S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil.

, 1

UNIT – 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY 8. What are Limiting reagents and Excess
AND CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS reagents? (Pg.17)
 When a reaction is carried out using non-
1. What do you understand by the term mole. stoichiometric quantities of the reactants, the
product yield will be determined by the
(BBQ 27:- Pg 6) reactant that is completely consumed. It limits
 One mole is the amount of substance of a the further reaction from taking place and is
system, which contains as many elementary
called as the limiting reagent.
particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-
12 isotope.  The other reagents which are in excess are
 The elementary particles can be molecules, called the excess reagents.
atoms, ions, electrons or any other specified
particles. 9. What do you understand by the term
oxidation number? (BBQ 29:- Pg.20)
2. What is Avogadro number? (Pg.7)  It is defined as the imaginary charge left on
 The total number of entities present in one the atom when all other atoms of the
mole of any substance is equal to 6.022 x 1023. compound have been removed in their usual
This number is called Avogadro number and oxidation states that are assigned according
it does not have any unit. to set of rules.

3. State Avogaro’s hypothesis. (Pg.7) 10. What are redox reactions? Give an
 Equal volume of all gases under the same example. (Pg.19)
conditions of temperature and pressure  All oxidation reactions are accompanied by
contain equal number of molecules. reduction reactions and vice versa. Such
reactions are called redox reactions.
4. Define equivalent mass/Gram equivalent  Example:-
mass.(BBQ 28:- Pg8) +2 0 (Reduction)
 Gram equivalent mass of an element, CuO + C  Cu + CO
compound or ion is the mass that 0 +2 (Oxidation)
combines or displaces 1.008 g hydrogen or 8 g  In the above example, Copper is reduced and
oxygen or 35.5 g chlorine. Carbon is oxidised.

5. What do you mean by basicity of an acid? 11. What are oxidising agents and reducing
Give examples. (Pg.9) agents? Give an example. (Pg.22)
 Basicity of an acid is the number of moles of  Oxidising agents:- The agents which
ionisable H+ ions present in 1 mole of the acid facilitate oxidation by gaining electrons and
 Examples:- Basicity of HCl & HNO3 = 1, get reduced are called Oxidising agents (or)
Basicity of H2SO4 = 2, Basicity of H3PO4 = 3. Oxidants.
 Reducing agents:- The agents which
6. What do you mean by acidity of the base? facilitate reduction by releasing electrons and
Give examples. (Pg.9) get oxidised are called Reducing agents (or)
 Acidity of the base is the number of moles of Reductants.
-
ionisable OH ion present in 1 mole of the  Example:-
base. +2 0 (Reduction)
 Examples:- Acidity of NaOH, KOH = 1, Acidity CuO + C  Cu + CO
of Ca(OH)2 = 2, Acidity of Al(OH)3 = 3. 0 +2 (Oxidation)

7. What is Stoichiometry? (Pg.13, 14)  Oxidising agent – CuO (O.N. of Cu is

 Stoichiometry gives the numerical relationship reduced from +2 to 0 by gaining 2 electrons)
between chemical quantities in a balanced  Reducing agent – C (Oxidation number of C
chemical equation. changes from 0 to +2 by releasing 2 electrons)
 Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship
between reactants and products in
a balanced chemical equation in moles.
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 2

12. What are Combination reactions? and reduction. In such reactions, the
Give an example. (Pg.22) oxidation state of one and the same element is
 Redox reactions in which two substances both increased and decreased. These
combine to form a single compound are called reactions are called disproportionation
combination reaction. reactions.

16. What are Competitive electron transfer

13. What are Decomposition reactions?
reaction? Give an example.
Give an example. (Pg.22)  Competition for electrons occurs between
 Redox reactions in which a compound breaks various metals is called competitive electron
down into two or more components are called transfer reaction.
decomposition reactions. These reactions are  Among the three metals, namely, zinc, copper
opposite to combination reactions. and silver, the electron releasing tendency is
 In these reactions, the oxidation number of the in the following order.
different elements in the same substance is Zinc > Copper > Silver
changed.

17. Distinguish between oxidation and

14. What are Displacement reactions? Give an reduction. (BBQ 30:- Pg.20)
example. (Pg.23) (i) Classical concept
 Redox reactions in which an ion (or an atom)
 Oxidation:- Addition of oxygen (or) Removal
in a compound is replaced by an ion (or atom)
of another element are called displacement of hydrogen. 4Fe +3O2  2Fe2O3
reactions.  Reduction:- Addition of hydrogen (or)
 They are further classified into (i) metal Removal of oxygen. S + H2  H2S
displacement reactions (ii) non-metal (ii) Electronic concept
displacement reactions.  Oxidation:- The reaction involving loss of
 Metal displacement reaction electron is termed Oxidation
Fe2+  Fe3+ + e- (Loss of electron – Oxidation)
 Reduction:- The reaction involving gain of
electron is termed Reduction.
Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu (Gain of electron – Reduction)
(iii) In terms of Oxidation number
 A reaction in which oxidation number of the
 Non-metal displacement reaction element increases is called Oxidation.
 A reaction in which oxidation number of the
element decreases is called Reduction.

18. Calculate the equivalent mass of H2SO4.

 Molar mass of H2SO4 = (2x1) + (1x32) + (4x16)
15. What are Disproportionation reaction = 98 gmol-1
(or) Auto redox reactions? Give an
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝟗𝟖
example. (Pg.23) Eq.mass =
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅
=
𝟐
= 49 geq-1
 In some redox reactions, the same
compound can undergo both oxidation
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 3

UNIT – 2 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF Example:- 17Cl - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
ATOM

1. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

 „It is impossible to accurately determine the
position and the momentum of a microscopic
particle simultaneously‟.
∆x. ∆p ≥ 𝒉 𝟒𝝅
 ∆x and ∆p are uncertainities in determining
the position and momentum respectively.

2. Define an orbital. what are the n and l

values for 3px and 𝟒𝒅𝒙𝟐− 𝒚𝟐 electron?
 An orbital is a three dimensional space in
which the probability of finding the electron is 6. State Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.
maximum.  It states that electron pairing in the degenerate
orbitals does not take place until all the
available orbitals contain one electron each.
 Example:- 6C - 1s2 2s2 𝟐𝒑𝟏𝒙 𝟐𝒑𝟏𝒚 𝟐𝒑𝟎𝒛
In order to minimise the electron-electron
repulsion, the sixth electron enters the
3. State (n+l) rule. unocuupied 2py orbital as per Hund‟s rule.
 It states that , the lower the value of (n+l) for
an orbital, the lower is its energy. 7. What is exchange energy?
 It two orbitals have the same value of (n+l), the  If two or more electrons with the same spin
orbital with lower value of n will have the lower are present in degenerate orbitals, there is a
energy. possibility for exchanging their positions.
During exchange process the energy is
4. State and explain pauli's exclusion released and the released energy is called
principle. exchange energy.
 "No two electrons in an atom can have the
same set of values of all four quantum 8. Derive de-Broglie equation.
numbers."  Planck‟s quantum hypothesis
 It means that, each electron must have unique E = h𝜸 ---------- (1)
values for the four quantum numbers (n, l, m  Einstein‟s mass-energy relationship
and s). E = mc2 ---------- (2)
 For the lone electron present in hydrogen h𝜸 = mc2 [From (1) & (2)]
atom, the four quantum numbers are: 𝒄
h 𝝀 = mc2
n = 1; l = 0; m = 0 and s = + 1/2
 For the two electrons present in helium,
Electron n l m s 𝝀 = 𝒉 𝒎𝒄 = 𝒗 = 𝒉 𝒑
1st electron 1 0 0 +½
2nd electron 1 0 0 -½ 9. What are the limitations of Bohr’s atom
model?
5. Describe the Aufbau principle 1. It is applicable only to species having one
 „In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals electron such as hydrogen, Li2+ etc... and not
are filled in the order of their increasing applicable to multi electron atoms.
energies. 2. It was unable to explain Zeeman effect and
 (Aufbau means „building up‟) Stark effect.
3. It was unable to explain why the electron is
 Electrons first occupy the lowest energy
restricted to revolve around the nucleus in a
orbital available to them. Once the lower
fixed orbit in which the angular momentum of
energy orbitals are completely filled, then the
electrons enter the next higher energy the electron is equal to 𝒏𝒉 𝟐𝝅 .
orbitals.
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 4

10. What are the limitations of Rutherford’s 2. What are isoelectronic ions? Give
atom model? examples.
1. It fails to explain the stability of the atoms.  Isoelectronic ions are ions that have same
2. This model does not explain the distribution of number of electrons.
electrons around the nucleus and their
 Exampls:- Na+ & F-, K+ & Cl-, Mg2+ & O2-
energies.

3. What is effective nuclear charge? (Pg.80)

11. Give the electronic configuration of Mn2+
 The net nuclear charge experienced by
and Cr3+. valence electrons in the outermost shell is
 25Mn – 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5 called the effective nuclear charge.
Mn2+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 Zeff = Z – S
 24Cr - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 Where Z is the atomic number and 'S' is the
Cr3+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 screening constant which can be calculated
using Slater's rules.
12. Write the Actual and expected
configuration of chromium and copper. 4. Why halogens act as oxidising agents?
 Expected configuration of chromium  Halogens act as strong oxidising agents
2 2 6 2 6 4 2 because they have high tendency to accept
24Cr - 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
electron. i.e., they have high electron affinity
 Actual configuration of chromium values.
 Due to low bond dissociation enthalpy and
24Cr - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
high electronegativity.
 Expected configuration of copper
2 2 6 2 6 9
24Cr - 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
2
5. Mention any two anomalous properties of
second period elements. (Pg.89)
 Actual configuration of copper
1. Lithium and beryllium form more covalent
24Cr - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 compounds, unlike the alkali and alkali earth
metals which predominantly form ionic
 Fully filled orbitals and half filled orbitals have compounds.
been found to have extra stability due to 2. The elements of the second period have only
symmetrical distribution and exchange four orbitals (2s & 2p) in the valence shell and
energy. have a maximum co-valence of 4, whereas the
other members of the subsequent periods
13. Which ion has the stable electronic have more orbitals in their valence shell and
shows higher valences.
configuration? Ni2+ or Fe3+.
Example:- Boron forms 𝑩𝑭− 𝟒 and aluminium
 Ni2+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8
forms 𝑨𝒍𝑭𝟑−𝟔 .
 Fe3+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
6. Explain the diagonal relationship. (Pg.90)
 Fe3+ is more stable than Ni2+ due to half filled  On moving diagonally across the periodic
electronic configuration. Half filled orbitals table, the second and third period elements
have greater stability than other partially filled show certain similarities.
configurations due to symmetry and exchange  Even though the similarity is not same as we
energy. see in a group, it is quite pronounced in the
following pair of elements.
UNIT 3 - PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF  The similarity in properties existing between
ELEMENTS the diagonally placed elements is called
„diagonal relationship‟.
1. Define modern periodic law. (Pg.73)
 “The physical and chemical properties of the
elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.”
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 5

7. What is screening effect? / Shielding 14. State Dobereiner Law of Triads. (Pg.69)
effect? (Pg.80)  In triads, the atomic weight of the middle
 The inner shell electrons act as a shield element nearly equal to the arithmetic mean of
between the nucleus and the valence the atomic weight of the remaining two
electrons. This effect is called shielding effect. elements.
𝟕+𝟑𝟗
 Example:- Li, Na, K = 23
𝟐
8. Briefly give the basis for pauling's scale of
electronegativity. (Pg.87) 15. State Newlands law of octaves. (Pg.70)
 Pauling, assigned arbitrary value of  On arranging the elements in the increasing
electronegativities for hydrogen and fluorine order of atomic weights, the properties of
as 2.1 and 4.0 respectively. every eighth element are similar to the
 Based on this the electronegativity values for properties of the first element.
other elements can be calculated using the  Example:- Li Be B C N O F
following expression Na
(𝝌𝑨 - 𝝌𝑩 ) = 0.182 𝑬𝑨𝑩 − (𝑬𝑨𝑨 𝒙 𝑬𝑩𝑩 ) 𝟐
𝟏
16. Statae Mendeleev periodic law. (Pg.70)
 The physical and chemical properties of the
 Where EAB, EAA and EBB are the bond
elements are periodic functions of their atomic
dissociation energies (K Cal) of AB, A2 and B2
weights.
molecules respectively.
17. Give the general electronic configuration of
9. Define Electronegativity, (Pg.87)
 It is defined as the relative tendency of an lanthanides and actinides? (Pg.78)
element present in a covalently bonded  The general electronic configuration of
molecule, to attract the shared pair of Lanthanides is 4f 1-14 5d0-1 6s2.
electrons towards itself.  The general electronic configuration of
Actinides is 5f 0-14 6d0-2 7s2.
10. Define Electron affinity. (Pg.86)
 It is defined as the amount of energy released 18. Why Ionisation potential of N is greater
when an electron is added to the valence shell than that of O? (Pg.85)
2 2 3 -1
of an isolated neutral gaseous atom in its 7N – 1s 2s 2p (1402 KJ mol )
2 2 4 -1
ground state to form its anion. 8O - 1s 2s 2p (1314 KJ mol )
 Unit:- KJ mol-1.  Nitrogen has the half filled electronic
configuration and is more stable. It requires
11. Define Ionisation energy. (Pg.84) higher energy to remove an electron from „2p‟
 It is defined as the minimum amount of energy orbital of nitrogen. Whereas the removal of
required to remove the most loosely bound one „2p‟ electron from oxygen leads to a stable
electron from the valence shell of the isolated half filled configuration. This makes
neutral gaseous atom in its ground state. comparatively easier to remove „2p‟ electron
 Unit:- KJ mol (or) eV
-1 from oxygen.

12. Define Ionic radius. (Pg.83) 19. The electron affinity values of Be, Mg and
 It is defined as the distance from the centre of noble gases are zero and those of N
the nucleus of the ion up to which it exerts its (0.02 eV) and P (0.80 eV) are very low.
influence on the electron cloud of the ion. Why?(Pg.86)
2 2 2 2 6 2
4Be – 1s 2s 12Mg – 1s 2s 2p 3s
13. Prove that Beryllium hydroxide is 2
Noble gases – ns np 6

amphoteric in nature? (Pg.91)  Be, Mg and noble gases have fully filled
 Beryllium hydroxide reacts with both acid and electronic configurations and are stable. The
base as it is amphoteric in nature. addition of extra electron is unfavourable and
Be(OH)2 + 2HCl  BeCl2 + 2H2O requires energy. So the electron affinity is
Beryllium chloride zero.
2 2 3 2 2 6 2 3
Be(OH)2 + 2NaOH  Na2BeO2 + 2H2O 7N - 1s 2s 2p 15P - 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Sodium beryllate  In nitrogen and phosphorus the addition of
extra electron will disturb their stable
electronic configuration and they have very
low electron affinity values.
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 6

UNIT 6 - GASEOUS STATE  V1 & n1 are the volume and number of moles of
1. State Dalton’s law of partial pressures. a gas.
 V2 & n2 are a different set of values of volume
(Pg.167)
and number of moles of the same gas at same
 "The total pressure of a mixture of non- temperature and pressure.
reacting gases is the sum of partial pressures
of the gases present in the mixture"
7. State Gay-Lussac law. (Pg.164)
 The partial pressure of a component gas is the
pressure that it would exert if it were present  At constant volume the pressure of a fixed
alone in the same volume and temperature. mass of a gas is directly proportional to
temperature.
 Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ... 𝑷
P𝜶T (OR) = Constant K
𝑻
2. State Graham’s law of diffusion/effusion.
(Pg.168) 8. What is Joule-Thomson effect?
 The rate of diffusion or effusion is inversely  The phenomenon of lowering of temperature
proportional to the square root of molar when a gas is made to expand adiabatically
mass. This statement is called Graham's law from a region of high pressure into a region of
of diffusion/effusion. low pressure is known as Joule-Thomson
𝒓𝑨 𝑴𝑩 effect.
 =
𝒓𝑩 𝑴𝑨
 rA and rB are the rates of diffusion of A and B 9. What is Inversion temperature?
 MA and MB are their respective molar masses.  The temperature below which a gas obeys
Joule-Thomson effect is called inversion
3. Derive Ideal gas equation. (Pg.165) temperature (T i) Ti =
𝟐𝒂
𝟏 𝑹𝒃
 Boyle‟s law V α
𝑷
 Charles law V 𝜶 T 10. Define Critical temperature.
 Avogadro‟s law V 𝜶 n  Critical temperature (T c) of a gas is defined as
 Combining these equations, we get the temperature above which it cannot be
𝒏𝑻 𝒏𝑹𝑻 liquefied even at high pressure.
V α V =
𝑷 𝑷  Critical temperature of CO2 is 31.10 C.
 R - Proportionality constant/ Universal gas
constant. 11. Define Critical pressure.
 On rearranging we get PV = nRT.  Critical pressure (Pc) of a gas is defined as the
minimum pressure required to liquefy 1 mole
4. State Boyle's law. (Pg.160) (BBQ NO: 26) of a gas at its critical temperature.
 At a given temperature the volume occupied
by a fixed mass of a gas is inversely 12. Define Critical volume.
proportional to its pressure.  Critical volume (Vc) is defined as the volume
occupied by 1 mole of a gas at its critical
𝟏
V α (T and n are fixed, T-temperature, n- temperature and critical pressure.
𝑷
number of moles)
13. What is Compressibility factor (Z)?
 The deviation of real gases from ideal
5. State Charles law. (Pg.162)
behaviour is measured in terms of a ratio of
 For a fixed mass of a gas at constant
PV to nRT. This is termed as Compressibility
pressure, the volume is directly proportional 𝑷𝑽
to its temperature (K). factor. Z=
𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑽
V = kT (OR) = Constant
𝑻
14. What are the different methods used for
6. State Avogadro’s hypothesis. (Pg.165) liquefaction of gases?
 Equal volumes of all gases under the same 1. Linde’s method:- Joule-Thomson effect is
conditions of temperature and pressure used to get liquid air or any other gas.
contain equal number of molecules. 2. Claude’s process:- The gas is allowed to
𝑽 𝑽
V 𝜶 n (OR) 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐 = Constant perform mechanical work in addition to Joule-
𝟏 𝟐
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 7

Thomson effect so that more cooling is 19. Aerosol cans carry clear warning of
produced. heating of the can. Why?
3. Adiabatic process:- Cooling is produced by  Aerosols are colloids in which air (gas) is
removing the magnetic property of magnetic dispensed in liquid. On heating the kinetic
material such as gadolinium sulphate. energy of particles increases and after
Temperature of 10-4 K can be achieved. collision with wall they create high pressure
that can leads to explosion.
15. What is Boyle temperature or Boyle point?  Hence they carry clear warning that they
 The temperature at which a real gas obeys should not be heated or kept in near fire.
ideal gas law over an appreciable range of
pressure is called Boyle temperature or Boyle 20. Explain the following observations
point.
a) Aerated water bottles are kept under water
during summer
16. What are Ideal gases? Under what
 As the temperature increase in summer the
conditions gases behave ideally?
pressure of the gas inside the bottle will
 Gases that obey the equation PV = nRT under increase. Moreover the solubility of the
all conditions are called Ideal gases. But in dissolved gas decreases with increase in
practice there is no ideal gas. temperature. To avoid bottle bursting open as
 Gases tend to behave ideally at high a result of increase in pressure they are kept
temperataures and at low pressures. in water.

17. What is diffusion and Effusion? (Pg.168) UNIT 7 - THERMODYNAMICS

 Gases have a tendency to occupy all the 1. State Zeroth law of thermodynamics.
available space. When two non -reactive gases
 „If two systems are separately in thermal
are allowed to mix, the gas molecules migrate
equilibrium with a third one, then they tend to
from region of higher concentration to a
be in thermal equilibrium with themselves'.
region of lower concentration.
 The property of gas which involves the
movement of the gas molecules through 2. State First law of thermodynamics (or) Law
another gases is called diffusion. of conservation of energy.
 Effusion is another process in which a gas  “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
escapes from a container through a very small but may be converted from one form to
hole. another. (OR)
 The total energy of an isolated system remains
18. Distinguish between diffusion and constant though it may change from one form
effusion. to another.
Sl.No. Diffusion Effusion
3. Mention the various statements of second
1. The movement The escape of the
of molecules gas molecules law of thermodynamics.
from the higher through the hole one 1. Entropy statement:- “The entropy of an
concentration to after the other isolated system increases during a
a lower without collision is spontaneous process”.
concentration is called effusion. 2. Kelvin – Planck statement:- “It is
called diffusion impossible to construct a machine that
2. Diffusion takes Effusion takes place absorbs heat from a hot source and converts
place in all through a hole of it completely into work by a cyclic process
directions. molecular size without transferring a part of heat to a cold
3. Example:- The Example:- Escape sink.
smell of the rose of gas molecules 3. Clausius statement:- “It is impossible to
or a scent due to from punctured tyre. transfer heat from a cold reservoir to a hot
diffusion. reservoir without doing some work.

4. State Third law of thermodynamics.

 The entropy of pure crystalline substance at
absolute zero is zero. (or)
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 8

 It is impossible to lower the temperature of an 10. Define Gibb’s free energy. (Pg.214)
object to absolute zero in a finite number of  Gibbs originally termed this energy as the
steps. “available energy” to do work in a system.
lim This quantity is the energy associated with a
 T 0 S = 0 for a perfectly ordered chemical reaction that can be used to do work.
crystalline state. G = H – TS

5. State Hess’s law of constant heat 11. Define Lattice energy/Lattice enthalpy.
summation. (Pg.208)
 The enthalpy change of a reaction either at  Lattice energy is defined as the amount of
constant volume or constant pressure is the energy required to completely remove the
same whether it takes place in a single or constituent ions from its crystal lattice to an
multiple steps provided the initial and final infinite distance. It is also referred as lattice
states are same. enthalpy.

6. What are Extensive and Intensive 12. What are spontaneous reactions? What are
properties? Give examples. the conditions for the spontaneity of a
 Extensive properties:- The property that process? (Pg.213, 215)
depends on the mass or the size of the system  A reaction that occurs under the given set of
is called an extensive property. conditions without any external driving force
 Examples: Volume, Number of moles, Mass, is called a spontaneous reaction.
Internal energy, etc.,  ∆S > 0, ∆H < 0, ∆G < 0,
 Intensive properties:- The property that is Conditions / Criteria for the spontaneity of a
independent of the mass or the size of the process:-
system is called an intensive property. 1. If the enthalpy change of a process is
 Examples : Refractive index, Surface negative, then the process is exothermic and
tension, density, temperature, Boiling point, may be spontaneous. (ΔH is negative)
Freezing point, molar volume, etc., 2. If the entropy change of a process is positive,
then the process may occur spontaneously.
7. What are State function? Give examples. (ΔS is positive)
 A state function is a thermodynamic property 3. The gibbs free energy which is the
of a system, which has a specific value for a combination of the above two (ΔH -TΔS)
given state and does not depend on the path should be negative for a reaction to occur
(or manner) by which the particular state is spontaneously.
reached. 13. Define enthalpy of combustion / Heat of
 Example : Pressure (P), Volume (V), combustion. (Pg.200)
Temperature(T), Internal energy (U), Enthalpy  The heat of combustion of a substance is
(H), free energy (G) etc. defined as “The change in enthalpy of a
system when one mole of the substance is
8. What are Path functions? Give examples. completely burnt in excess of air or oxygen”.
 A path function is a thermodynamic property  Heat of combustion of CH4 is – 87.78 kJ mol-1.
of the system whose value depends on the
path by which the system changes from its 14. Define Enthalpy of neutralization/Heat of
initial to final states. Neutralization. (Pg.206)
 Example: Work (w), Heat (q).  Heat of neutralization is defined as “The
change in enthalpy when one gram equivalent
9. What is the usual definition of entropy? of an acid is completely neutralized by one
What is the unit of entropy? (Pg.210, 211) gram equivalent of a base or vice versa in
dilute solution”.
 Entropy is the measure of molecular disorder
 Heat of neutralization of a strong acid and a
(randomness) of a system.
strong base = 57.32 KJ.
 But thermodynamic definition of entropy is
concerned with the change in entropy that
occurs as a result of a process.
 dS = dqrev/T
 The SI unit of entropy is JK−1.
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 9

15. Define Molar heat capacity. Give its unit. 𝜹𝑯

=
𝜹𝑼
+ nR
𝜹𝑻
𝜹𝑻 𝜹𝑻 𝜹𝑻
(Pg.201) Cp = Cv + nR (1)
 Molar heat capacity is defined as “The amount Cp – Cv = nR
of heat absorbed by one mole of the
substance to raise its temperature by 1
20. What are the appliactiions of bomb
kelvin”.
 S.I. unit of heat capacity is J K-1 mol-1. calorimeter? (Pg.204)
1. It is used to determine the amount of heat
released in combustion reaction.
16. Define the calorific value of food. What is
2. It is used to determine the calorific value of
the unit of calorific value? (Pg.206) food.
 The calorific value is defined as the amount of 3. It is used in many industries such as
heat produced in calories (or joules) when one metabolic study, food processing, explosive
gram of the substance is completely burnt. testing.
 SI unit of calorific value is J Kg-1.
 It is usually expressed in Cal g -1. 21. What is Internal energy? Give the
importance of internal energy. (Pg.219)
17. Define Specific heat capacity.  Internal energy of a system is equal to the
 Specific heat capacity of a system is defined energy possessed by all its constituents
as “The heat absorbed by one kilogram of a namely atoms, ions and molecules. The
substance to raise its temperature by one energy of a system of molecules is equal to
Kelvin at a specified temperature”. the sum of its translational energy, vibrational
energy, rotational energy, bond energy,
18. Define the following terms. electronic energy and energy due to molecular
(a) Isothermal process. (Pg.190) interactions.
(b) Adiabatic process. (Pg.190)  Importance of Internal energy:- The
(c) Isobaric process. (Pg.190) internal energy possessed by a substance
differentiates its physical structure.
(d) Isochoric process. (Pg.190)
 Example:- The allotropes of carbon, namely,
(a) Isothermal process:- An isothermal graphite C(graphite) and diamond C(diamond),
process is defined as one in which the differ from each other because they possess
temperature of the system remains constant, different internal energies and have different
during the change from its initial to final state. structures.
For an isothermal process dT = 0
UNIT 8 - PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
(b) Adiabatic process:- Those processes in
EQUILIBRIUM
which no heat can flow into or out of the
system are called adiabatic processes. 1. What are homogeneous equilibrium
For an adiabatic process q = 0 reactions? Give examples. (Pg.5)
(c) Isobaric process:- An isobaric process is  In a homogeneous equilibrium, all the
defined as one in which the pressure of the reactants and products are in the same phase.
system remains constant during its change from  Examples:- (i) H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
the initial to final state.
For an isobaric process dP= 0 . 2. What are heterogeneous equilibrium
(d) Isochoric process:- An isochoric process is reactions? Give examples. (Pg.5)
defined as the one in which the volume of system  If the reactants and products of a reaction in
remains constant during its change from initial to equilibrium, are in different phases,
final state. then it is called as heterogeneous equilibrium.
For an isochoric process, dV= 0.
 Examples:- (i) H2O(l) ⇌ H2O(g)
19. Derive the relation between Cp and Cv for
3. If there is no change in concentration, why
an ideal gas. (Pg.201)
is the equilibrium state considered dynamic?
 Enthalpy H = U + PV ----(1)
 At equilibrium the forward and the backward
 For 1 mole of an ideal gas PV = nRT ----- (2) reactions are proceeding at the same
 Substituting (2) in (1) we get rate and no macroscopic change is observed.
H = U + nRT So chemical equilibrium is in a state of
Differentiating with respect to T, dynamic equilibrium.
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 10

4. State Law of mass action. (Pg.5) of moles of gases present in the container
 “At any instant, the rate of a chemical reaction increases, that is, the total pressure of
at a given temperature is directly proportional gases increases. the partial pressure of the
to the product of the active masses of the reactants and the products are unchanged.
reactants at that instant”. Hence at constant volume, addition of inert
gas has no effect on equilibrium.
5. What is active mass? Give its unit. (Pg.5)
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒏 11. What is the effect of catalyst on
 Active mass = = equilibrium reaction? (Pg.18)
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝑽
 Unit of active mass:- mol dm-3 (or) mol L-1  Addition of a catalyst does not affect the state
of the equilibrium. The catalyst
6. Define equilibrium constant. (Pg.6) increases the rate of both the forward and the
 At a given temperature, the ratio of the reverse reactions to the same extent.
product of active masses of reaction products Hence, it does not change the equilibrium
raised to the respective stoichiometric composition of the reaction mixture.
coefficients in the balanced chemical  However, it speeds up the attainment of
equation to that of the reactants is a constant, equilibrium by providing a new pathway
known as equilibrium constant. having a lower activation energy.

7. What are the applications of equilibrium UNIT 9 - SOLUTIONS

constant. (Pg.10)
1. predict the direction in which the net reaction 1. Define Molality (m). (Pg.32)
will take place  Molality of a solution is defined as the number
2. predict the extent of the reaction and
of moles of solute dissolved in 1 Kg of
3. calculate the equilibrium concentrations of the
reactants and products. solvent.
 It is to be noted that these constants do not 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Molality =
provide any information regarding the 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝒈
rates of the forward or reverse reactions.
2. Define Molarity (M) (Pg.32)
8. Define reaction quotient ‘Q’? How is it  Molarity of a solution is defined as the number
 related to equilibrium constant. (Pg.11) of moles of solute dissolved in 1 litre of
Under non-equilibrium conditions, reaction solution
quotient „Q‟ is defined as the ratio of the 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
product of active masses of reaction products Molality =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔
raised to the respective stoichiometric
coefficients in the balanced chemical equation
to that of the reactants. 3. Define Normality. (Pg.32)
 If Q = Kc, the reaction is in equilibrium state.  Normality of a solution is defined as the
 If Q > Kc, the reaction will proceed in the number of gram equivalents of solute
reverse direction i.e., formation of reactants.
dissolved in 1 litre of the solution.
 If Q < Kc, the reaction will proceed in the
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
forward direction i.e., formation of products. Normality =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔

9. State Le-Chatlier’s principle. (Pg.16)

 It states that “If a system at equilibrium is 4. State Henry’s law. (Pg.38,39)
disturbed, then the system shifts itself in a  “The partial pressure of the gas in vapour
direction that nullifies the effect of that
phase (vapour pressure of the solute) is
disturbance.”
directly proportional to the mole fraction(x) of
10. What is the effect of added inert gas on the gaseous solute in the solution at low
the reaction at equilibrium? (Pg.19) concentrations”. psolute α xsolute in solution
 When an inert gas (i.e, a gas which does not
react with any other species involved in  psolute = KHXsolute in solution
equilibrium) is added to an equilibrium system
at constant volume, the total number
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 11

5. What are the limitations of Henry’s law. 9. What is molal freezing point depression
(Pg.40) constant or cryoscopic constant (Kf). Give
 Henry‟s law is applicable at moderate its unit. (Pg.54)
temperature and pressure only.  Cryoscopic constant (Kf) is defined as the
 Only the less soluble gases obeys Henry‟s law depression in freezing point for 1 molal
 The gases reacting with the solvent do not solution.
obey Henry‟s law. For example, ammonia or
 Unit:- K Kg mol-1.
HCl reacts with water and hence does not
obey this law.
NH3 + H2O ⇌ 𝑵𝑯+ - 10. What is Osmosis? (Pg.55)/(Pg.61)
𝟒 + OH
 The gases obeying Henry‟s law should not  Osmosis is a spontaneous process by which
associate or dissociate while dissolving in the the solvent molecules pass through a semi
solvent. permeable membrane from a solution of lower
concentration to a solution of higher
6. State Raoult’s law. (Pg.43) & (Pg.45) concentration.
 “In the case of a solution of volatile liquids, (OR)
the partial vapour pressure of each  The spontaneous flow of solvent molecules
component (A & B) of the solution is directly from a dilute solution into a concentrated
proportional to its mole fraction”. solution when the two are separated by a
pA α x A pA = k xA when xA = 1, k = p°A perfect semipermeable membrane is called
osmosis.
where p°A is the vapour pressure
11. What are Isotonic solutions? (Pg.56)
(OR)
 Two solutions having same osmotic pressure
 “The relative lowering of vapour pressure of
at a given temperature are called isotonic
an ideal solution containing the nonvolatile
solutions.
solute is equal to the mole fraction of the
12. Define Osmotic pressure. (Pg.55,56)
solute at a given temperature”
7. What are colligative properties? /(Pg.61)
 Osmotic pressure can be defined as “the
(Pg.49)/(Pg.60)
pressure that must be applied to the solution
 The properties, namely, relative lowering of
to stop the influx of the solvent (to stop
vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point,
osmosis) through the semipermeable
depression in freezing point and osmotic
membrane”
pressure do not depend on the chemical
(OR)
nature of the solute but depends only on the
number of solute particles (ions/molecules)  Osmotic pressure (π) is the pressure which
present in the solution. These four properties must be applied to the solution side (more
are known as colligative properties. concentrated solution) to just prevent the
passage of pure solvent into it through a
(OR)
semipermeable membrane.
 Colligative properties of solutions are those
properties which depend only upon the
13. What is Reverse osmosis?. Write its use.
number of solute particles in the solution and
not on their nature. (Pg.57)
 It can be defined as a process in which a
8. What is molal boiling point elevation solvent passes through a semipermeable
membrane in the opposite direction of
constant or Ebullioscopic constant. (Kb) osmosis, when subjected to a hydrostatic
Give its unit. (Pg.53) pressure greater than the osmotic pressure.
 Ebullioscopic constant (Kb) is defined as the  Use:- Reverse osmosis is used in the
elevation in boiling point for 1 molal solution. desalination of sea water and also in the
purification of drinking water.
Unit:- K Kg mol . -1
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 12

14 What is meant by abnormal colligative 18. What are non ideal solution? Give
properties? (Pg.58)/(Pg.61) examples. (Pg.46)
 The dissociation or association of solute  The solutions which do not obey Raoult‟s law
molecules would alter the total number of over the entire range of concentration, are
particles present in the solution and hence called non-ideal solutions. For a non-ideal
affect the results of measured colligative solution, there is a change in the volume and
properties. In such solutions, the value of the enthalpy upon mixing.
molar mass of the solute determined using  Examples for non-ideal solutions showing
colligative properties would be different from positive deviations: Ethyl alcohol &
the actual molar mass, and it is called cyclohexane, Benzene & acetone, Carbon
abnormal molar mass. tetrachloride & chloroform, Acetone & ethyl
(OR) alcohol, Ethyl alcohol and water.
 If solutes undergo any association or
dissociation in a solution, they exhibit 19. What is hemolysis? (Pg.57)
abnormal colligative properties Van't Hoft  If the Intravenous solutions are too dilute that
factor explains quantitatively the extent of is hypotonic, the solvent from outside of the
association or dissociation of soluts in cells will flow into the cell to normalise the
solvent. osmotic pressure and this process which is
called hemolysis, causes the cells to burst.
15. Define Van’t Hoff factor. (Pg.58)
 It is defined as the ratio of the actual molar 20. What are the significances of osmotic
mass to the abnormal (calculated) molar mass
pressure over other colligative
of the solute.
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 properties? (Pg.56)
i=
𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒃𝒏𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 1. The magnitude of osmotic pressure is large.
𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒚 2. Th e osmotic pressure can be measured at
= room temperature enables to determine the
𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒚
molecular mass of biomolecules which are
16. What is an Ideal solution? Give examples. unstable at higher temperatures.
(Pg.45,46) 3. Even for a very dilute solution, the osmotic
 An ideal solution is a solution in which each pressure is large.
component i.e. the solute as well as the
solvent obeys the Raoult‟s law over the entire UNIT – 10 CHEMICAL BONDING
range of concentration. Practically no solution 1. Define the following i) Bond order
is ideal over the entire range of concentration. ii) Hybridisation iii) σ- bond
 Examples for ideal solutions: benzene & (i) Bond order:-
toluene; n-hexane & n-heptane;  The number of bonds formed between the two
bonded atoms in a molecule is called the
17. What are the conditions for an ideal bond order. Bond order is equal to the number
solution? (Pg.46) of shared pair of electrons between the two
i) there is no change in the volume on mixing bonded atoms.
the two components (solute & solvents). (ii) Hybridisation:-
(ΔVmixing= 0)  Hybridisation is the process of mixing of
ii) there is no exchange of heat when the atomic orbitals of the same atom with
solute is dissolved in solvent (ΔHmixing = 0). comparable energy to form equal number of
iii) escaping tendency of the solute and the new equivalent orbitals with same energy.
solvent present in it should be same as in pure
liquids.
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 13

(iii) 𝝈 - bond:-  In CH4, the central atom is C which is in sp3

 When two atomic orbitals overlap linearly hybridization state. The four H-atoms are
situated at the four corners of the
along the axis, the resultant bond is called a tetrahedron. The bond angle between H – C –
sigma (𝝈) bond. This overlap is also called H is 109.50 which is called the tetrahedral
„head-on overlap‟ or „axial overlap‟. angle.
 But in the case of NH3 and H2O molecules,
2. What is a pi bond? their central atoms N and O have a lone pair of
 When two atomic orbitals overlaps sideways, electrons. This lone pair causes repulsion of
the resultant covalent bond is called a pi (𝝅) electrons and hence the causes the decrease
bond. in the normal tetrahedral angle which gets
reduced to 1070 in NH3 and 104.50 in H2O
3. Describe Fajan's rule.
(i) To show greater covalent character, both
8. Define bond energy. (or) Bond enthalpy.
the cation and anion should have high charge
on them. Higher the positive charge on the  The bond enthalpy is defined as the minimum
cation, greater will be the attraction on the amount of energy required to break one mole
electron cloud of the anion. Similarly higher
of a particular bond in molecules in their
the magnitude of negative charge on the
anion, greater is its polarisability. Hence, the gaseous state.
increase in charge on cation or in anion  The unit of bond enthalpy is kJ mol-1.
increases the covalent character.
(ii) The smaller cation and larger anion show
greater covalent character due to the greater 9. What is dipolment?
extent of polarisation.  The polarity of a covalent bond can be
2 6 10
(iii) Cations having ns np nd configuration
measured in terms of dipole moment which is
show greater polarising power than the
cations with ns2 np6 configuration. Hence, they defined as 𝝁 = q x 2d
show greater covalent character. 𝝁 - Dipole moment q – Charge
2d - Distance between the two charges.
4. What is Octet rule? (Pg.69)  Unit of dipole moment:- Coulomb meter
 “The atoms transfer or share electrons so that (C m)
all atoms involved in chemical bonding obtain
8 electrons in their outer shell (valence shell)”.
10. Linear form of carbondioxide molecule has
5. What is bond length? (Pg.76) two polar bonds. yet the molecule has
 The distance between the nuclei of the two Zero dipolement why?
covalently bonded atoms is called bond  In CO2, the dipole moments of two polar bonds
length. (CO) are equal in magnitude but have opposite
direction. Hence, the net dipole moment of the
6. What is bond angle? (Pg.77) CO2 is 𝝁 = 𝝁𝟏 + 𝝁𝟐 = 𝝁𝟏 + (-𝝁𝟏 ) = 0
 Covalent bonds are directional in nature and
are oriented in specific directions in space.
This directional nature creates a fixed angle
between two covalent bonds in a molecule
and this angle is termed as bond angle.

7. In CH4, NH3 and H2O, the central atom

undergoes sp3 hybridisation - yet their
bond angles are different. why? 11. What is Polar Covalent bond? Explain with
example.
 Polar covalent bond:- It is a type of
chemical bond where a pair of electron is
unequally shared between two atoms due to
difference in their electro-negativities.
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 14

 Example:- Consider the covalent bond There is no substitute for hard work.
between hydrogen and fluorine in hydrogen
fluoride. The electro negativities of hydrogen
and fluorine on Pauling's scale are 2.1 and 4
respectively. It means that fluorine attracts
the shared pair of electrons approximately
twice as much as the hydrogen which leads to
partial negative charge on fluorine and partial
positive charge on hydrogen. Hence, the H-F  In case of water net dipole moment is the
bond is said to be polar covalent bond. vector sum of 𝝁𝟏 + 𝝁𝟐 .

12. Which bond is stronger σ or π? Why?  Dipole moment of water is found to be 1.85 D.
 The strength of a covalent bond depends upon
the extent of overlap of atomic orbitals.
Greater the overlap, larger is the energy
released and stronger will be the bond
formation.
 A 𝝈 bond is formed by the axial overlap of the
atomic orbitals which are oriented along the 16. Explain resonance with reference to
inter nuclear axis, hence the extent of
carbonate ion?
overlap is maximum.
 A 𝝅 bond is formed by the lateral overlap
of the atomic orbitals which are oriented
perpendicular to the inter nuclear axis.
Hence the extent of orbital overlapping in
a sideways manner is less. Hence the 𝝈 bond
is stronger than the 𝝅 bond.

13. What is electrovalent bond/Ionic bond?

Give an example. (Pg.74)
 The complete transfer of electron between the
two combining atoms leads to the formation of
a cation and an anion. Both these ions are
held together by the electrostatic attractive
force which is known as Ionic bond.
 Example:- Formation of NaCl

14. What is a covalent bond?

 This type of mutual sharing of one or more
pairs of electrons between two combining
atoms results in the formation of a chemical
bond called a covalent bond.

15. CO2 and H2O both are triatomic molecule

but their dipole moment values are
different. Why?
 In CO2, the dipole moments of two polar bonds
(CO) are equal in magnitude but have opposite
direction. Hence, the net dipole moment of the
CO2 is 𝝁 = 𝝁𝟏 + 𝝁𝟐 = 𝝁𝟏 + (-𝝁𝟏 ) = 0