Borrowing and Dictionary

Compilation: The Case of the

Indigenous South African
Languages*
Munzhedzi James Mafela, Department of African Languages, University of
South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa (mafelmj@unisa.ac.za)

Abstract: Borrowing occurs when a language adds a word from another language to its own
lexicon. Languages in neighbouring regions often borrow from each other. In South Africa, there
are over nine indigenous languages, in addition to Afrikaans and English, all of which coexist. In
their coexistence they borrow from one another. African language dictionaries reveal that these
languages have borrowed a great deal from Afrikaans and English. However, one would expect
these dictionaries to reflect some borrowing from other indigenous languages; on the contrary, they
include very few such words. Although, one encounters many words from indigenous languages
being used by other African languages in their spoken language and literary works, these are not
included in dictionaries. This article seeks to highlight factors contributing to the failure to include
words borrowed from other indigenous languages in African language dictionaries.

Keywords: BORROWING, DICTIONARY COMPILATION, INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES,

LEXICON, MORPHEME, VOCABULARY, DEVELOPING LANGUAGES, LOAN WORDS, TER-
MINOLOGY, ETYMOLOGY, LEXICOGRAPHY

Opsomming: Ontlening en woordeboeksamestelling: Die geval van in-

heemse Suid-Afrikaanse tale. Ontlening vind plaas wanneer 'n taal 'n woord uit 'n ander
taal by sy eie leksikon voeg. Tale in aangrensende streke leen dikwels van mekaar. Daar is meer as
nege inheemse tale in Suid-Afrika, bo en behalwe Afrikaans en Engels, wat saam bestaan. In hulle
naasbestaan leen hulle van mekaar. Afrikataal-woordeboeke getuig daarvan dat hierdie tale heel-
wat uit Afrikaans en Engels geleen het. Daar sou egter verwag kon word dat hierdie woordeboeke
sal getuig van ontlening uit ander inheemse tale; in teendeel, hulle sluit baie min van sulke woorde
in. Alhoewel baie woorde van inheemse tale in ander Afrikatale gebruik word in die gesproke taal
en letterkundige werke, is hierdie woorde nie in die woordeboeke opgeneem nie. Die doel van
hierdie artikel is om die faktore uit te lig wat bydra tot die versuim om leenwoorde van ander
inheemse tale in die Afrikataal-woordeboeke op te neem.

* This article was presented as a paper at the Fourteenth International Conference of the
African Association for Lexicography, organised by the Xhosa Department, University of the
Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa, 6–8 July 2009.

Lexikos 20 (AFRILEX-reeks/series 20: 2010): 691-699

692 Munzhedzi James Mafela

Sleutelwoorde: ONTLENING, WOORDEBOEKSAMESTELLING, INHEEMSE TALE,

LEKSIKON, MORFEEM, WOORDESKAT, ONTWIKKELENDE TALE, LEENWOORDE, TER-
MINOLOGIE, ETIMOLOGIE, LEKSIKOGRAFIE

1. Introduction

Languages are not static but develop over time. During this development,
words may be added or lost: while new vocabulary is accepted into a language,
some words may fall into disuse and become obsolete. This may be the result of
contact between language groups and the introduction of new styles of living
in the society. As Fromkin and Rodman (1998: 459) note: "Changes in the lexi-
con also occur, including the addition of new words, changes in the meanings
of words, and loss of words." Words may enter a language in many ways.
Fromkin and Rodman (1998) mention compounding, derivational processes,
coinage, recombining old words to form new ones with new meanings, and
borrowing.
The discussion in this article focuses on the concept of borrowing. The term
borrow has various meanings. It can be associated with taking something on the
understanding that it will be returned, or replaced with something similar. It
may also mean to adopt something as one's own, or to adopt a word from
another language (Guralnik 1981). In this study, the word is used in the sense
of the third definition, i.e. to adopt a word from another language. Borrowing,
in this regard, occurs when a language adds a word or morpheme from
another language to its own lexicon. Fromkin and Rodman (1998: 459) describe
it as follows:
Borrowing words from other languages is an … important source of new words.
Borrowing occurs when one language adds to its own lexicon a word or mor-
pheme from another language, often altering its pronunciation to fit the phonol-
ogy rules of the borrowing language.

Mafela (1996: 165) mentions that

Adoption is brought about by the contact between people who speak different
languages. One language tends to adopt words from the other.

Borrowing can therefore be defined as a word or phrase in one language

adopted by another. Haugen (1950: 213-215) defines a loan word as follows:
A loan word is a complex form composed entirely of foreign morphemes. Speak-
ers importing a loan word import not only the meaning of the word but also its
phonemic shape although the substitution of foreign formative phonemes may
be more or less complete.

Indigenous languages in South Africa have been enriched through this process
of borrowing. With the introduction of terms for new political, economic, social
 Borrowing and Dictionary Compilation: The Indigenous South African Languages 693

and religious activities, the vocabulary of the African languages has been sig-
nificantly enhanced. Many new words have been adopted from Afrikaans and
English. Although the indigenous peoples of South Africa share a great deal
regarding culture, their languages are distinct from one another. However,
owing to social conditions in the country, language communities come into
contact in several environments such as places of work. During this interaction,
they borrow vocabulary from one another. Nevertheless, the borrowed vocabu-
lary is rarely reflected in indigenous African language dictionaries. Afrikaans
and English dictionaries are more comprehensive in this regard as they include
words adopted from the African languages, for example mopanie(boom) (Afri-
kaans), mopane/mopani (English), i.e. mupani in Tshivend√a, lobôla (Afrikaans),
lobola (English), i.e. lobola in isiZulu, and maroela(boom) (Afrikaans), marula
(English), i.e. morula in Sesotho sa Leboa, to mention only a few. This article
seeks to highlight factors contributing to the failure to reflect borrowings in
indigenous African language dictionaries, and the importance of the inclusion
of such loan words in these dictionaries.

2. Borrowing from developed languages

In this article, the indigenous languages referred to are the neighbouring lan-
guages isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Setswana,
Siswati, Tshivend√a and Xitsonga. Neighbouring languages will always borrow
from each other. No two languages come into contact without influencing each
other. An extensive number of words can be traced to another language. In
many instances, the developing language will borrow more words from the
developed. As the indigenous African languages are developing languages in
many terminological fields, they are therefore borrowers. These languages have
borrowed much of their terminological vocabulary from Afrikaans and Eng-
lish, owing to the fact that Afrikaans and English are more developed in this
respect. Because the indigenous African languages coexist with Afrikaans and
English, much scientific, economic, political and religious terminology has been
borrowed by them. If one takes a look through some of the dictionaries cover-
ing the indigenous African languages, one notices that the words listed below,
for instance, have been accepted as part of the lexicon of these languages. This
list contains some of the words giving evidence as having been borrowed by
and adapted to the indigenous African languages:
Tshivend√a:
iron (English) aini
altar (English) alitare
bank (Afrikaans and English) bannga
brood (Afrikaans) vhurotho
papier (Afrikaans) bammbiri
deposit (English) diphositi
694 Munzhedzi James Mafela

bicycle (English) baisigira

mathematics (English) mathematiki
wine (English) waini
kilometre (English) khilomitha

Nguni languages:
petrol (English) ipetroli (isiXhosa)
botter (Afrikaans) ibhotolo (isiXhosa)
bank (Afrikaans and English) ibhanki (isiXhosa)
paper (English) iphepha (isiXhosa)
deposit (English) dipozitha (isiXhosa)
library (English) ilabhulali (isiZulu)
zoology (English) izoloji (isiXhosa)
dorp (Afrikaans) idolobha(isiZulu)
science (English) isayensi (isiZulu)
percent (English) iphesenti (isiZulu)

Sotho languages:
iron (English) aene
bank (Afrikaans and English) banka (Sesotho), panka (Sesotho sa Leboa)
papier (Afrikaans) pampiri
petrol (English) peterole (Sesotho sa Leboa)
mathematics (English) mathematiki (Sesotho sa Leboa)
tafel (Afrikaans) tafole (Setswana), tafola (Sesotho sa Leboa)

Xitsonga:
iron (English) ayini
bank (Afrikaans and English) banki
paper (English) phepha
kilometre (English) khilomitha
science (English) sayense
dorp (Afrikaans) doroba

3. Borrowing from indigenous languages

Because of the coexistence of indigenous languages in South Africa, one would

expect that dictionaries of these languages would reflect many loan words from
one another. Indigenous languages of South Africa share a great deal of vo-
cabulary, as well as some cultural aspects, because they belong to the same
language family. For example, the word for person in all South Africa's indige-
nous languages is similar, namely muthu (Tshivend√a), motho (Sotho languages),
munhu (Xitsonga), umntu (isiXhosa), umuntu (isiZulu) (Reynierse 1991: 107).
The same holds for the term woman. Its equivalents in the different languages
are as follows: musadzi (Tshivend√a), mosadi (Sotho languages), nsati (Xitsonga),
 Borrowing and Dictionary Compilation: The Indigenous South African Languages 695

umfazi (isiXhosa and isiZulu). However, these languages are also individual
languages, differing in many cultural aspects. These differences between lan-
guage groups are often influenced by their geographical location. Each indige-
nous language in South Africa is concentrated in a particular geographical area
characterised by particular geographical conditions. Differences in culture and
geographical location lead to differences in the use of certain terminology.
Indigenous languages borrow terminology from each other in their spo-
ken language and their literary texts. But while it is common to encounter
words borrowed from another indigenous language, it is rare to find them in-
cluded in the dictionary of that particular indigenous language. This suggests
that there is a problem, and this problem seems to lie with the lexicographers.
An example is the word mukhukhu, which appears to have originated
among the Sotho people, specifically the Basotho ba Leboa. It refers to a build-
ing made of corrugated iron, or a temporary shelter. The door is so low that
when people want to enter, they have to crouch (khukhuna). This structure
occurs mostly in urban areas where people of all indigenous language groups
coexist. This word has been adopted by all South African indigenous lan-
guages. As it is in popular usage, one would expect to find mukhukhu in all
African language dictionaries. However, it does not form part of the lexicon in
any of the checked Tshivend√a dictionaries. Instead, the word mushasha has been
included. Although, according to Van Warmelo (1989), both mukhukhu and
mushasha have the same meaning, mushasha is a temporary shelter of branches
and grass, meant for travellers, whereas mukhukhu is a temporary shelter made
of corrugated iron. This suggests that mukhukhu should be part of the words in
an indigenous African language dictionary. In addition, the meaning of mukhu-
khu can also be linked to a type of dance practised by almost all indigenous
language speakers in this country. This dance is performed by members of the
Zion Christian Church, a church not restricted to a particular ethnic group, but
one which embraces all South Africans as well as foreigners from neighbouring
countries. This word has been accepted into the spoken indigenous languages
in South Africa. It is therefore surprising to find that it is not included in the
dictionaries of some of these languages.
Another example is the word shonzha, peculiar to Vhavend√a. It is defined
by Van Warmelo (1989: 336) as follows:
shonzha 5 sp. A large edible caterpillar (of the moth Nudaurelia belina Westw.),
which in season is collected in great numbers from trees in the dry north coun-
try, dried, and eaten as a rare and expensive delicacy

These caterpillars, mashonzha, collected from the mupani tree found in the
northern part of Venda, are regarded as a delicacy by the Vhavend√a. The word
shonzha is therefore part of the Tshivend√a lexicon. But the Vhavend√a are not the
only people who enjoy eating mashonzha; neighbouring ethnic groups such as
the Vatsonga and the Basotho ba Leboa do too. It is therefore clear that the term
shonzha should be included in dictionaries of these indigenous languages.
696 Munzhedzi James Mafela

However, except in Tshivend√a, no entry was found in any dictionary of the

South African indigenous languages. Today people from all backgrounds come
into contact in urban areas because of the movement of people all over the
country. Many language groups are thus familiar with mashonzha. The word
shonzha should therefore be included in dictionaries as it has been accepted in
various spoken languages.
A further example of a word used in several languages is futhi, a Nguni
word which has been adopted by Tshivend√a. Doke, Malcolm and Sikakana
(1958: 67) define it as follows:
futhi (adv.) 1. Again, once more. 2. In addition, also, too.

In their daily conversation, Vhavend√a use futhi to denote "again". In standard

Tshivend√a "again" is translated by the word hafhu. However, many Vhavend√a
use the adopted futhi instead of hafhu. This is illustrated in a text taken from
Musandiwa na khotsi Vho-L√iwalaga (Maumela 1973: 37), which reads:
Tshi re hone ene o tou n®ala, a sokou t√uwa, futhi na u onesa a songo nnyonesa nn√e khotsi
awe.
(She left on her own, in addition she did not even bid me, her own father, a
goodbye.)

In this passage, futhi has been used to mean "in addition". The mere fact that
the author has used this word in a literary text, and that the word has been
accepted by the evaluators of the book, means that it has been adopted into
spoken Tshivend√a and is frequently used. Although Tshivend√a has an equiva-
lent for futhi, this does not mean that it should not be reflected in Tshivend√a
dictionaries.
Because of its geographical location, Tshivend√a shares much vocabulary
with Xitsonga and Sesotho sa Leboa. While Xitsonga is spoken in the eastern
part of Venda, Sesotho sa Leboa is used in the western and southern parts. In
addition, these ethnic groups come into contact in the workplace and in their
social lives. The vocabulary they share is realised mainly in literary texts and
spoken language. Words such as vhuthada and mutsheka are good examples in
this regard.
Vhuthada seems to have been borrowed from the Sotho languages (bothata)
(Reynierse 1991: 73), most particularly Sesotho sa Leboa owing to its proximity.
In his literary text, Maumela (1973: 35) uses it as follows:
Mafhungo aya a n√u khezwi vhu vhuthada. Ndi hune a nga tou itwa hani na?
(This matter of yours seems to be difficult. How is it going to be solved?)

Although the Tshivend√a equivalent is vhuleme, the use of vhuthada indicates

that it has been accepted by the community. However, vhuthada is not found in
Tshivend√a dictionaries in spite of this acceptance. Its use in literary texts is a
good reason for its inclusion in Tshivend√a dictionaries.
 Borrowing and Dictionary Compilation: The Indigenous South African Languages 697

A similar example is the Xitsonga word nceka which is in popular use

among the Vhavend√a. A nceka is an item of clothing worn by both Vatsonga
men and women. The word is defined as follows (Cuenod 1967: 119):
nceka 3, piece of material worn tied round the waist by men, round the shoul-
ders by women.

When the Vhavend√a refer to this type of clothing, they call it mutsheka. Some
lexicographers may argue that the equivalent of nceka is næwenda in Tshivend√a.
A næwenda is a special type of garment made for Vhavend√a women, but it is not
similar to a mutsheka although they both have the same function. The word
næwenda is defined by Van Warmelo (1989) as follows:
næwenda 3 (pl. minæw) female upper garment of salempore, just a length of cloth
with strip (bannda) sewn on crosswise at the top to make it longer, and with two
tapes (mivhofho) of the same material to tie over the shoulder.

As in the case of vhuthada, mutsheka has become accepted in Tshivend√a literary

texts. Maumela (1974: 69) writes as follows:
Ngeno fhasi mikumba i tshi d√i vha hone yo ingwa nt√ha ha mitsheka.
(At the waist, he puts on skins on top of the salempores.)

The person referred to in this text is a male diviner. He wears skins and salem-
pores (mitsheka) around his waist. He could not have put a næwenda around his
waist because it is not meant to be worn by men. This would have caused the
readers to form a wrong impression. As indicated in Van Warmelo's definition,
the næwenda is used to cover the whole body, from the shoulders down, whereas
the mutsheka is mostly used either as a skirt (to cover the body from the waist
downward) or as a shawl around the shoulders. It is therefore necessary to
include the word mutsheka in Tshivend√a dictionaries, because it has been
accepted in both the spoken and the written language.

4. Factors contributing to the non-borrowing by one indigenous African

language from another

Lexicographers of the South African indigenous languages are reluctant to

include loan words from other indigenous languages in their dictionaries for
various reasons. Firstly, they may be hesitant to find the etymological mean-
ings of words adopted from these languages. Borrowing is closely connected
with etymology. Where the meaning of a borrowed word is not clear, lexico-
graphers must trace its origin to the source language. Etymology will provide a
clearer understanding of what the word means. Lexicographers should be pre-
pared to undertake this type of research, drawing upon the cultures of other
indigenous African languages, if they are really intent on enriching the lan-
guage with which they are dealing.
698 Munzhedzi James Mafela

Secondly, lexicographers are unwilling to include loan words from other

indigenous languages because they want to maintain the purity of their own
languages. Thinking that they will corrupt their own languages, they try to
preserve the standard language. On the other hand, these lexicographers seem
unconcerned about including words borrowed from Afrikaans and English.
The idea of corrupting a language is only considered when it comes to bor-
rowing from fellow indigenous African languages. This attitude must be
changed if the indigenous African languages are to be developed and pro-
moted. Lexicographers should recognise that language changes in course of
time as Fromkin and Rodman (1998: 409) stress:
No academy and no guardians of language purity can stem language change,
nor should anyone attempt to do so since such change does not mean corruption.

Lastly, lexicographers do not include loan words from other indigenous Afri-
can languages in their dictionaries because there is an element of disparage-
ment towards these languages. They are therefore hesitant to include vocabu-
lary from these languages in their dictionaries, notwithstanding that particular
words have been accepted into the spoken language and literary texts of their
own languages. Lexicographers prefer to include loan words from well-devel-
oped languages such as Afrikaans and English in their dictionaries. Western
civilization has introduced foreign lifestyles which are accompanied by new
vocabulary which should be included in indigenous African language diction-
aries. However, it is also important to include vocabulary from other indige-
nous South African languages when it has become accepted in the spoken and
written language. The inclusion of these loan words will assist dictionary users
in learning more about the culture of other indigenous African languages.

5. Conclusion

Borrowing vocabulary from one language by another is crucial as languages all

over the world are enriched by this process. However, this should not be re-
stricted to borrowing from developed languages only. In South Africa, bor-
rowing among the indigenous languages should also be encouraged.
The inclusion of lexical items from one indigenous language in another
will enrich the languages in many ways. The vocabulary of these languages
will expand, facilitating communication between the different language groups
because they will share words. If words are borrowed from one indigenous
language by another and defined properly, dictionary users will be exposed to
other cultures which will further enhance communication and act as a unifying
element among cultural groups. Developing and promoting indigenous lan-
guages should not be measured only by how much has been adopted from
developed languages such as Afrikaans and English, but should consider also
the terminology taken from other indigenous languages. The time has come for
 Borrowing and Dictionary Compilation: The Indigenous South African Languages 699

lexicographers of indigenous languages to start compiling bilingual and trilin-

gual dictionaries of the South African indigenous languages.

References

Dictionaries

Cuenod, R. 1967. Tsonga–English Dictionary. Braamfontein: Sasavona Publishers and Booksellers.

Doke, C.M., D. McK. Malcolm and J.M.A. Sikakana. 1958. English–Zulu Dictionary. Johannesburg:
Witwatersrand University Press.
Guralnik, D.B. (Ed.). 1981. Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language. Student Edi-
tion. Engelwood Cliffs, N.J.: Simon and Schuster.
Reynierse, C. (Ed.). 1991. South African Multi-Language Dictionary and Phrase Book. Cape Town: The
Reader's Digest Association South Africa.
Van Warmelo, N.J. 1989. Venda Dictionary: Tshivend√a–English. Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik.

Other sources

Fromkin, V. and R. Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language. Sixth Edition. Orlando: Harcourt
Brace College Publishers.
Haugen, E. 1950. The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing. Language 26: 210-231.
Mafela, M.J. 1996. The Elements of Fiction in the Novels of T.N. Maumela. Pretoria: Kagiso Publishers.
Maumela, T.N. 1974. Vhavend√a Vho-Matshivha. Johannesburg: APB.
Maumela, T.N. 1968. Musandiwa na Khotsi Vho-L√iwalaga. Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik.