listeners are likely to pay attention to the
speaker who has the facts to share, who is learned about the given topic, and who
unmistakably comprehends the situation.
3. Be organized. When the listeners cannot chart out what the speaker says, they
tend to lose interest and even patience hastily. By observing a coherent pattern of
organization of ideas, you allow your listeners to understand quickly and
effortlessly the pieces of information that you convey or communicate.
4. Use language well. Listeners have the desired interest listening to a speaker who
has competence in speaking much more a skillful command of language.
5. Use effective nonverbal symbols. The more commendably you utilize nonverbal
symbols, the more powerful your presentation will be. The use of body movements
such as facial expressions, bodily gestures, body stance of posture and
paralanguage will enforce your communications, mediated communication, and
digital communication and the like.
6. Listen carefully. Basically, the best speakers are those who are considered as
active listeners. By listening carefully, you can acquire more and therefore respond
accurately to your listeners.
 LESSON 3

VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAG

In linguistics, a register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in

a particular social setting. The basic example of it is when speaking in a formal setting.

The term “register” was first used by the linguist THOMAS BERTRAM REID in
1956, and brought into general currency in the 1960’s by a group of linguists who wanted
to distinguish among variations in language according to the user (defined by variables
such as social background, geography, sex and age), and variations according to use, “in
the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and choices between them at
different times” (Halliday, et. Al, 1964).
In one prominent model MARTIN JOOS (1961) describes five styles in spoken
language registers, they are as follows:

1. FROZEN OR STATIC REGISTER – Uses printed unchanging language, such as

biblical quotations, often contains “archaisms”. The typical example of which are
the “Pledge of Allegiance” of the United States of America and other “static”
vocalizations. The wording is exactly the same every time it is spoken.
2. FORMAL REGISTER – One-way participation, no interruption, technical
vocabulary or exact definitions are important, includes presentations or
introductions between strangers.
3. CONSECUTIVE REGISTER – Two-way participation; background information is
provided-prior knowledge is not assumed. “Back-channel behavior” such as “uh
huh”, “I see” etc. is common. Interruptions are allowed. Examples include
teacher/student, doctor/patient, expert/apprentice, etc.
4. CASUAL REGISTER – In-group friends and acquaintances; no background
information provided; ellipsis and slang common; interruptions common. This is
common among friends in a social setting.
5. INTIMATE REGISTER – Non-public; intonation is more important than wording or
grammar; private vocabulary. Also includes non-verbal messages. This is most
common among family members and close friends.
Language register is the level and style of your writing. It should be appropriate
for the situation you are in. The language register determines the vocabulary structure,
and some grammar in your writing.
The three most common language registers in writing are the following:
1. FORMAL LANGUAGE REGISTER.
Formal language register is more appropriate to professional writing and letters to
a manager or a stranger. Formal writing is probably the most difficult type of writing
for it is impersonal, the meaning is not written for a specific person and is written
without emotion. Some kinds of writing are always written in formal English.
Formal writing includes business letters, letters of complaint, essays, technical
reports, formal and official speeches, announcements and professional emails.

RULES OF THE FORMAL LANGUAGE REGISTER

1. Do not use contractions.
Contractions are not usually used in formal writing, even though they are very
common in spoken English.
In formal writing, you should spell out contractions. The basic examples
of which in formal writing are: you should use will not instead of won’t, shall not
instead of shan’t, has not instead of hasn’t, does not instead of doesn’t, and
was not instead of wasn’t. Contractions can used if you are quoting someone’s
exact words in your writing.
2. Spell out numbers less than one hundred, nineteen, twenty-two, seventy-
eight, six are some of the examples of the said rule.

3. Write the third person point of view.

In formal writing, we usually do not use first person or second person unless
it is a quote. Avoid using I, You, We, and Us. For instance, do not write.
4. Avoid using too much passive voice.
In formal writing it is better to use an active voice, for instance, “The lady
ate the food.” Instead of “The food was eaten by the lady.” “The college
students completed the research project in 2016, or “In 2016, the college
students completed the research project in 2016.” Instead of “The research
project was completed in 2016.”
5. Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration (hyperboles) and clichés.
Slang is common in informal writing and spoken English. Slang is particular
to a certain region or area. Some of the examples of slang words are
awesome/ok. Okay/ok, check it out, in a nut shell, lousy, for the birds,
happening spot, ticked her off, blew me away, far out, goofed off, where I am
at and others.
6. Avoid abbreviations and acronym.
When using an acronym or abbreviation, write it out the first time or write the
entire name out the first time it appears, followed by the acronym. From them
on, you can use the acronym by itself.
7. Do not start sentences with words like and, so, but, also.
The good transitional devices and phrases that can be used in formal writing
are although, as a result, in addition, however, additionally, nevertheless,
nonetheless, henceforth, in this case, except for, indeed, for example,
furthermore, in the same way, in contrast, accordingly, in conclusion and
others.
8. Always write in complete sentences.
9. Write longer and more complex sentences.

2. INFORMAL LANGUAGE REGISTER

Informal writing is written in the way one talks to his friends and family.
Informal writing is used when one is writing to someone he knows very well.
Informal writing includes personal emails, phone texts, short notes, friendly
letters, blogs, diaries, journals and others. There are no basic rules to follow
in informal writing. With informal writing.
3. NEUTRAL LANGUAGE REGISTER
The neutral language register is used with non-emotional topics and
information. Neutral writing is not necessarily formal or informal. It is not
usually positive or negative. A neutral register is used to deliver facts. Some
writings are written in neutral register.
 LESSON 4
MESSAGES
- as denotatively defined are pieces of information sent or given to someone. It is
one of the most important components of communication for it refers to ideas, feelings,
thoughts or information that people send and receive when they communicate with
their audience.

A message is basically composed of three variables, namely:

1. CONTENT – in communication context, content maybe classified as

referential and relational.
REFERENTIAL- when the ideas contained in a message or the ideas the speakers says as he thinks about something is
called referential.
RELATIONAL – when the speaker’s ideas or messages
insinuate that there is a relationship between him and his listener, the
content of his message may be considered as relational.
2. STRUCTURE - in every communication situation, achieving clarity of the message or information shared is deemed
important. It is much needed that the speaker guides or directs his listeners to the topics or arguments that he
intends to bring and to discuss with them.
3. STYLE - it is referred to the careful manner of gathering and arranging the words to express the
speaker’s message which somehow reveals what kind of person he is when speaking.
Styles can be personal or impersonal, literal or ironic, plain or elevated, philosophical or
poetic. The use of variations in sentence structures determines the speaker’s style in expressing his spoken message.
WHAT ARE THE PURPOSES OF THE MESSAGE?
1. INFORMATIVE MESSAGES. Refer to pieces of information shared with someone for the purpose of communicating
different forms of routine, repeated daily tasks, instructions, symbols and codes, steps and procedures and the like in
the workplace. The messages should be very clear, direct and easy to understand.
2. PERSUASIVE MESSAGES. A persuasive message occurs when a person tries to influence an individual or group to take
certain detailed actions. Also, persuasive message tackles and solves any doubts and objections.
3. GOODWILL MESSAGES. Goodwill messages are used in the work place to demonstrate a sense of kind
heartedness, benevolence and responsiveness. Messages of appreciation, congratulations or positive
feedback are some of the examples of goodwill messages.
IDENTIFYING THE TARGET AUDIENCE:

1. PRIMARY TARGET AUDIENCE. This type of target audience refers to

the group a communicator is objectively trying to convince. There may
be more than one primary target audience for the communication
tactic.
2. SECONDARY TARGET AUDIENCE. This includes people or groups
who are less important and relevant to the communication efforts,
but who need to be given the opportunity to receive the message.
They will also profit from hearing the messages, and they may be able
to stimulate the target audience now or in the future.

OTHER WAYS TO PRESENT A MESSAGE:

The following methods can be utilized to present a message:

1. PRINT. Brochures, fliers, ads, catalogs, reports, memos or letters are the typical examples of print that are commonly
used in presenting the ideas to the target audience. Print media have an advantage over electronic communication for
you don’t have to worry about how the message looks on devices and computers with diverse display settings.
2. FACE-TO-FACE. Face-to-face meetings allow you to get more personal and peculiar intimacy with the target audience
for you can easily assess the body language of your listeners, you can demonstrate what y u are presenting
and you can use visual aids. Feedback is readily available after the face-to-face meeting.

3. TELECONFERENCE. If you cannot accommodate a big number in the same room, teleconferencing is quite advisable
for it gives you many of the same benefits of face-to-face communications without sacrificing your time and your
listener’s time too.

4. VISUAL AIDS. Using visual aids will better engage the target audience and make your ideas clear to them. Charts and
graphs give visual importance and intellectual impact to the ideas you are presenting to your defined audience.

LESSON 5
Messages are formed through the use of verbal and nonverbal symbols. Verbal language is a system of spoken and
written words while nonverbal language is a communication without words.
Verbal language is a system of sounds and symbols which are utilized to communicate ideas and feelings.

1. LANGUAGE IS A SYSTEM. System is a group of elements or parts that move or work together. A language system
consists of three sub-systems, namely sounds, words and the manner these sounds and words are organized. All three
must be intermingled together to form a language.
2. LANGUAGE IS SYMBOLIC. A symbol is an action, event or something that expresses, represents or stands for
something else or a particular idea or quality. Words are symbols for notions, actuations, bits and pieces and feelings.
3. LANGUAGE IS CONVENTIONAL. Conventional means accepted or used by most
people or of a kind that has been around for a long time and is considered to be usual
and typical.
4. LANGUAGE IS LEARNED. Children learn and absorb the language of their culture.
The process of learning the language follows general guidelines and principles.
5. LANGUAGE CHANGES. The English language is continually varying. The connotations of words change and new
meanings are given to words. Nonetheless, variations usually happen gradually so that most speakers of the language
can adjust to the changes as they arise.

1. LANGUAGE SYNTAX. Every language has a set of rules that governs its structure. These structural rules are called as
language syntax. In addition, each language has guidelines for merging sounds into words
and words into sentences.
The established of rules that explain how words are used in a language is called grammar.

2. LANGUAGE SEMANTICS. Semantics deals with the study of the meanings of words and phrases in language or the
meanings of words and phrases in a particular context. Each word has its own specific
meaning. Meaning is communicated through both a word’s denotation and its connotation.

Denotation of a word is its dictionary or lexical meaning. Similar word may have diverse denotations. It is also the
orthodox meaning that most people in a culture approve to use when they encounter a particular
symbol.
Connotation of a word is its hidden meaning, the often prevailing feelings and associations that the word arouses. It
refers to the expressive element of the symbol’s meaning.
1. USE WORDS SENSIBLY. If you are not certain about the meaning of the word, search for the meaning of the word in
the dictionary before you use it in speaking or in writing.
2. COMPREHEND THE CONNOTATIONS OF WORDS. Knowing the lexical or dictionary meaning of the word is not
enough, it is necessary that you are familiar with what it operationally suggests-the feelings and associations. Use words
that may solicit the feedback you want from your listeners.
3. USE LANGUAGE THAT IS SUITABLE TO THE COMMUNICATION
FRAMEWORK. As speaker, it is your responsibility to know and respond to the expectations of your listeners. In formal
situations, use standard language. In specialized or occupational situations, use jargon or technical term when your
listeners understand it. In informal situations, informal / slang and dialects/vernacular may be suitable than standard
language.
4. ENRICH YOUR LANGUAGE. Use your verbal and nonverbal language skills to study the various ways used by the
effective speakers and writers when they communicate.

VERBAL LANGUAGE
Comprises of codes such as letters, words and other signs that you need to subject to language or grammar rules for
intelligible or systematized ways of understanding or conveying ideas.

Spoken Language, Oral Language, Natural Language and Oral Communication are the others terminologies that are used
to refer to verbal language.

1.PHONOLOGY. It is a branch of linguistics concerned with the orderly association of sounds in a language.
Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign language.

2. SEMANTICS. It comes from the Greek word semantikos which means significant and primarily in linguistic refers to the
study of meaning in language, programming languages, formal logics and semiotics.
It focuses on the relationship between signifiers- like words, phrases, signs and symbols- and what they represent for,
their denotation. In international scientific vocabulary, semantics is also called semasiology.

The word semantics was first used by MICHEL BREAL, A

FRENCH PHILOLOGIST. It signifies a variety of ideas- from the standard
to the highly mechanical.

UNIT 1-LESSON 6. NONVERBAL LANGUAGE IN COMMUNICATION

• It has been a common observation that you can find people from different cultures using nonverbal language in
expressing their ideas and feelings toward others. Intentionally, they convey messages through signals called
cues such as body language, appearance and gestures to name a few.
• Nonverbal language is considered as communication without the use of language and is symbolic and
representational. It is a second kind of language which is also called as Artificial Language which uses all elements
of communication except words.

NONVERBAL LANGUAGE USES THE FOLLOWING SYMBOLS:

1. FACIAL EXPRESSIONS. It refers to the expression or countenance that seems to an onlooker to be represented
by the appearance of a person’s face, resulting from specific use of that person’s facial muscles.
2.GESTURES. In lexical expression, gesture pertains to a movement you make with your hands, arms or head to
express what you are thinking of or feeling about. Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to
communicate meaning without words.
3. PARALINGUISTICS. In linguistics, paralinguistics refers to the non-verbal element of speech, and to a limited extent of
writing, used to modify meaning and convey emotion such as pitch, volume, loudness, tone of voice, inflection and
intonation.
• Imagine the commanding effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence or statement. When
delivered in a very commanding tone of voice, listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said
in a timid tone of voice might express dissatisfaction and a lack of interest.
• Paralanguage which is the other name to refer paralinguistics also includes whimpering, laughing giggling and
vocalized pauses such as um, ah and er.

4. BODY LANGUAGE AND POSTURE. Body language is a nonverbal form of communication which is executed by means
of facial expression, eye behaviour, gestures, and posture; often thought to be involuntary while posture pertains to the
way a person holds and positions his body.
5. PROXEMICS. Proxemics as may refer to space and territory in layman’s term pertains to the study of the effects of
physical distance between people in different cultures and societies.

6. EYE GAZE. Eye gaze is lexically defined as the condition or action of looking at another human or animal in the eye.
The eyes play a vital role in nonverbal communication and such things as looking, staring, and blinking are important
nonverbal behaviors. People can use eye gaze as means to determine if someone is being honest or not.

7. HAPTICS. Haptics pertains to the study of sense of touch. Communicating through touch is another important
nonverbal behaviour. Touch can be used to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy, and other emotions.
Wood (2010) posited that touch is also often used as a means to communicate both prestige and authority.

8. APPEARANCE. Appearance refers to the act of appearing or coming into sight, the act of becoming visible to the eye.
Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a means of
nonverbal communication.

9. ARTIFACTS. It refers to objects and images that are used to communicate nonverbally. The things or objects
people wear, use or associated with their cultures are the typical examples of artifacts.

LESSON 7. COMMUNICATION FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES

Whatever the purpose, we communicate to put across a message toward a particular audience, therefore, we
should be able to identify the essential principles in putting across our intended meaning with its desired
purpose.
TO INFORM. This is your purpose when you would like to communicate certain information like news, a
report, a perspective, a story, or even a series of steps and procedures to a particular audience in a particular
setting, whether through spoken or written discourse.
STRATEGIES YOU MAY USE IF YOUR PURPOSE IS TO INFORM:

1. Start with an example of a relevant event or situation.

2. Describe images of the event or situation with clear words.
3. Discuss what complicated the situation, what the problems were and how solutions were
reached.
4. Make a transition to the current event or situation.
5. Talk about the presentation by giving an overview.
6. Discuss complications, problems, and potential or actual solutions.
7. Be fact-based, using examples where possible based upon observations and experience.
8. Summarize key points.
9. End with a memorable statement related to the most important point.

TO ENTERTAIN. Whether in oral or written discourse, a communicator’s purpose may be to entertain which
means to provide someone with amusement or enjoyment. Looking into the needs, gender, age and culture of
the audience, a writer or a speaker should have a thorough understanding of the words to use and organization,
as well as the manner and timing of delivery if communicated orally.
THE FOLLOWING ARE HELPFUL TIPS IF YOUR PURPOSE IN COMMUNICATION IS TO ENTERTAIN:

1. Start with an example of a relevant event or situation, made humorous if possible.

2. Use words that elicit joyous or pleasant reaction.
3. Describe images of the event or situation in vivid words.
4. Relate to personal experiences with examples.
5. Make a transition to the current event or situation.
6. Make relevant points of comparison.
7. End with a memorable statement related to the most important point.
TO PERSUADE. This purpose of communication is to cause listeners or readers to agree with a speaker’s or
an author’s ideas by using emotions and personal ideas. One who persuades may need to do research and gather
evidence but he can successfully convince without knowing much because a persuasive writing appeals more to
a listener’s or reader’s emotion rather than mind. It goes without saying that a persuasive speaker or writer also
uses logic or reasoning, but he concentrates more on appealing to emotions rather than minds.
HERE ARE SOME OF THE FOLLOWING SUGGESTIONS, IF YOUR PURPOSE IS TO PERSUADE:

1. Know your audience.

2. Base your idea on your emotion and personal opinion.
3. Use first person and second person narration.
4. Appeal more to the heart rather than the mind.
5. Consider responding to opposing views.
TO ARGUE. This means to convince others that your idea and reason are true by defending and proving your
point through facts, statistics, figures, etc. Unlike persuasion which is emotion-based and very personal in
nature; argumentation is logic-based and very factual. To argue may be challenging because people naturally
cling to their own ideas and opinion based on their experience or education; thus it is very important that you
know the art of successful argumentation which includes considering the situation, clarifying your thinking,
constructing a claim, collecting evidence, considering key objections and developing counterarguments, crafting
your argument and confirming your claim.

1. Consider the situation. Ask yourself the topic, your purpose, your audience, and the
action you want your audience to take.
2. Clarify your thinking. Know what you try to prove, why you feel the way you do, what
kind of proof you have, and who will be affected by your argument.
3. Construct a claim (thesis statement). A claim is the position statement or the key point of
your argument. There are three types of claim namely:
-Claim of fact-state something which is true on not true
-Claim of value-state something which has or doesn’t have worth
-Claim of policy- assert something which should or shouldn’t be done.
4. Collect evidence. Evidence takes the form of facts, examples, definitions,
comparison, statistics, experience, analysis, prediction, demonstration, expert
opinions, anecdotes, reflections, observations and quotations.
5. Consider key objections and develop counter arguments. You can do this by
pointing out flaws and weaknesses in arguments on the other side or arguments
you don’t accept, listing objections, and recognizing or conceding another viewpoint
when claim has true weaknesses.
6. Craft your argument. Use logical appeals—facts, statistics, expert opinions,
anecdotes, and examples. Avoid appeals to fear or ignorance. Use levels of
evidence—minimum of two pieces of evidence to support each reason.
7. Confirm your claim. Conclude with a coherent restatement of main arguments
and use a call to action.

RHETORICAL APPEALS.
As a communicator who reads and listens, you should be able to recognize and analyse how writers and
speakers employ rhetorical appeals in their efforts to transact their messages whether their goal is to persuade or
to argue. Rhetorical appeals are devices in rhetoric (the art of effective speaking or writing) which were
conceptualized by Aristotle, a towering intellect in human philosophy, who classified a speaker’s or a writer’s
appeal to an audience.
BOTH PERSUASION AND ARGUMENTATION MAY USE ANY, A COMBINATION, OR ALL OF
THE FOLLOWING RHETORICAL APPEALS:

1. ETHOS. It refers to a person’s authority and credibility. In this appeal, writers or speakers
convince their audience of their goodwill and present themselves as credible and trustworthy.
To determine whether a writer or speaker is credible or not, you can ask yourself the
following questions as you evaluate a communicator’s ethos:
Has the writer or speaker cited his sources or in some way made it possible for the
audience to access further information on the issue?
-Does he demonstrate familiarity with different opinions and perspectives?
-Does he provide complete and accurate information about the issue?
-Does he use the evidence fairly? Does he avoid selective use of evidence or other
types of manipulation of data?
-Does he use unbiased language?
2. LOGOS. This appeal refers to logic through which speakers or writers use reasoning and rationality to
convince the audience of their perspectives. To evaluate an appeal to logos, consider how logical the argument
is and how pieces of evidence well support it.
3. PATHOS. This persuasive appeal invokes and appeals to the emotions of the audience. Contrary to logos,
pathos presents arguments without using logic or reasoning. It relies on strong emotional factors like love, bliss,
empathy, fear and anger which can move the audience to accept the point raised.