Journal of Rural Studies 94 (2022) 287–294

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Rural Studies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jrurstud

Improving the framework for analyzing community resilience to

understand rural revitalization pathways in China
Ruoyan Zhang a, Yuan Yuan b, *, Hongbo Li c, Xiao Hu c
a
School of Architectural Engineering, Jinling Institute of Technology, Nanjing, 211169, China
b
School of Public Administration, Hohai University, Nanjing, 211100, China
c
School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Community resilience (CR) is receiving increasing attention within rural studies, especially as many rural
Rural transition communities, worldwide, appear to be gradually declining. In 2017, the Chinese government outlined a “rural
Community resilience revitalization strategy”, which recommends four pathways for revitalizing rural communities and helping them
Social-ecological systems
to withstand external shocks. To advance understanding of rural revitalization pathways in China, we developed
Slow-onset disturbances
Diversified pathways
an improved conceptual framework for analyzing CR. The study’s innovativeness lies in its integration of
Rural revitalization principles for building social-ecological resilience into the framework, and the provision of a step-by-step process
for analyzing CR. We analyzed major risks and shocks faced within each of the four revitalization pathways in
China on the basis of a literature review, and identified key slow variables and their mutual effects as well as
corresponding thresholds and core indicators. Our results showed that slow-onset disturbances, which differ
greatly among the four pathways, pose the greatest threat to CR. However, the impacts of slow variables on rural
communities are often ignored as they are difficult to observe. Therefore, rules should be introduced to avoid
shortsighted decisions in policymaking. Our findings can provide valuable inputs for the implementation of rural
revitalization pathways in China. Moreover, they highlight the need for more empirical case studies focusing on
diversified pathways.

1. Introduction communities (Li et al., 2016). CR is generally understood as “the ability

of a community exposed to slow-or fast-onset shocks/disturbances to
In recent years, there has been growing interest in community resist, absorb, accommodate and recover from shocks/disturbances
resilience (CR), especially given that many rural communities world­ including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic
wide appear to be becoming gradually less resilient during the transition structures and functions” (Wilson, 2012). However, studies on rural
process (Li et al., 2019). Faced with challenges such as climate change, transition pathway conducted from the perspective of CR have largely
the outflow of young adults, and socio-economic ruptures (Muilu and focused on communities in developed countries, with less emphasis on
Rusanen, 2003; Rigg, 2006; Kelly et al., 2015; Wilson et al., 2018a), developing or transition economies (Wilson et al., 2018b).
certain communities—typically traditional, self-sufficient agricultural China, which is the largest developing country in the world, is
communities—reveal a declining trend, and those that are incapable of currently undergoing processes of rapid industrialization and urbani­
handling external disturbances may even vanish altogether. Among zation. Almost 40 years after the reform and opening up initiative, the
rural communities that have endured in the face of these external patterns, elements, structures, and organizational relationships among
challenges, the dominant pattern of rural change has entailed a transi­ rural spaces are evidencing a trend of accelerated change and recon­
tion from depressed resource extraction and agricultural economies to struction (Long and Liu, 2016; Yang et al., 2020a). Some are becoming
service sector-oriented and amenity-based economies (Stokowski et al., more urbanized and others more distinctive and specialized, evolving
2021). Therefore, the concepts of “community-function” and “commu­ into industrial villages, tourist villages, or modern agricultural villages.
nity vitality” were introduced to evaluate the state of a given rural Still, others have gradually declined or even died out because of popu­
community and to assess the self-managing capacities of rural lation migration (Li et al., 2019). The diversification of previously

* Corresponding author. School of Public Administration, Hohai University, 8 Fochengxi Road, Jiangning District, Nanjing 211100, China.
E-mail address: yuany@hhu.edu.cn (Y. Yuan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.06.012
Received 15 March 2021; Received in revised form 12 June 2022; Accepted 29 June 2022
Available online 12 July 2022
0743-0167/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Zhang et al. Journal of Rural Studies 94 (2022) 287–294

homogeneous rural spaces into heterogeneous spaces suggests the among various domains that characterize socio-ecological systems, two
inevitability of the evolution of rural China according to different more types of capital (institutional and cultural) were added to the
transition pathways (Yan et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2021), with rural framework (Kelly et al., 2015). However, the application of the frame­
communities either gaining or losing their capacity for resilience against work for analyzing CR has been confined to limited case studies areas,
external challenges (Li et al., 2019). In light of unprecedented oppor­ such as the villages of Vent, a remote mountain community in the
tunities for development as well as associated challenges, in October Austrian Ötztal valley (Wilson et al., 2018a), and Hu in Sichuan prov­
2017, the Chinese government outlined a “rural revitalization strategy” ince, China (Wilson et al., 2018b). The authors of these studies suggest
aimed at solving serious rural issues, such as depopulation, aging, and that the notion of strong multifunctional quality can facilitate an un­
lack of economic opportunity (Liu et al., 2020). In September 2018, the derstanding of rural pathways of change and that the key advantage of
government issued the “Rural Revitalization Strategic Plan the framework is its applicability to any community (Wilson, 2010;
(2018–2022),” representing a continuation of the existing national Wilson et al., 2018b). However, in their study of Hu, they acknowledge
strategy, and indicating that the rural revitalization process has entered the difficulty of determining how representative the findings of this
the phase of concrete implementation (Li et al., 2018). The plan, rec­ individual case study are in relation to the resilience of rural commu­
ommends four core transition pathways for attaining revitalization in nities more broadly in China as well as those in other transition econ­
China: agglomeration and promotion, urban–suburban integration, omies (Wilson et al., 2018b). Application of the framework to a larger
characteristic protection, and relocation and mergers. Across vast number of communities may solve the problem of generalization, but
swathes of rural China, individual villages are being encouraged to the fact remains that there are countless villages, and it would be
follow one of the four core revitalization pathways according to their difficult to cover diversified transition pathways everywhere through
specific conditions and stakeholder planning. empirical research conducted on a limited number of rural communities.
The objective of this study was to develop an improved conceptual Therefore, we proposed to improve the conceptual framework by
framework for analyzing CR and to use this framework to advance un­ introducing guidelines relating to social–ecological resilience.
derstanding of rural revitalization pathways in China. Given that a Given that the complex interplay of various types of capital that
comprehensive conclusion regarding the four rural revitalization path­ foster resilience at the community level shapes a social-ecological sys­
ways could not be derived from a limited number of case studies con­ tem (Kelly et al., 2015; Stotten et al., 2021), knowledge derived from
ducted on sample communities, we analyzed CR of the four pathways on research on social–ecological resilience would be of great value. Theo­
the basis of a literature review. We expect this improved CR analytical retical and empirical studies in this field have revealed the diversity of
framework be scalable and applicable to diversified pathways, not just critical processes and keystone entities within different systems (Biggs
to individual communities. et al., 2015). Accordingly, identification of the key slow variables,
This paper is organized as follows. The next section presents a review feedback, and thresholds would address critical gaps and foster a better
on the extant research on CR analysis and outlines the reasons why understanding of these different systems (Scheffer et al., 2009; Biggs
research on social–ecological resilience was valuable for developing an et al., 2012). These recommendations could also be applied analogically
improved conceptual framework. Section 3 presents the improved con­ to processes of rural transition, which has been described as a combi­
ceptual framework for analyzing CR and elucidates its components. In nation of different types of multifunctional pathways (Wilson, 2007).
section 4, we analyze major risks and shocks facing each of the four
revitalization pathways in China, and identify the key slow variables and 3. Improving the conceptual framework for CR analysis
their mutual effects. Thresholds and core indicators of the four revital­
ization pathways are correspondingly distinguished according to the 3.1. Logic of the improved framework
results of the CR analysis. Section 5 presents a discussion on the policy
implications of implementing revitalization pathways in China, and the There is a broad consensus among scientists that no common
final section offers conclusions and comments on the innovativeness of approach exists for examining resilience (Cumming et al., 2005; Stotten
this study and its limitations. et al., 2021). In the conceptual framework proposed by Wilson (2010),
CR is explained as the product of various combinations of economic,
2. Literature review of CR analysis environmental, and social capitals, which give rise to varying levels of
multifunctionality. From the perspective of multifunctional rural tran­
Many studies have highlighted various issues surrounding resilience sition, in light of the ongoing process of globalization, agriculture is no
processes and suggested ways of analyzing them. Examples include longer the sole driving force for the development in the rural commu­
methodological discussions on the subjectivity of some resilience in­ nities in many developed and developing countries. Moreover, the
dicators (Oudenhoven et al., 2011; Sharifi, 2016; Allen et al., 2016; Yang different forms of capital are considered to have positive as well as
et al., 2020a) and conceptual and theoretical discussions on the selection negative effects. A community is considered to be resilient and
of components, indicators, or domains of resilience for study (e.g., demonstrate strong multifunctionality if the combination of all three
Chaskin, 2008; Buikstra et al., 2010; Brand and Jax, 2017). Currently, a capitals results in a positive effect. Accordingly, if the positive effect is
large body of literature exists on fast-onset disturbances in the context of produced by the combination of two types of capital, then the commu­
climate change, natural disasters, and environmental change (Cannon nity is considered to have moderate multifunctionality, and if only one
and Müller-Mahn, 2010; Duffield, 2012; Khajehei et al., 2020). How­ (or no) capital produces a positive effect, then the community is deemed
ever, there has been much less focus on resilience and “slow-onset to be fragile and possess weak multifunctionality. In extreme cases, it
hazards” related to anthropogenic drivers of change, especially in terms may even be monofunctional.
of less clearly delineated anthropogenic disturbances, such as economic The existing framework has largely focused on what CR is. However,
recession or social change (Magis, 2010; Martin, 2012). to answer the questions of why CR works and how it can be analyzed, we
Emery and Flora (2006), who studied the impacts of slow-onset proposed to improve the conceptual framework and ensure its logical
disturbances on human communities, applied the Community Capitals integrity by adding the missing “why” and “how” elements. On the one
Framework to examine community change from a systems perspective. hand, interactions between different types of capital are complex, but
Acknowledging that contemporary rural space is an outcome of multi­ similar to the resilience of social-ecological systems (Biggs et al., 2012,
functional transitions (Holmes, 2006), Wilson (2010) proposed a con­ 2015). Specifically, those impacting CR are nonlinear and interlinked in
ceptual model for understanding rural community trajectories based on complex and often cumulative ways (Davidson, 2010). Accordingly,
economic, social, and environmental resilience and vulnerability of some principles for building resilience of social-ecological systems could
rural areas. To gain a deeper understanding of the complex interplay be introduced as helpful inputs for attending to the “why” issues. On the

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other hand, pathways of rural transition are becoming increasingly elements/interactions, which illuminates the key role of
diversified in the context of accelerated urbanization, which suggests resilience-fostering capitals and their mutually enhancing/offsetting
that the needs of rural communities relating to production, consump­ effects. This process clearly demonstrates the relevant components of
tion, and the ecology within economic and social development are dy­ the community system, enabling the identification of those that are
namic as opposed to being uniform. Consequently, key slow variables vulnerable or resilient, and highlights groups of actors that are overly
should be dialectically analyzed along with the pathways chosen by connected. The third principle suggests that slow variables typically
rural communities. An operable process of CR analysis targeting diver­ determine the underlying structure of any given system, with the pos­
sified pathways is needed to solve the “how” problems. sibility of changes in slow variables and feedbacks leading to nonlinear
This exploratory study sought to improve the framework for changes or regime shifts in a system if certain thresholds are exceeded
analyzing CR by answering the following questions: Why should prin­ (Walker et al., 2012). Bearing these points in mind, we suggest that the
ciples for building resilience be introduced? What leads to resilient threshold is a crucial element, which is foregrounded in the following
communities, and how can CR be analyzed using a step by step pro­ analytical process.
cedure? As shown in Fig. 1, the improved conceptual framework for CR The four types of capital—economic, social, environmental, and
analysis comprises three components: guiding principles from research cultural—are interlinked in complex ways in the “what” component,
on social-ecological systems that constitute the “why” component; four generating mutually enhancing/offsetting effects. Most importantly, like
resilience-fostering capitals—economic, environmental, cultural and the topological features revealed by the Möbius strip, interactions
social—constituting the “what” component, as well as their mutual ef­ among the different types of capital, ultimately lead to the resilience or
fects; and the process of CR analysis targeting diversified pathways, vulnerability of rural communities. Wilson (2012) noted that the types
which constitutes the “how” component. of capital impacting CR are interlinked in ways that are complex and
often cumulative. This would explain why interactions among eco­
nomic, social, environmental, and cultural capitals in the improved
3.2. Explanation of the three components framework could lead to the “Matthew effect”. That is, rural commu­
nities with strong multifunctionality can potentially enhance their
Principles for building resilience of social-ecological systems have multifunctionality, whereas those with weak multifunctionality
been introduced as guidelines within the improved framework to (vulnerable communities) only have singular functionality. For
address the “why” component. In recent decades, the expanded concept example, rural communities with attractive scenic assets or geographical
of social-ecological resilience has gained popularity among social sci­ advantages are more likely to attract opportunities for enhancing their
entists (Maclean et al., 2014; Matarrita-Cascante et al., 2017). Given economic capital. Further, the Möbius strip implies that core indicators
their characteristic of long-standing human-environment interactions, that characterize the multifunctionality of various types of capital
rural communities can be understood as comprising a system that in­ within the framework often accompany, and can be transformed into,
cludes mutually interacting societal (human) and ecological (biophysi­ each other as a result of external disturbances. For example, in rural
cal) subsystems, with social and ecological resilience factors being of communities endowed with natural scenic spots or places of historical
equal importance (Harrington et al., 2010; Colding and Barthel, 2019). interest, agriculture is not the only source of income; nor is it always
In this regard, knowledge relating to social-ecological resilience could highly intensive. Rural residents have opportunities to gain additional
provide guiding inputs in CR analysis. Three key principles are perti­ (non-agricultural) income through tourism development. The enhanced
nent: maintaining diversity and redundancy, managing connectivity, effects can result in good living conditions for rural communities and
and managing slow variables and feedbacks (Biggs et al., 2015). The create a more open social environment wherein villagers and other or­
reason why these principles are valuable for CR analysis is outlined ganizations can participate in the governance of the village, promote
below. The first principle highlights the importance of identifying crit­ democratic procedures, and provide education and other public
ical processes or keystone entities within different systems, which in services.
turn foregrounds significant variations in key slow variables and their A step-by-step process of CR analysis targeting diversified pathways
mutual effects across diversified pathways. The second principle re­ is include in the “how” component. The process of analysis draws on
quires the mapping of connectivity and the identification of important

Fig. 1. An improved conceptual framework for CR analysis (Source: authors).

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combined knowledge from the guiding principles, entailing the identi­ Resettlement features in China’s rural development policy as a tool for
fication of critical processes or keystone entities within different sys­ addressing environmental and poverty concerns in a rapidly changing
tems, important elements and interactions, and slow variables that world (Liu et al., 2017). Table 1 presents the characteristics of each type
typically determine the underlying structure of any given system. As of revitalization pathway, as well as major risks and shocks associated
previously noted, the improved conceptual framework has a stronger with each pathway.
focus on the impacts of slow-onset disturbances on human communities.
Thus, when it comes to the application of CR analysis to rural transition 4.2. Results obtained from the CR analysis
pathways, key slow variables and the mutual effects of diversified
pathways should be determined after the various major risks and shocks Following the step-by-step CR analytical process, we identified the
associated with each pathway have been identified. According to Biggs key slow variables and the mutually enhancing/offsetting effects of the
et al. (2015), systems encompass and are affected by multiple variables
that change and interact across a range of timescales. For instance, in Table 1
any given social-ecological system, slow variables typically determine An overview of the four revitalization pathways.
the underlying structure and are often linked to ecosystem service
Types Characteristics Major risks and shocks
regulation. Social variables, including legal systems, values, and tradi­
Agglomeration • Encompasses large-scale • Continuing engagement in
tions, can also be important slow variables. Mutual effects occur when a
and promotion central villages and other labor-intensive industries
change in a particular variable, process, or signal either reinforces still-existing natural • Thin profit margins due to
(enhancing effects) or dampens (offsetting effects) subsequent changes villages rising production costs and
of the same type. Significantly, when a critical threshold is crossed, a • Abundant cultivated land the over capacity of
different set of effects becomes predominant, and the system will reor­ resources, convenient production (Wei, 2004)
traffic, and promising • Sufficient financial support
ganize itself into a new regime with a different characteristic structure
industrial development for urban restructuring and
(Walker et al., 2012). Last but not least, core indicators of corresponding • Appeal to rural laborers in development of high-tech
diversified pathways from relevant resilience-fostering economic, social, the vicinity industries (Yuan et al.,
environmental, and cultural capitals need to be distinguished. • Consumption and 2014)
ecological structures • Global financial crisis
remain traditional
4. Understanding rural revitalization pathways in China Urban-suburban • Located mainly in the • Relatively low-quality con­
integration suburbs of cities or key struction, severe infra­
4.1. An overview of the revitalization pathways towns structural deficiencies, and
• Strong population deterioration of the urban
mobility; a high environment (Lang et al.,
At the onset of the 21st century, a shift from urban-biased circum­ proportion of land is non- 2016)
stances to complete support of agriculture, villages, and peasants was agricultural construction • Overlapping
apparent in China. This shift was followed by the formulation of the “No. land administrations and
1 Central Document”, which is a policy that has been released annually • Well-equipped with unclear lines of authority
amenities for meeting the (Xu et al., 2018)
by the central government since 2004, prioritizing rural areas. As a
urban life-style • More frequent traffic
coordinated urban–rural integration policy, the rural revitalization • Advantages of being the problems, environmental
strategy plan introduced in 2018 is aimed at solving key problems “back gardens” of cities, pollution, and low quality
relating to rural development and improving the competitiveness of with potential to be of life (Yan et al., 2018)
sustainable development through the achievement of industrial pros­ integrated into urban areas
Characteristic • Traditional ethnic • Ecological and social crises
perity, ecological livability, rural civilization, effective governance, and protection characteristics, a unique • Loss of recycling
prosperity in rural areas (Liu, 2020a; Yang and Pan, 2021; Li et al., culture or craftsmanship mechanisms for
2021b). Villages are encouraged to pursue the four types of revitaliza­ • Traditional architectural regeneration (Zhu et al.,
tion pathways according to the plan, availing of their own resource styles, historic sites, and 2021)
cultural heritage values • Limited success in
endowments or locational advantages to become resilient in the long
• Villagers are engaged in sustaining both the quality
run. Given that comprehensive conclusions cannot be drawn from the tourism-related work of amenities and valued
limited case studies that have been conducted on sample communities, • Residents’ consumption ways of life (Park et al.,
we conducted a literature review as the basis of an overview of the four structure reflects a modern 2019)
pathways presented in this paper. lifestyle • Under-developed product
branding
Here, we briefly introduce the four revitalization pathways. The first • Ineffective planning
pathway entails an agglomeration and promotion approach, which controls (Popescu et al.,
benefits directly from China’s urbanization and industrialization pro­ 2014)
cesses, which have been implemented since the commencement of the • Inadequate leadership or
conflicts among residents
reform and opening up initiative in the 1980s. The Sunan model, a well-
(Stokowski et al., 2021)
known transition pathway associated with the Yangtze River Delta Relocation and • Difficult living conditions, • Loss of land, employment,
urban agglomeration (Yuan et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2017) is an example mergers fragile ecological shelter, and access to
of this type. The second pathway entails urban–suburban integration, environments, and common property/services
which could be regarded as a strategy for dealing with unique phe­ frequent natural disasters (Cernea, 2000)
• Relocation becomes • Marginalization (reduced
nomena that have been evident during the process of China’s subur­ necessary due to economic mobility)
banization. Examples include urban fringe villages (Lang et al., 2016), construction of major • Increased morbidity and
non-locally governed urban villages (Xu et al., 2018), and urban–rural projects mortality
mixed communities (Yan et al., 2018). The third type, characteristic • Poor endowments of • Food insecurity; and
cultivated land, and low community disarticulation
protection, is a pathway particularly suited for villages with natural
carrying capacity of the (Yang et al., 2020)
scenic assets or sites of historical interest that they can use to transform ecological environment • Social security and welfare
themselves from traditional agricultural communities into tourism • Serious population as part of land acquisition
destinations, thereby eliminating poverty. The fourth pathway, which outflow and limited compensation are
entails relocation and mergers, is related to poverty alleviation reset­ opportunities for questionable (Qian, 2017)
industrial development
tlement (PAR), which is one of China’s key poverty-reduction initiatives.

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four revitalization pathways. We subsequently distinguished the Table 2

threshold and core indicators related to each of the resilience-fostering Results of CR analysis of the four revitalization pathways.
capital: economic, social, environmental, and cultural (see Table 2). Types Key slow Mutual effects (and Core indicators
Here, we present the specific results for each of the four pathways ob­ variables threshold)
tained through the CR analysis. Agglomeration • Industrial • Industry and • Employment
To examine the different pathways further, we considered the above- and upgrading (Zou population opportunities;
mentioned Sunan model to be a representative example of the agglom­ promotion and Zhao, agglomeration (E) revenue of
eration and promotion pathway. Compared with villages in the Pearl 2018) • Potential fiscal TVEs, and
• Influence of the deficits, and investment
River Delta region, where foreign-invested enterprises are a major original exposure to appeal (Ec)
driving force of institutional changes, economic transition, and spatial industrial base market (Yuan et al.,
restructuring, the Sunan model still accords important roles to domestic (Yuan et al., fluctuations (O) 2014)
capital and township and village enterprises (TVEs). In this process, 2014) (Phelps, 2015; • Air and water
• Local Yuan et al., 2014) quality (En)
local government remains a key agent in the context of China’s reforms,
government • Market demand • Population size
which initially emphasized decentralization. Thus, local governments autonomy (TH) (So)
are endowed with more autonomy and responsibility to develop local (Miao and • Technological
economies. However, if the thresholds, which are mainly determined by Phelps, 2019) literacy (Cu)
market demand, are crossed, negative effects will occur. Along with a (Hu et al.,
2000)
strong ambition for high-tech industrialization and the expansion of Urban- • Urban planning • Urban spillovers • Living costs,
construction land promoted under “development zone fever” (Zhang suburban • Environmental (E) consumption
et al., 2018), local governments may face potential fiscal deficits, lead­ integration regulations • Marginalization level (Ec)
ing to shortsighted decisions, such as the overdevelopment of real estate, (Lang et al., of agricultural • Dwelling
2016) culture; environment
and insufficient resources to support other service industries.
• Influence of the atomization (En) (Xu et al.,
The urban–suburban integration pathway is designed to solve the long lasting trend, and decline 2018)
long-standing contradictions associated with the urban–rural division, urban-biased of clan authority • Transportation
that originate in urban-oriented development strategies dating back to policy (Yang (O) (Lang et al., network, and
the era of China’s planned economy. Since the beginning of the 21st et al., 2021) 2016; Yang and public
• Community Pan, 2021) information
century, related policies, such as coordinated urban–rural development
cohesion • Adaptation to a service
(2002), urban–rural unity (2013), and urban–rural integration (2017) modern life-style facilities (So)
have been successively formulated. Consequently, the focus has shifted (TH) (Qian, 2017) (Yang et al.,
from the government having a coordinating role and the individual 2021)
• Family
status of urban and rural areas to shared development opportunities and
structure (Cu)
the equal status of urban and rural areas (Ma et al., 2020; Yang et al., Characteristic • Values and • Inheritance of • Foreign
2021). However, the thresholds may lie in the adaptation of modern protection traditions traditional culture investment and
lifestyles for villagers and their integration with traditional ways of life. • Supervision (Zhu et al., 2021) tourism
Unless the unique and endogenous value of rural areas is recognized, and regulation and attracting consumption
(Liu et al., foreign tourists (Ec) (Liu et al.,
outcomes relating to cultural creativity, public participation, local au­
2020) (E) 2020)
thorities, and community planning will not reach a more satisfactory • Social memory • Excessive • Appealing
level in this urban–rural integration movement. • Education and consumption of natural scenery
Villages suited to adoption of the characteristic protection pathway knowledge resources (Li (En)
transfer et al., 2019), • Local quality of
tend to develop tourism for tangible benefits. Economic gains, enhanced
(Falkowski intergenerational life and human
quality of life, and the improved health of local ecosystems, are positive et al., 2015) interruption (O) skills and
associated effects. Conversely, amenity-based recreation and the • Building a • Environmental knowledge (So)
development of tourism in rural places may also produce impacts that destination carrying capacity (Popescu et al.,
adversely affect local sustainability. For example, the construction of brand (Liu and culture 2014)
et al., 2020) inheritance (TH) • Rural property
seasonal and second-homes may result in land fragmentation, negative
rights (Cu)
effects on water quality and wildlife habitats, and infrastructure over­ (Vail and
load. Furthermore, long-term residents and newcomers may hold Hultkrantz,
different attitudes toward the goals and perceived impacts of develop­ 2000)
Relocation and • Willingness to • Sustainable • Agricultural
ment (Romao and Neuts, 2017; Stokowski et al., 2021). The thresholds
mergers relocate livelihoods, harvest,
are clearly related to the environment’s carrying capacity and the • De- control of diseases compensation
endurance of culture heritage, which indicate that the processes of agrarianization (E) (Yang et al., for land
planning, managing, supervising, and regulating implemented by local • Institutional 2020) acquisition (Ec)
governments (e.g., formulating development plans, protecting local arrangements • Left-behind elders (Qian, 2017)
for land and children, and • Natural disaster
culture and heritage, building environmentally friendly tourism options,
development population loss (En) (Yang
etc.) are important for achieving sustainable development (Liu et al., and spatial (O) (Wilson et al., et al., 2020)
2020). territorial 2018b) • Social security
The relocation and mergers pathway is an approach relating to reorganization • Habitability (TH) and welfare
China’s key poverty-reduction initiative. Progress in alleviating poverty (Qian, 2017) (So) (Qian,
• Poverty 2017)
in regions deemed unable to support sustainable livelihoods has been alleviation • Acceptance of
outstanding. Nevertheless, problems have arisen during the imple­ (Yang et al., centralized
mentation of this initiative. For example, the implementation of social 2020) living (Cu) (Liu
security programs as part of the process of land acquisition compensa­ et al., 2018)
tion has been unsatisfactory. This pathway’s threshold is linked to Note: E = Enhancing effects, O=Offsetting effects, TH = Thresholds; Ec =
habitability. To enhance CR during the PAR, the following efforts that Economic, En = Environmental, So = Social, Cu=Cultural.
incorporate environmental, economic, and cultural capitals are
required: improving the residential environment of the resettlement site;

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increasing the capacity and level of on-site supplies of public services, warning signals of a regime shift (Scheffer et al., 2009). A challenge
and solving the educational and health care problems of resettled peo­ associated with this approach relates to the need, in general, for very
ple; promoting multi-channel employment and increasing wage- detailed or long time series data to detect these changes (Dakos et al.,
incomes; and promoting traditional ethnic and folk cultures, skills, 2012). In such cases, introducing appropriate rules or incentives to
and arts in the areas of their origin to ensure their continuation. prevent shortsighted decisions on the promotion of rapid urbanization
can generate feedback that dampens the effect of such disturbances. This
5. Discussion recommendation has policy implications that are pertinent for to a
majority of local governments in China, given that agglomeration and
This comparative analysis of the four different pathways for promotion is the most widely accepted pathway for realizing
achieving rural revitalization in China reveals significant variations in revitalization.
the thresholds and core indicators among the four pathways. Impor­
tantly, it shows that the resilience of communities is jeopardized to a 6. Conclusions
greater extent by several slow-onset disturbances, such as outmigration
and social change, than by fast-onset disturbances such as natural haz­ Currently, the macro context of the development of rural regions in
ards or an economic crisis (Stotten et al., 2021). However, while there is China reflects a process of societal transition from traditional to modern.
increasing interest in resilience related to natural hazards, slow-onset This transition, which is associated with a regime shift from rural to
disturbances impacting rural communities in China have not received urban China, entails challenges, such as outflows of resources, lack of
sufficient attention. We posit that the main reason for this situation vitality, a shortage of basic public services, an aging population, and
could be that less attention has been paid to the interplay of diverse hollowing villages (Li et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2020b). Owing to the
actors within rural communities. large territory and socioeconomic differences across the nation, rural
CR often entails a quest for multiple forms of resilience within a communities across vast areas of China have shown diverse responses to
community that are pursued by highly diverse stakeholder networks, the developmental stage of urban–rural integration. Thus, both pros­
some of which may directly contradict and undermine the efforts of perous and declining rural communities coexist in China (Li et al.,
other groups to achieve maximum resilience (Allen et al., 2016). Taking 2021a). Against a background of urbanization and modernization, the
the pathway of characteristic protection as an example, the pursuit of four revitalization pathways recommended in the “Rural Revitalization
economic resilience, which could involve exploiting natural scenery or Strategic Plan (2018–2022)”, which are aimed at revitalizing rural
sites of historical interest, indicates that agriculture is no longer a core communities and helping them to withstand external shocks, will un­
industry, and that the amenity-based recreation and tourism function of doubtedly strengthen CR in the long run. To better understand rural
local development has become more important. Moreover, accompanied revitalization pathways in China, we attempted to develop an improved
by the process of de-urbanization, which is often characterized by conceptual framework for CR analysis, and identified the key slow
second-home ownership and gentrification, rural communities have variables and the mutually enhancing/offsetting effects of the four
evolved within a space filled with multi-capital and heterogeneous en­ pathways. We subsequently distinguished their corresponding thresh­
tities (Halfacree, 2012). Conflicts between local residents and outsiders olds and core indicators.
can have negative effects on social and environmental resilience, In this exploratory study, we sought to improve the conceptual
resulting in the possibility that the thresholds of culture inheritance framework for CR analysis by answering questions concerning “why” CR
continuity and environmental carrying capacity will be exceeded. To works, “what” is CR, and “how” can CR be analyzed to achieve the
avoid this situation, effective, preventive measures, such as negotiations logical integrity of the framework. The improved conceptual framework
held between public authorities within local communities’ public au­ comprised three components. For the first “why” component, we
thorities and mega-tourism project developers should be implemented introduced three key principles for building resilience of social-
during the processes of land expropriation and heritage conservation ecological systems as guiding inputs into the improved framework.
(Liu, 2020b). These principles were maintaining diversity and redundancy, managing
Thus, policy formulation aimed at enhancing CR within any of the connectivity, and managing slow variables and feedback. For the second
pathways should take into account the new energy injected into the “what” component, a Möbius strip was illustrated to interpret complex
process of rural transition by key stakeholders, such as villagers, com­ interactions among the four types of capital (economic, social, envi­
munity leaders, foreign individuals, and enterprises. Although abundant ronmental, and cultural), which determine the resilience or vulnera­
evidence suggests that participatory strategies could contribute to bility of rural communities by generating mutually enhancing/offsetting
enhancing CR, the participation of groups focused more on short-term effects. For the third “how” component, we introduced a step-by-step CR
gains undermines rather than enhances resilience. Thus, it matters analytical process, with the aim of expanding the applicability of the
who participates and what they contribute, as well as who bears the framework beyond individual communities, as in the existing literature,
costs and who benefits from the processes entailed in a specific pathway. to diversified pathways. The innovativeness of this study lies its inte­
Another possible reason for insufficient attention to slow variables is gration of principles for enhancing social-ecological resilience into the
that they are often ignored in monitoring and management processes, as improved conceptual framework for CR analysis. This approach is
attention tends to focus on fast variables that show more variability, grounded in an understanding of rural communities as systems that
respond over short timescales, and are often easier to observe (Biggs encompass human and biophysical subsystems engaged in mutual in­
et al., 2012). Taking the pathway of agglomeration and promotion as an teractions. According to this principle, the critical processes and
example, the motivation of local governments to promote economic keystone entities within different social-ecological systems are diverse,
growth may lead to the pursuit of rapid urbanization and industriali­ and this understanding can be applied analogically to rural transition,
zation in rural regions in what, for example, has been termed “devel­ conceptualized as a combination of different types of pathways from a
opment zone fever” (Yuan et al., 2014) or “featured town fever” (Miao multifunctional perspective.
and Phelps, 2019). Compared with the visible rapidly urbanized rural In light of a literature review, we analyzed major risks and shocks
regions, policy makers are more likely to ignore potential fiscal deficits associated with each of the four revitalization pathways in China, and
and excessive resource consumption, which in turn erodes economic and identified the key slow variables and their mutual effects. We also
environmental resilience by exceeding the upper boundary of the distinguished their corresponding thresholds and core indicators. Our
threshold relating to market demands. Emerging work on findings indicate that the motivation for local governments pursuing a
social-ecological resilience has shown that as a system approaches a pathway of agglomeration and promotion to promote economic growth
critical threshold, there are statistical changes that can provide early should be consistent with the market demands. This conclusion is based

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on the phenomenon of combined rapid urbanization and industrializa­ Chen, C., Gao, J.L., Chen, J.L., 2017. Institutional changes, land use dynamics, and the
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Wuxi city. Habitat Int. 70, 24–33.
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empirical measurement of resilience. Ecosystems 8, 975–987.
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Third, rural communities pursuing the pathway of characteristic pro­ warnings of critical transitions in time series illustrated using simulated ecological
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Ruoyan Zhang: Conceptualization. Yuan Yuan: Conceptualization, targeted poverty alleviation strategies. J. Rural Stud. 52, 66–75.
Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition. Liu, Y.S., 2020a. The basic theory and methodology of rural revitalization planning in
China. Acta Geograph. Sin. 75 (6), 1120–1133.
Hongbo Li: Supervision. Xiao Hu: Writing – review & editing. Liu, Y.S., Zang, Y.Z., Yang, Y.Y., 2020. China’s rural revitalization and development:
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Science Foundation of China (42001196) and the Fundamental Research Long, H.L., Liu, Y.S., 2016. Rural restructuring in China. J. Rural Stud. 47, 387–391.
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