LESSON 1 - excellent public speakers who trained their

students to win each and every argument they

PHILOSOPHY: What Is It and Where Did It Originate?
participated in
PHILOSOPHY – love for wisdom
PHILOSOPHOS – means “lovers of wisdom”
- from 2 GREEK WORDS:
- group that disagreed w/ the sophists’ methods
● PHILOS – love
- believed that teaching is more than just training
● SOPHIA – wisdom
people to win arguments
- science or discipline w/c uses human reason to
- believed that arguments and discussion must be
investigate the ultimate causes, reasons, and
based on sound reasoning
principles w/c govern all things
- pioneers of today’s philosophers
ASIAN COMMUNITIES – had thriving school of thoughts - CENTRAL BELIEF: Man need not to know all
and belief systems since 2000 BCE things in the world, but one must continue to
inquire and seek to understand and learn
ANCIENT GREECE – west about the human condition.
- where the 1st philosophical schools emerged
around the 6th century BCE *Teaching & learning should be an opportunity to learn
the truth of all things in this world, and all real wisdom
*These schools of thought gave rise to changes and
should strive to achieve truth aside from knowledge.
developments w/c brought about the emergence of
philosophy as we know it at present. PYTHAGORAS – one of the Philosophos’ leaders

What Development Brought About the Emergence of *The philosophers became pioneers in various fields of
Western Philosophy? knowledge such as history, biology, medicine,
mathematics, astronomy, and physics.
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY – primarily concerned w/
uncovering the truth through systematic MOST NOTABLE ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHERS:
argumentation theory
- greater emphasis on the use of reason rather ● PYTHAGORAS – 570 BCE to 495 BCE
than faith - mathematician and scientist
- increased focus on man as an individual - credited w/ the formulation of the
- led to development of a more scientific, theory- Pythagorean Theorem
based approach, more individualistic, self- - established a community of learners devoted to
oriented approach in analyzing human the study of religion and philosophy
condition ● HERACLITUS – 535 BCE to 475 BCE
- proposed LOGOS – everything that exists is
GREECE – home to one of the great civilizations during based on a higher order or plan
the Ancient Period - believed that change is a permanent aspect of
- most notable characteristics of Ancient Greek: the human condition
love for learning - credited w/ saying “No man ever steps on the
*For a Greek to claim himself a wise and learned same river twice.”
person, he must know a lot of things from various ● DEMOCRITUS – 460 BCE to 370 BCE
disciplines. - devoted to studying the causes of natural
phenomena
SOPHISTS – an important group that emerged and - among the 1st to propose that matter is
influenced learning in Ancient Greece composed of tiny particles called atoms
- teachers who traveled throughout Greece and ● DIOGENES OF SINOPE – 412 BCE to 323 BCE
taught people who wished to learn - known advocate of a simple and virtuous life
- learning was done through discussion and - believed that one should not only talk of virtue
argument but should show it in words and actions
 - emphasis on austerity and simplicity often went - believed that all ideas and views are based on
extreme that he was said to have lived like a perception and our reality is based on what we
beggar can sense and perceive – view that greatly
- a vocal critic of well-known philosophers like influenced the study of physical science
Plato and Aristotle - involved in the following discipline: ZOOLOGY,
- influenced the development of schools of PSYCHOLOGY, ETHICS, and POLITICS
philosophy like CYNICISM and STOICISM - DEDUCTIVE REASONING – process by w/c
● EPICURUS – 341 BCE to 270 BCE specific statements are analyzed to reach a
- believed that philosophy could enable man to conclusion or generalization
live a life of happiness ● ARCHIMEDES – 287 BCE to 212 BCE
- EPICUREANISM – school of philosophy w/c - Gained renown for practical aspects of his
believes that wisdom and simple living will philosophical inquiries
result to a life free from fear and pain - considered a leading scientist in Ancient Times
● SOCRATES – 470 BCE to 399 BCE - a mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor,
- considered the foremost philosopher of ancient and astronomer
times - gave rise to MODERN CALCULUS
- known critic of intellectuals during his time but - pioneered the use of mathematics to analyze
did not claim to be wise natural phenomena
- considered himself a “midwife” – helped - credited for several inventions:
inquiring minds achieve wisdom ● ARCHIMEDES SCREW – a device for raising
- believed that philosophy could enable a man to water
live a life of virtue ● A method for determining volume using
- SOCRATIC METHOD – means of examining a displacement.
topic by devising a series of questions that let
How Did Western Philosophy Develop into A Modern
the learner examine and analyze his knowledge
Science?
and view regarding the topic
● PLATO – 427 BCE to 347 BCE WESTERN PHILOSOPHY SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT:
- student of Socrates, wrote down his writings
and incorporated some of his own ideas into ● STOICISM – Ancient Rome (1st Century BCE to 5th
them Century CE)
- teachings and writings were considered the - emphasis on morality, virtue, calm, and
foundation of Western Philosophy emotional fortitude
- THEORY OF FORMS – proposes that everything - NOTABLE PHILOSOPHERS:
that exists is based on an idea or template that ✔ SENECA
can only be perceived in the mind; these ✔ EPICTETUS
nonphysical ideas are eternal and unchanging ✔ MARCUS AURELIUS
- focused on the ideal society and proposed an ● SCHOLASTICISM – Medieval Period (5th to 15th
ideal model of government and society w/c is centuries)
ruled by wisdom and reason - Europe
- DIALECTIC – a method of inquiry where 2 - application of philosophy to define and explain
opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt to religious doctrines
arrive at new knowledge - NOTABLE PHILOSOPHERS:
- ACADEMY – Plato’s lasting contribution; an ✔ ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
institution of higher learning w/c was first of its ✔ ST. AUGUSTINE
kind in the west ● HUMANISM – Renaissance (14th to 17th centuries)
● ARISTOTLE – 384 BCE to 322 BCE - emphasis on the human person
- attended the academy - use of philosophy to understand society, nature,
- a prominent student of Plato and humanity
- disagreed w/ Plato’s theory of forms - NOTABLE PHILOSOPHERS:
✔ PETRARCH
 ✔ DESIDERIUS ERASMUS - Emphasis on the practical use of knowledge and
✔ NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI ideas
✔ FRANCOIS RABELIAS - NOTABLE PHILOSOPHERS:
✔ CHARLES PEIRCE
✔ WILLIAM JAMES
● RATIONALISM – The Enlightenment (17th to 18th ✔ JOHN DEWEY
centuries)
- reason and logic considered the basis of
knowledge and belief ● PHENOMENOLOGY - Modern Period (19th to 20th
- man has innate knowledge that can be accessed centuries)
through intuition or deduction - Experience is studied based on the subjective
- NOTABLE PHILOSOPHERS: viewpoint of the individual
✔ RENE DESCARTES - 15th Century French - NOTABLE PHILOSOPHER:
Philosopher ✔ EDMUND HUSSERL
✔ IMMANUEL KANTZ ● ABSURDISM - Modern Period (19th to 20th centuries)
✔ GOTTFRIED LEIBNIZ - Man will never understand the human condition
● EMPIRICISM - The Enlightenment (17th to 18th and the meaning of life
centuries) - NOTABLE PHILOSOPHER:
- knowledge is gained through the senses and ✔ ALBERT CAMUS
experience ● POSTMODERNISM, POST-STRUCTURALISM -
th th
- reliance on inductive reasoning to arrive at Modern Period (19 to 20 centuries)
generalizations - Analysis on how knowledge, ideas, and power
- NOTABLE PHILOSOPHERS: relations are defined
✔ DAVID HUME - NOTABLE PHILOSOPHERS:
✔ FRANCIS BACON ✔ JACQUES DERRIDA
✔ JOHN LOCKE ✔ MICHAEL FOUCAULT
● SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY - The
What Developments and Characteristics Define
Enlightenment (17th to 18th centuries)
Eastern Philosophy?
- discussions on the ideal human situation and
society EASTERN PHILOSOPHY – consists of schools of thought
- emphasis on individual rights and liberties w/c are often closely tied w/ religious beliefs
- NOTABLE PHILOSOPHERS: - often described as “wisdom” literature, where
✔ VOLTAIRE stories, sayings and texts encourage people to
✔ JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU adapt ethical and harmonious way of life
✔ THOMAS HOBBES - great emphasis on social relations, and the
✔ JOHN STUART MILL family and community are considered a central
● EXISTENTIALISM – Modern Period (19th to 20th aspect of life
centuries) - CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:
- Human experience is defined by the views, ✔ THEISTIC – belief in supreme being or
emotions, and actions of the individual deities
- NOTABLE PHILOSOPHERS: ✔ NONTHEISTIC
✔ SOREN KIERKEGAARD
GOAL OF PHILOSOPHY: to achieve a balanced life and
✔ FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE
find one’s role in society
✔ MARTIN HEIDEGGER
✔ JEAN PAUL SARTRE EASTERN PHILOSOPHY SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT:
✔ SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR
● JUDAISM (Israel, the Levant) – ca. 2000 BCE
● PRAGMATISM - Modern Period (19th to 20th
- Belief in one God (monotheism), who has a role
centuries)
in the ultimate destiny of mankind
- JEWISH PEOPLE - God’s chosen people
 - The observance of God’s commandments will - FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS – describe worldly
result in rewards existence as imperfect and influenced by
- A deeper study and understanding of God’s earthly desires and suffering (dukkha)
laws as revealed in the sacred scriptures will - EIGHT-FOLD PATH – done to rid oneself of
lead to wisdom desire and achieve liberation from suffering
- PROPONENTS: Abraham, Moses
- MAJOR TEXTS: Tanakh, Torah
● HINDUISM (India, South Asia) - ca. 1500 BCE - 2 MAJOR BRANCHES: Theravada Buddhism and
- Belief in a pantheon of gods Mahayana Buddhism
- 3 MAIN GODS: Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu - PROPONENTS: Siddharta Gautama (Buddha)
- SAMSARA - Belief in a cycle of birth, which is - MAJOR TEXTS: Tripitaka
broken when a person achieves moksha ● CONFUCIANISM (East Asia) - ca. 400 BCE
- MOKSHA – ultimate union with the Divine - The contemplation of the order of things can
- DHARMA – the fulfillment of duties and lead to self-transformation
behavior in accordance with the established - Self-Transformation - can lead to the
order in the world betterment of the family and society
- KARMA - Individual actions contribute to either - Human relationships are based on mutual
a good or bad effect in a person’s life obligations
- MAJOR TEXT: The Vedas - Individuals should perform their intended roles
● SHINTO (Japan) - ca. 600 BCE and contribute to social order
- an animistic religion influenced by Japanese - PROPONENTS: Confucius
myth and traditions - MAJOR TEXTS: The Five Classics
- the material and spiritual worlds are closely ● TAOISM (East Asia) - ca. 200 BCE
connected - YIN AND YANG - emphasis on the unity and
- RITUALS AND TRADITIONS - a way to connect harmony among opposing elements
with the spiritual world - Individuals must seek to understand and act in
- mankind and the world are essentially good and accordance w/ natural order
pure - PROPONENTS: Lao Tzu
- harmony and balance are essential in - MAJOR TEXTS: I Ching, Tao Te Ching, Zhuangzi
maintaining purity ● ISLAM (West Asia) – belief in one God (Allah)
● JAINISM (India) - ca. 600-500 BCE - THE FIVE PILLARS – shows commitment of faith
- Rejects the idea of a Creator ✔ SHAHADA – testament of faith
- Considers the universe as eternal and unceasing ✔ SALAT – daily prayers
- Time is a wheel w/c goes through cycles of ✔ ZAKAT – alms-giving
prosperity and suffering ✔ SAWM – fasting during Ramadan month
- Wisdom is developed through the practice of 5 ✔ HAJJ – pilgrimage to the holy city of
MAIN VOWS: Mecca
✔ AHIMSA – non-violence - Religion and society are closely intertwined
✔ SATYA – truth - UMMAH – community where all Muslims are
✔ ASTEYA – honesty members bounded by faith
✔ BRAHMACHARYA – chastity - 2 MAJOR BRANCHES: Sunni Islam and Shia
✔ APARIGRAHA – piety Islam
- Meditation, discipline, and respect for all life - PROPONENTS: Muhammad
- PROPONENTS: Mahavira - MAJOR TEXTS: Quran
- MAJOR TEXTS: Jain Agamas ● SIKHISM (India) - ca. 1440 CE
● BUDDHISM (South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia) - - God is believed to have created the universe
ca. 400 BCE and is present everywhere and in everything
- Shares a number of main beliefs w/ Hinduism
(samsara, dharma, moksha)
 - Man communicates w/ God through ✔ POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY – studies gov’ts
meditation, and his ultimate destiny is union w/ and deals w/ questions of justice, power
the Divine and the rights and obligations of citizens
- Believers must devote themselves to selfless ✔ METAPHYSICS – deals w/ questions
service and actions regarding reality and existence
- PROPONENTS: Guru Nanak
2 IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT PHILOSOPHIZING:
- MAJOR TEXTS: Guru Granth Sahib
● PHILOSOPHY IS A REFLECTIVE AND MEDITATIVE
ACTIVITY – it has no subject matter of its own
● A METHOD OF MENTAL EXERCISE

How Do We Characterize the Study of Philosophy?

Why is There a Need for Man to Philosophize?
PHILOSOPHY: A WAY OF ANALYZING FRAMEWORK SENSE OF WONDER – Plato
FRAMEWORK – way of thinking about the world - Man’s over-abounding curiosity drives him to
- composed of the views and beliefs of a person ask questions, some of w/c have no definite
INTERNAL QUESTION – questions dealing w/ our own answers
correctness and values - Drives the need of a philosopher to question,
- can be addressed using our own personal examine, and learn more
framework
DOUBT – Rene Descartes, rejecting/questioning old
EXTERNAL QUESTION – seek to question the very ideas, and doubted his own ideas
frameworks upon w/c people base their own beliefs and - A need to verify info/explanation before it is
views accepted as truth
- Critical and questioning perspective
PHILOSOPHY: AN EXAMINATION OF A PARTICULAR
AREA OF KNOWLEDGE EXPERIENCE – means to understand adverse or
*Philosophy goes hand-in-hand with other disciplines in challenging conditions, and to rise above them and gain
examining their fundamental purposes and evaluating new knowledge and perspectives
the changes they experience. - Karl Jaspers – 20th century Swiss-German
philosopher
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE – seeks to understand the
fundamental principles that guide scientific thought LOVE FOR WISDOM – insatiable desire for truth
- Socrates – “I know that I do not know”
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION – examines the basic tenets - “the unexamined life is not worth living”
of any faith

*Every aspect of knowledge can benefit from the

inquiring nature of Philosophy.

PHILOSOPHY: A DISTINCT AREA OF KNOWLEDGE W/

ITS OWN GOALS, CONCERNS, AND WAYS OF DOING
THINGS
- SEVERAL BRANCHES:
✔ PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON –
looks in the nature of man
✔ AESTHETICS – deals w/ beauty and what
makes things “beautiful”
✔ LOGIC – deals w/ correct reasoning
✔ EPISTEMOLOGY – discusses the nature
of knowledge and knowing
✔ ETHICS – deals with moral questions
and dilemmas
LESSON 2 ● CAUSALITY – causes of events and phenomena
- What is the ultimate cause of all things? What
MAJOR QUESTIONS IN PHILOSOPHY:
is our purpose in this world? To what extent
● REALITY – state of existence of things independent are our choices and actions considered “free”?
of human consciousness - ORIGIN
- What is real? Are we able to perceive and - PURPOSE – the explanation of a thing’s
understand reality and everything in it? function/goal, reason for a thing’s existence,
- includes physical things that we see, feel, taste, final or ultimate cause of a thing
and smell, and things that we cannot easily - AGENCY – the capacity of man to
perceive and comprehend govern/control his actions
- also include things that already existed, things - FREE WILL – the ability to choose among
that presently exist, and things that are yet to possible actions
exist - Other, however, point to other factors and
- Existence of “Objective and Absolute” reality – processes w/c influence individual actions such
everything that exists in reality has a specific as reason, belief, desire, and morality.
nature/character - CHOICE – important aspect of any discussion on
- Man has the ability to sense and perceive reality agency and free will
- GENERAL CATEGORIES: Concrete and Abstract - DETERMINISM – shows that each event is
- METAPHYSICS determined/influenced by a specific set of
- ONTOLOGY – branch of metaphysics that events/factors
focuses on the classification if existing things - DESTINY – a predetermined course of events
- TOPICS: concepts of time, space, nature of the leading to a specific outcome/future
universe, and nature of human being - ETIOLOGY – branch of Philosophy that studies
● CERTAINTY – perfect knowledge that is free from causality
error or doubt - TELEOLOGY – branch w/c deals w/ the question
- How do we know what we know? Are the of purpose
things that we know true? ● ETHICS – deals with the standards of right and wrong
- What philosophy seeks to achieve in its quest w/c define human behavior
for knowledge - How should one live his or her life? What is the
- TRUTH – central concept in the question of right course of action in the face of problems
certainty or dilemmas?
- KNOWLEDGE – related to question of certainty, - Discusses and defines concepts & principles w/c
means by w/c man is able to know are meant to govern reasoning and action
- RATIONALISM – believes that knowledge is a - Seek to formulate a set of standards and norms
priori knowledge – based on pure reasoning of “acceptable, correct, and good” behavior w/c
w/o the benefit of any experience are applied to daily life
- EMPIRICISM – considers knowledge to be a - IMPORTANT CONCEPTS: right and wrong, the
posteriori knowledge – knowledge gained from “greater good,” duty, obligation, and virtue
experience - ETHICS/MORAL PHILOSOPHY – branch that
- SKEPTICISM – questions the certainty of seeks to apply and analyze these concepts in
established doctrines/truths and believes that various situations, contexts, and cultures, &
the mind has limits in perceiving and recommends guidelines that will govern the
understanding reality – thus, all knowledge is decisions and actions of people
uncertain
What Methods and Tools Do Philosophers Use in The
- EPISTEMOLOGY – branch of philosophy that
Conduct of Their Study?
deals w/ the nature and extent of knowledge
STEPS IN PHILOSOPHICAL STUDIES/INQUIRIES:
SYSTEMATIC DOUBT – a skeptical attitude in looking at
ideas, events, or things
 - Each aspect of the topic in question is analyzed - FAMOUS ALLEGORY:
to determine its validity/truthfulness ✔ ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE – used by Plato
to describe his theory of forms and his
ARGUMENT – engage in discussion and debate on ideas
idea on how our perception affects
- Various perspectives on a topic are taken into
knowledge
consideration & examined
PRACTICAL USES OF PHILOSOPHY:
DIALECTIC – varied and differing ideas & perspectives
*Philosophy requires a person to engage in analysis
are analyzed and from the info gathered, new ideas &
and interpretation of concepts, definitions, arguments,
views are formed
and problems.
METHODS/PROBLEM-SOLVING DEVICES:
*Problem-solving and decision making are important
SOCRATIC METHOD – method of analyzing a topic by
aspects in life which can benefit from a knowledge of
formulating a series of questions designed to analyze its
philosophy.
various aspects, and examine & clarify a person’s views
on it *A philosopher is also a good communicator who can
clearly and adequately present his or her ideas.
AXIOMS – assumptions w/c are taken for granted in
philosophical discussions *Wisdom – one intended product of philosophizing,
- Provide foundation & direction in philosophical refers to a person’s ability to apply knowledge to daily
studies life particularly in making sound choices and judgment
- Eg. “existence exists”
- MAJOR AXIOM: existence of identity and *Knowledge of Philosophy can contribute to self-
consciousness development.

OCCAMS’S RAZOR – problem-solving device used in

analyzing possible explanations regarding a
phenomenon
- states that among possible explanations, the
one w/c has the least assumptions is the most
acceptable

FORMAL LOGIC – systematic analysis of the validity of

arguments and statements
- SYLLOGISMS – logical arguments presented as a
series of related statements
- Employs symbols, mathematics, & language
analysis techniques in the analysis

THOUGHT EXPERIMENT AND ALLEGORY – imagined

scenarios used to illustrate a certain problem/ describe
a theory
- FAMOUS THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS:
✔ AVICENNA’S “FLOATING MAN” –
discusses the relationship between
perception and the human mind
✔ SHIP OF THESEUS – illustrates problems
w/ the concept of an object’s identity
✔ PRISONER’S DILEMMA – explores how an
individual’s objectives and motivations
affect his willingness/ cooperation
LESSON 3 ✔ CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY – knowledge is shaped by
social forces & influences by culture and history
HOW DO WE USE PHILOSOPHYN TO FIGURE OUT
- Knowledge is gained as part of social experience
WHAT IS TRUE?
and requires interaction and collaboration
TRUTH – fact that has been verified
- lies at the heart of any inquiry - It is possible for knowledge and truth to change
- Knowledge must be truthful to gain validity and - E.g. our government being resistant to
acceptance recognizing divorce as a legitimate means to
- Concept remains a controversial and much- end a marriage, as society assigns great value to
discussed topic among philosophers the sanctity of marriage.
- A tricky concept in philosophy ✔ CONSENSUS THEORY – views knowledge based on
- Philosophers agree that it has no absolute agreement
measure - Something is true if almost everyone agrees
that it is true
KNOWLEDGE – simple data that comes from the outside - Often products: Certain beliefs, traditions, and
that pass to our senses practices as they may be imposed by influential
- must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance groups/institutions such as gov’t/religious orgs
JUSTIFIED, TRUE BELIEF – an ancient Greek - used to determine the truth of scientific claims,
philosophy’s concept of knowledge where experts must agree on a certain
- Something is true because you believe it to be phenomenon before it can be established as
true, and that there is JUSTIFICATION for it true
- A belief may be justified by using one’s ✔ PRAGMATIC THEORY – something is true if we can
perception and senses by appealing to authority put it into practice/is useful in real life
or using reasoning. - Believes that ideas should be continually tested
THEORIES ON THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE AND to confirm their validity
TRUTH: - E.g. Scientific method, where experiments are
✔ CORRESPONDENCE THEORY – states that something designed to test hypotheses/confirm
is true if it corresponds to reality/the actual state of conclusions
affairs VERIFICATIONISM – ideas must be verified using
- Assumes a direct relationship between an idea the senses/experience
and reality and that a statement can be taken as
OTHER THINGS TO CONSIDER IN DETERMINING THE
fact TRUTH:
- E.g. a mammal is an animal which is warm- ARGUMENTS – series of statements that provide
blooded, has hair, and feeds its young with milk, reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim
and a dog barks – true statements; pigs can fly – or opinion is truthful
false - often take the form of statements that are
✔ COHERENCE THEORY – something is true if it makes either claims of facts and are phrased in such a
sense when placed in a certain situation/context way that they seem reasonable
- There is a possibility that there will be varied
FALLACIES – arguments based on faulty reasoning; may
truths from different perspectives
be intentional
- has a certain degree of consistency which
renders truth FACT – generally established truths, easily verified, and
- e.g. Muslims belief that eating pork will render do not easily change from one situation to another
them unclean makes sense in the context of
Islamic faith. Non-Muslims do not share this OPINIONS – more subjective and may express certain
belief, thus do not subscribe to this practice. views and beliefs
- Important in the context of law and politics BIAS - personal views of the person presenting a claim
RELATIVISM – contends that there are no absolute - not necessarily errors but refers to tendencies
truths or influences which affect the views of people
 - “I have a right to free speech, therefore, you
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES: cannot stop me from talking.”
● ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM – attacking the - “God exists because the bible says so. Why can
person making the argument instead of the we trust what the Bible says? Easy, the Bible is
argument itself the word of God.”
- “Of course, he believes that the government is ● FALSE CAUSE/CAUSE-AND-EFFECT (POST HOC) –
flawed. He is a rebel and a Communist!” assuming a cause-and-effect relationship between
● APPEAL TO FORCE (ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM) – unrelated events
using the threat to force/an undesirable event to - “Ever since you bought that sweater, everything
advance an argument has been going wrong in your life. You should
- “If this peace agreement will not be signed by get rid of it.”
the government, then we will have no recourse - “Every time you get along, I’m prone to
but to go to war.” accidents.”
- “If you won’t agree with me, I’ll tell the world ● FALLACY OF COMPOSITION – assuming that what is
your dirty secrets!” true for a part is true for the whole
● APPEAL TO PITY/EMOTION (ARGUMENTUM AD - “These cases of robberies in this district have
MISERICORDIAM) – using emotions such as convinced me that the city has become a den of
pity/sympathy thieves and criminals.”
- “All these charges are baseless; this is just plain - “The active COVID-19 cases in the city have
harassment – can’t you see how this is affecting convinced me that this city is not a safe place to
my family?” live in right now.”
- “You can’t fire me, I have a wife and 12 kids ● FALLACY OF DIVISION – assuming that what is true
who will go hungry if I lose this job.” for the whole is true for its parts
● APPEAL TO THE POPULAR (ARGUMENTUM AD - “You come from a family of doctors and
POPULUM) – the idea is presented as acceptable intellectuals! Surely you can do better in this
because a lot of people accept it course!”
- “Every boy your age already has a girlfriend, you ● HASTY GENERALIZATION – The generalization is
should go and find one!” reached too hastily
- “Every teen your age already has a Youtube - There are too few instances or evidences to
channel, you should create your own!” support such a conclusion
● APPEAL TO TRADITION (ARGUMENTUM AD - “You can't speak French. I can’t speak French.
ANTIQUITATEM) – the idea is acceptable because it Carla can’t speak French; therefore, nobody in
has been true for a long time this school can speak French.”
- “Marriage should be between a man and a ● PERFECTIONIST FALLACY – Form of pseudo
woman. It has been so for a long time in this reasoning that uses a false dilemma in a particular
country; it should remain so today and in the way first assuming that the only two options for
future.” action is perfect success or nothing
● ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM – misusing - “What’s the point of living? We’re all going to
authority die anyway.”
- “A couple should consult a Chemist to test their ● STRAW MAN – Committed when a person simply
compatibility.” ignores a person’s actual position and substitute a
● DICTO SIMPLICITER – argument based on an distorted exaggerated or misinterpreted version of
unqualified generalization that position
- “Exercise is good. Therefore, everybody should - “We should relax the laws on beer.”
exercise” ● RED HERRING - Jumping into another issue instead
● BEGGING THE QUESTION (PETITIO PRINCIPII) – of dealing with the issue at hand
assuming the thing/idea to be proven is true ● WISHFUL THINKING (APPEAL TO CONSEQUENCES) –
- also known as CIRCULAR Believing in something because you desire to do so
ARGUMENT/CIRCULAR REASONING
 - “Why can’t mosquitos suck FAT instead of - “I do not agree with this Western practice of
blood.” placing the elderly in retirement homes. We
● ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM – Committed Filipinos take care of our family members.”
when it is argued that a proposition is true simply on ● FRAMING – focusing on a certain aspect of a
the basis; false because it has not been proven true. problem while ignoring other aspects
- Ghost - “Preliminary evidence has still not pointed out
● FALSE ANALOGY – Comparison is made between two the actual cause of the plane crash, but
ideas or objects that seemingly have similar investigators are currently focusing on the
characteristics but the comparison does not hold up possibility of pilot error.”
and differ in the area being compared ● HINDSIGHT (KNEW-IT-ALL-ALONG PHENOMENON) –
- “Getting married is like gambling” is when, after an event occurs, we feel we already
● EQUIVOCATION – use of ambiguous language to knew what was going to happen
conceal the truth or to avoid committing oneself - The tendency to see past events as predictable,
- an informal fallacy depending on the double or to ascribe a pattern to historical events
meaning of a word - “When you put a glass on the edge of a table
- You know what they say, “No man is an island”. and you start cleaning and bumped the glass
Well, I’m not a man. Therefore, I’m an island! and it fell to the ground and shattered into
● AMPHIBOLY (SYNTACTIC AMBIGUITY) – Claiming pieces.”
that the conclusion is true on the basis of the - “Magellan’s assault on Mactan Island was a
vagueness of the meaning of a word or phrase foolhardy venture, made by an overconfident,
because of how it is placed in a sentence. careless man who underestimated the valor of
- “NO PARKING FOR COSTUMERS ONLY.” the native Filipinos.”
● TU QUOQUE (YOU ALSO) – Claiming that the
LESSON 4
conclusion is true by placing blame on the person
with an opposing view for previously subscribing to THE NATURE OF MAN
the conclusion being opposed FOREMOST GOAL OF PHILOSOPHY: understanding the
- “Don’t copy my answers. Cheating is wrong.” “If nature and condition of man
cheating is wrong, then you shouldn’t have
MAN - A general term which is commonly used to refer
copied my homework last week.”
to the entire human race
COMMON BIASES: - Related terms: humanity, mankind, humankind
● CORRESPONDENCE BIAS/ATTRIBUTION EFFECT
HUMAN - Refers to man as species (homo sapiens
(FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR) – Tendency
sapiens or modern human beings)
to judge a person’s personality by his/her actions
without regard for external factors or influences PERSON - Refers to a human being granted recognition
- “The soldiers who fought in the war are all of certain rights, protection and responsibilities
bloodthirsty murderers.”
PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ABOUT THE NATURE OF MAN:
● CONFIRMATION BIAS – tendency to look for and
● BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE - Considers man as a part
readily accept information which fits with one’s own
of the natural world and a product of evolution
beliefs and reject ideas that go against it
- MODERN HUMANS (HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS)
- “How can I accept his view that there is no God?
– one of the most successfully adapted species
I am a Christian!”
on the planet
● CONFLICT OF INTEREST – a person or group is
- Humans are closely related to primates, esp.
connected to or has a vested interest in the issue
apes, but have developed distinct physical
being discussed
features: Bipedalism; highly developed hands;
- “As the daughter of the accused, I believe that I
smaller jaws and teeth; and larger, more
have the right to express my opinion on the
developed brains
issue of his alleged corrupt practices.”
● CULTURAL BIAS – Analyzing an event or issue based
on one’s cultural standards
 - PRIMAL INSTINCT - humans share the same - Economic forces are considered a greater
instinct with other animals; instincts for survival influence on the actions of man than society or
and reproduction culture.
- ADDITIONAL TRAITS OF HUMANS: ● THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE - Considers man as
➢Planning and Intentional action God’s creation
➢Innovation and creativity - Man is considered to have a special relationship
➢Communication through language and writing with the Creator, being created in His image and
➢Technology given an immortal spirit
➢Symbolic Interaction as evidenced by religion - Man’s existence was brought about by the
or art purposive creative act of God and his ultimate
- CULTURE DEVELOPMENT – man’s most destiny is part of a divine plan.
significant achievement w/c sets apart the
HOW DOES PHILOSOPHY DEFINE THE HUMAN
evolution of humanity from other species on
PERSON?
this planet
HUMAN PERSON - refers to the individual, and all the
● PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE - Places emphasis on attributes and characteristics that set him or her apart
human behavior and thought processes in analyzing from other human beings
human nature - SIGNIFICANT CONCEPTS: self, identity,
- MENTAL FACULTIES – enable man to possess personhood
awareness, sense of self, and the capacity to
perceive and experience AWARENESS OF SELF - One of the most unique traits of
- SIGNIFICANT MENTAL FACULTIES AND humans
CAPABILITIES OF MAN: SENTIENCE - Ability to feel and experience; both animals
✔ PSYCHE – refers to human mind and is and human beings possess
divided into the conscious and unconscious - The ability to perceive the surroundings and
mind react to stimulus such as pain.
- CONSCIOUS MIND – governs awareness - Humans not only experience and react to the
- UNCONSCIOUS MIND – consists of latent or world around them, but are also able to look
repressed emotions, thoughts and desires into themselves and be aware of their
✔ RATIONALITY - state of being reasonable distinctness and uniqueness
- the ability to understand experiences in
order to solve problems or do tasks, and VARIOUS VIEWS REGARDING THE SELF:
engage in decision making and judgement ● THE SELF AS INNATE – the self is an essential part of
✔ INTELLIGENCE - ability to perceive information, the human being, and self-awareness is natural and
store knowledge, and apply it in various situations innate
✔ INTROSPECTION - ability to examine one’s own - Religious views consider the concept of self as
conscious thoughts, feelings, and mental state, synonymous to the spirit or soul.
and the capacity for self-reflection ● THE SELF AS EMERGENT - Awareness of the self is
● ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE - Focuses on man’s ability gained through interaction with the world and other
to engage in productive activities in an effort to meet human beings.
his wants and needs ● THE SELF AS INTEGRATED AND DEVELOPING - Self is
- Emerged in the 19th century and places composed of varied elements that change over time
emphasis on the “ECONOMIC MAN” (HOMO IDENTITY - the distinct personality of an individual
ECONOMICUS) – Driven by rationality and self- - Said to persist through time, though certain
interest in his desire to possess wealth aspects may change
- Considers man as a productive being
- PRIMARY ROLE OF MAN: to produce and PERSONAL IDENTITY - composed of a person’s unique
engage in labor physical characteristics, mental attributes, experiences,
memories, ideas and views
PERSONHOOD – the recognition of a human being as a
distinct entity– a person

NOTIONS OF PERSONHOOD:
● PERSON as an AUTONOMOUS BEING – a human
being is considered a person if he or she possesses
the ability to determine his or her life through
“REASONED FREE CHOICE”
- assumes that man possesses reason, the
capacity for reflection, and the ability to engage
in decision making
- a major influence in determining the legal
definition of a human “person” and the
conventional concept of an “adult”
● PERSON as a “UNIFIED INDIVIDUAL” – the human
being has the inherent capacity to function as a
person
- Emphasizes the potential of the human being
and recognizes that each human possesses the
means to achieve his or her capabilities.
- Disabled people, the unborn fetus, infants, and
children are recognized as persons although
they may not fully possess the cognitive
faculties of an adult
● PERSON in RELATION TO OTHERS - a human
being becomes a person through interactions
with other human beings
- Remove a person from society and he/she
ceases to become a person
- KAROL WOJTYLA - asserts that the person is
defined by his or her actions and experiences
and through them achieves self-development
and fulfillment
LESSON 5 awareness and consciousness exists even if the body is
deprived of its senses
SPIRIT - the immortal, non corporeal essence of man
Rene Descartes – proposed that the mind and body
Embodiment - the central concept in discussing the
exist as two separate entities which interact with one
nature of the human soul
another
- primarily based on the discussion on the nature
of human consciousness Religious philosophers also pondered on the nature of
man but placed more importance on the spirit or soul as
*Embodied Cognition – man’s embodiment; that man is
the essential component of human existence.
able to perceive and experience reality through his
physical body St. Thomas Aquinas - believed that the soul is the “first
actuality” of the body; for there to be a body, there
*Enactivism - states that cognition arises through the
should first be a soul; soul has substance but has no
interaction between an organism and its environment
physical or concrete form, and is able to exist even
Christian doctrine - holds that the spirit is created by without the body
God and that is embodied in the human being; upon the
St. Augustine - considered the soul as the driving force
body’s demise, the spirit continues to persist into the
that governs the body and defines the human person
afterlife
HOW DOES THE SPIRIT DEFINE THE NATURE OF MAN?
*The spirit is also an essential element for the salvation
of mankind, as the departed spirits will be raised from Trichotomic View - holds that man is composed of three
the dead during the end times and shall receive the essential parts: body, soul and spirit
judgment of God.
Dichotomic View - gives no distinction between the
*Plato believed that human spirit or SOUL IS spirit and soul and views man as being composed of
COMPOSED OF THREE PARTS: body and spirit
- logos - the mind or the reason
Psychosomatic Unity - asserts that man is of a single or
- Thymos - emotion
unitary constitution and that the body and spirit are
- Eros - desire
inseparable and integrated
Aristotle - regarded the soul as integrated to the body;
IF THE SPIRIT EXISTS, DOES GOD EXIST?
the soul is the part of man’s essence which enables him
to achieve his ultimate purpose Theology - study of God and other religious concepts
Mind-body problem - considers the question of how Theologists - discuss the nature of God and use
mental or nonphysical are able to interact with the philosophical tools to define and understand the
physical body, and to what extent one influences the concept of divinity and religion
other
- included: God - acknowledged as the Supreme Being which
Physicalism - believes that physical processes governs all existence, and the center of faith and
determine the state of the mind devotion of a religion
Idealism - holds that mental processes and Monotheism - belief in a single God; Christians’ belief
thoughts are the only reality
Monism - argues that the human being is CHARACTERISTICS OF GOD:
composed of elements that are neither physical Omniscience - God is all-knowing
nor mental Omnipotence - God is all-powerful
- Dualism - another view that believes in the
distinctiveness of the physical and mental Benevolence - God is perfectly good, just and all-loving
nature of man.
Omnipresent - God is ever-present
Avicenna’s Floating man thought experiment - by
Islamic philosopher, Avicenna; argued that self-
Divine Simplicity - All attributes are integrated and representation of the greatest ideal, “the
embodied by him – God is not just “good”; he is greatest good”, and it is from Him that all
goodness itself standards of goodness are based” during the
early twentieth century
Eternal - God is timeless and has no beginning and end
FORMS OF RELIGIOUS BELIEF:
Omni temporal - God exists in all places
- Theism - the viewpoint or belief in the existence
IF THE SPIRIT EXISTS, DOES GOD EXIST? of God or Deities
- Agnosticism - the view which considers
Philosophy has long debated the concept of God and metaphysical concepts such as God to be
Divinity. inherently unknowable
Theologians have embarked theology on the study of - Atheism - the rejection or nonbelief in the
God through the analysis of sacred texts (Revealed existence of God
Theology). IF GOD EXISTS, WHAT IS HIS ROLE IN OUR LIVES?
While some have employed reason to substantiate the God plays a central role in redemptive salvation as it is
existence of God (Natural Theology). through Him that saving faith is effected.
Studies in natural theology have given the rise to God also takes an active role in the human condition,
several arguments on the existence of God: divine providence through blessings, miracles, divine
- Ontological Argument - contends that since inspiration, and revelation.
man, a rational being is able to conceive the
notion of a Supreme Being, then it holds to God’s presence in the universe may be seen as either
reason that such Supreme Being exists. immanent or transcendent.
- Theological argument - focuses on the purpose
Immanence - regards God as manifesting himself in the
a God would play in the universe; argues that
world as a unique entity
Supreme Being is necessary for the continued
existence of an orderly but complex universe Transcendence - depicts God as existing outside the
- Cosmological argument - takes into account the material world, and whose presence is beyond physical
nature of existence and the universe and laws and even human knowledge and understanding
recognizes the existence of God as an
Christian belief adopts a panentheistic view of God,
explanation how things came to being in our
that God is both beyond and within the universe.
reality
- Saint Thomas Aquinas - proposed several Other religions adopt the pantheistic view that God is
arguments which point to God as the “Prime an all-encompassing presence in the universe and has
mover”, the “first cause of existence”, and the no distinct presence as an entity.
“source of being” of reality and the universe.
- Gottfried Leibniz - German philosopher and Some faith profess a pandeistic view, where God was a
mathematician that based the belief on the distinct entity but lost this state when He transformed
existence of God on the “principle of sufficient Himself into the universe.
reason” HOW CAN WE APPLY SPIRITUAL CONCEPTS IN OUR
- Kalam cosmological argument LIVES?
“Everything that has a beginning has a cause.
The universe has a beginning. - prayer, meditation, visions
Therefore, the universe has a cause.” - belief, adherence to certain doctrines and
traditions, performance of meaningful rituals,
- Moral argument - holds that man’s ethical and ethical behavior
nature is brought about by the existence of God
LESSON 6
William Sorley - Scottish philosopher who
introduced the view that “God is the Philosophy and Man’s Relationship with Environment
Environmental Philosophy - branch of philosophy that - Deep Ecology - sees the natural world as being
is concerned with the natural environment and maintained by the interrelationship among
humanity’s place within it living organisms and that every living thing on
the planet is dependent on each other for
- Emphasize the role of humans to various
survival
environmental changes.
- the discipline that studies the moral Regards human interference as a significant
relationship of human beings with the threat to the natural world and all living things
environment and its non-human contents
- Gaia Hypothesis - suggests that non-organic
- As a rational being, the person is not only
elements in the planet play a significant role in
capable of transforming the world, but also of
maintaining balance in the environment as they
understanding the laws which govern nature. It
interact with living organisms to regulate the
can be said that the world is a text which the
various systems that enable life to continue
person can read and understand in order to live
thriving on earth.
a better life. Human may treat it as:
- Theological View - holds that mankind is
1. A source of raw materials to be used in any intended to live in harmony with all creation.
way he pleases
Man’s lordship over nature as a ministerial act.
2. As something that envelops and surround
Philosophical Views’ Influence in Environmental
him, and thus have a unique relationship with it
Action:
This means that persons can help the
Environmental Ethics - emerged in the 1970s
environment become greater than what it
originally is. - Advocated human responsibility and action with
regard to environmental issues
PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS OF ENVIRONMENT:
- Emphasizes key ideas that combine
- Anthropocentrism - belief that humans are the philosophical, pragmatic and theological
central and most significant species on the perspectives
planet. - It serves as a basis for reflecting on how our
actions show our regard for nature. It also
Humans are considered the primary cause that
guides us in upholding the welfare of the
drives changes in the environment.
environment and everything in it.
- Biocentrism - believes that humans are not the
1. All nonhuman elements of the world,
only significant species on the planet, and that
including animals and natural resources have
all other organisms have inherent value and
intrinsic value and should be preserved.
should be protected.
2. The preservation of the environment is
This view advocates ethical treatment of
beneficial for humans, as it will continue to
animals.
provide for the present and future generations.
- Ecocentrism - places great value on ecosystems
3. Man has a responsibility to safeguard the
and biological communities
planet as it has been entrusted to him by God
Believes that humankind is a part of a greater
Environmental Views/Concepts:
biological system or community and that we
have a significant role as stewards or guardians - Social Ecology - applies an ecological and ethical
of nature. approach in analyzing society, and sees a
relationship between social problems and
Promotes the idea that order and balance in
environmental problems
nature brings about stability and beauty.
- Environmental Justice - Refers to fair
distribution of environmental benefits, as well
 as the burden of meeting environmental ● Equity – demands that we use our natural
challenges. resources in such a manner that these are
- Climate Ethics/Climate Justice - considers conserved so that the next generation will be
climate change a significant ethical, social, and able to use them.
political issue
Prudence - the ability to regulate one’s actions
- Environmental Aesthetics - philosophical view
and behavior
that believes maintaining order in the
environment will bring out the natural beauty Frugality - being thrifty with the use of one’s
of the surroundings and contribute to the well- resources
being of the people and other organisms living
in it. John Donne - “No man is an island, entire of itself; every
man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.”
The appreciation of natural beauty brings about
the concern for the environment and helps
people relate more effectively with nature.

- Environmentalism - advocates to address the

growing environmental problems. It has
become an important issue in international
politics as governments and international
organizations have devoted efforts to discuss
environmental issues and formulate plans to
address them

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - concept that focuses on

reconciling human activities and economic development
with the protection of the environment.

- Major ideas:

1. We must make wise decisions regarding the

use of natural resources to ensure that there is
still enough left for future use.

2. The misuse of resources often means that

other people do not get to benefit from it.

PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABILITY:

● Environmental integrity – refers to maintaining

the state of the environment.

This means that human activities should not

unduly disrupt the ecosystems and human
communities located in the area

Care should be taken that the surrounding

landscape is not drastically impacted by human
activities.

● Economic efficiency – refers to prudence in

decision-making regarding the use of resources
to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste.
INTERSUBJECTIVITY - Dialogue is made possible when the self realizes
EXISTENTIALISM & PHENOMENOLOGY that the other is a genuine and unique individual.
- Major philosophical branches that devote much - The beginning of an authentic relationship and a
discussion on the concept of interpersonal dialogue is when individuals begin to view each
relations. other as and truly acknowledge each other’s
- These relate the concept of interpersonal presence.
relations to self-awareness and transcendence.
- SELF – Awareness of individuality PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS ON HUMAN
- It is an egocentric perspective that defines how RELATIONSHIPS
he or she perceives and relates to reality. ● Existentialist View (consider human relationships as
- Existentialist perspective defines interpersonal a defining influence of human life)
relations as the self (being aware of the other). ● Constructivist View of Knowledge (human relations
- The OTHER generally refers to objects outside shape knowledge and truth within a certain society)
of personal experience. ● Phenomenologists (shared experience between
- Simply, an individual is naturally aware of herself persons can shape the perception of reality)
or himself as a distinct being as well as she/he is * Philosophers agree that it is important for humans to
aware of the existence of the others. pursue and achieve genuine relationships to attain
development.
INTERSUBJECTIVITY - Shared awareness and
understanding among persons. CONFLICTING VIEWS ON HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
- Everyday social interactions (ability to agree and - Considers genuine relationships as difficult and
cooperate, sharing, common knowledge and almost impossible to attain.
consensus, and shared emotions) - Jean-Paul Sartre (considers human
relationships as frustrating and often inauthentic
LEVELS OF SELF-OTHER INTERACTION and ambiguous)
1. Awareness of the Existence of the other - According to Sartre, humans tend to view others
- E.g. Saw other people walking in the street, as a means to achieve certain desires.
Reading books in the library, Eating in a fast - ALIENATION – an individual ceases to view
food chain or restaurant others as an authentic person and considers
2. Awareness of the Self as being seen by the Others them as mere objects.
- E.g. When someone you are watching over - Karl Marx (believes that alienation gives rise to
stops and suddenly looks at you, When exploitation of people)
someone stares at you, When someone - Edith Stein defines the self-other relationship as
observes your behaviour. being driven by EMPATHY (the awareness that
the other is a person with thoughts and feelings)
SELF-OTHER INTERACTION - Edmund Husserl (believes that intersubjectivity
● Human Gaze (defining characteristics that sets is more that just shared understanding, but is the
apart human interaction from the interaction of other capability to put oneself in the place where the
species) other is)
- Important element in all other aspect of - Gabriel Marcel (defines genuine relationship
interpersonal interaction based on AVAILABILITY – willingness of a
- The way an individual acts with other people is person to be present and be at the disposal of
often influenced by our ideas of how these another
people see us. - Ethics of Care (emphasizes the moral
● Seeming (individual presents himself or herself in a dimension of relationships and interactions)
certain way when dealing with others) - This moral perspective encourages individuals to
- Martin Buber - describes persons as taking on see to the needs of other people, especially the
“roles” or characters with certain people or vulnerable.
situations.
- It is considered as an unconscious natural act of CHRISTIANITY AND HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
humans. - Considers human relations in the context of
● Dialogue (much deeper level of interaction) community.
- This refers to a genuine relationship established
among individuals.
- The Christian perspective on relations compels
us to be sympathetic most especially to the least
of our brethren.
- The marginalized in society, particularly the poor
and the disabled are among those who should
be considered as deserving of assistance,
kindness and care.
ON HAPPINESS - WELFARE - refers to the satisfaction of a
person’s wants and desires
John Stuart Mill - “I have learned to seek my happiness - DIGNITY - ability to control and define one’s own
by limiting my desires, rather than in attempting to satisfy destiny, and freedom to live a life of one’s
them.” choosing.

PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ON HAPPINESS Happiness can be defined in two ways:

● ANCIENT GREEKS 1. It can be interpreted as a state of mind.
- EUDAMONIA - refers to a person’s state of well- 2. It can be an evaluation of one’s experiences in life.
being or happiness.
- PLATO - equates happiness with living a moral How can one live a happy life?
life, practicing virtues, fulfilling personal duties, - ARISTOTLE - to achieve happiness, a person
and controlling one’s desires. must plan his or her activities, and form a set of
- ARISTOTLE - Happiness is the primary reason life goals to achieve a worthwhile life.
for human action, and one becomes happy - EPICUREANS - Happiness is possible by
through the practice of virtues and the appreciating the simple pleasures of life and to
accumulation of achievements. commit a virtuous life.
- EPICUREAN - Happiness means a life of peace - ST. AUGUSTINE - happiness can be found in
that is free from fear and discomfort. the afterlife when the spirit reunites with God.
● RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHERS - JEREMY BETHAM - happiness is achieved
- ST. AUGUSTINE and ST. THOMAS AQUINAS - through wise decision-making.
Happiness is achieving union with God. - IMMANUEL KANT - achieving happiness is
● UTILITARIANISM impossible because of the ever changing nature
- Proposes a view on happiness based on the of man’s desires.
greatest happiness principle.
- GHP states that a person’s actions are * Deal with unhappiness
considered moral or desirable when they
produce the greatest happiness for other people. * Having a sense of purpose and engaging in meaningful
● SOCIAL SCIENCES activities can reaffirm one’s sense of personal worth and
- PSYCHOLOGY - defines happiness as a contribute toward achieving a sense of fulfilment and
balance between a person’s emotions, moods, satisfaction.
and feelings.
- ECONOMICS - happiness can be defined in
numerical terms and statistical values
● CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHERS
- Whole Life Satisfaction - a person is able to
evaluate his or her life experiences and
determine his or her level of satisfaction with
how he or she has lived life.
- WLADYSLAW TATARKIEWICZ - happiness is
satisfaction with one’s life as a whole.
- RICHARD BRANDT - Happiness is based on a
total life pattern.
- WAYNE SUMNER - defines happiness in two
ways.
- Cognitive Perspective - one must look back
at past experiences and have a positive
evaluation of his or her condition
- Affective Perspective - Happiness is brought
about by a sense of well-being in having lived a
life that is enriching and rewarding.

ELEMENTS OF HAPPINESS
- CONTENTMENT - satisfaction with one’s life
ON SUFFERING - It equates that without suffering, man is unable
SUFFERING - refers to an experience of to grow and improve and his positive experience
unpleasantness, discomfort, and pain. loses meaning and significance.
- It is often associated with threats to human - Friedrich Nietzsche - Believes that suffering is
existence. inevitable, and that man is meant to suffer.
- It can also be caused by the conflict between - He believes that certain forms of suffering can
one’s notion of a “perfect world” and the actual be beneficial.
state of the world he or she lives in. - He also views suffering as a test of a person’s
worth.
Two Types of Suffering: - George Sefler - considers suffering as one of
● Physical Suffering - It refers to physical sensations many interrelated elements that define the
such as discomfort, hunger, distress and pain. meaning of experiences throughout life.
- Caused by injury or lack of basic needs.
● Mental Suffering - It is associated with emotional THEODICY - philosophical branch which tries to
and mental states such as depression, anxiety, fear, reconcile the existence of a benevolent, all-good God
loneliness, and grief. with reality of suffering in the world.
- Caused by sudden change of lifestyle, stressful - Origen - considers the world as a ‘school and
situations, and death of a loved one. hospital for souls’ where suffering plays a role in
educating and healing the person.
Philosophical Terms that Defined Suffering:
● Weltschmerz - It is used to refer to man’s How should we face suffering?
realization that the world can never live up to the COPING - It is the means of a person in dealing with
ideal “Perfect World” resulting in feelings of sadness difficult life situations and involves a conscious effort to
or apathy. solve personal and interpersonal problems.
● Angst - It refers to fear and anxiety, and it is - Epicureans advocate that to avoid suffering,
associated to Existential Dread (crisis brought one should avoid harmful or unpleasant things.
about when a person begins to question his - Stoics believe that suffering should be faced
existence and purpose in life) with fortitude and patience.
● Ennui - It is the feeling of weariness and discontent - F. Nietzsche - a person should be responsible
brought about by a lack of interest or intense for his or her sufferings and not to seek external
boredom with the world. factors to blame others.
- Utilitarianism - to alleviate suffering, people
Two Major Philosophical Views on Sufferings: should focus on actions that are beneficial to
● 1st VIEW society.
- This view considers suffering as an undesirable - To better face suffering, an individual should
human condition, and that humans naturally have an adequate social support system.
seek pleasure and avoid pain.
- Ancient Greek philosophers - believed that
suffering can be avoided by seeking pleasurable
things or activities or through the exercise of
self-control.
- Arthur Schopenhauer - Pessimistic View
(believes that human existence is characterized
by suffering caused by man’s inability to meet
his unlimited wants and desires.
- Buddhist Philosophy - suffering as a defining
feature of human existence.
- Hinduism - suffering is closely tied to spiritual
progress and that all suffering ends when a
person attains enlightenment.
● 2nd MAJOR VIEW
- It states that suffering is necessary to human
existence.
MAN AND SOCIETY - David Gauthier - self-interest as a significant
factor in building and maintaining societies.
Society - refers to a large, independent, and organized
group of people living in the same territory and sharing a HOW DOES SOCIETY INFLUENCE THE PERSON?
common culture and heritage. - Socialization - the process by which an
individual learns the prevailing behaviors,
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF SOCIETY? attitudes and values within his or her society.
- Hunting-and-gathering societies - often - Agents of socialization mold the personality of
described as “primitive” since they utilize the the individual.
simplest technology. - Stanford Prison Experiment - a psychological
- Agricultural societies - those engaged experiment which focused on the influence of
primarily in agricultural activities. society in behavior and human interaction.
- Industrial societies - centered on mechanized - Social roles entails a set of expected behavior
production and the exchange of goods and that must be performed by a person.
services. - Social group
- Modern Societies - technologically-advanced - Normative democratic theory - a perspective
societies characterized by industry, mass which considers a society as morally desirable.
production, and advanced communication and
transportation. HOW DOES OUR OWN SOCIETY DEFINE OUR
- “Virtual Societies” - social media, online IDENTITY AS FILIPINOS?
message boards and online games. - Set of social values
- Harmonious relationships: Smooth interpersonal
Social philosophy - focuses on studying society and its relationships
influence on the human person. - Religion also occupies an important role in
- applies philosophical concepts in a social Filipino society. Christian faith has a significant
context and looks into how social interactions influence in many traditions and practices such
shape people’s perception, experience, ideas as fiesta, Christmas and holy week, “Filipino
and values. ethics and morality”.
- Change and development: Same-sex marriage
HOW IS SOCIETY FORMED?
- Humans are considered to have a natural
tendency to cooperate and organize, and society
is a natural outcome of this human tendency to
socialize.
- Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-
Jacques Rousseau.
- “Natural state”, removed from modernity and
civilization
- Hobbes - Natural state is governed by his desire
and these often lead to conflict with his
fellowmen.
- “Social contract” – an agreement where
individuals sacrifice some of their wants and
submit to a higher authority.
- Locke - natural state as more cooperative and
reasonable, and that society is formed through
the consent of the individuals that organized it –
“consent of the governed”
- Rousseau - “general will. This is based on the
assumption that the people have empowered the
government to act on their behalf.
- John Rawls - “Original position”. Imagined
humans as having “veil of ignorance” or no
knowledge of one’s own characteristics.
OUR ULTIMATE FATE - Death can also be an opportunity for people to
recall and memorialize the life and achievements
DEATH - THE END OF ALL BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS of a loved one.
THAT SUSTAIN A LIVING ORGANISM
- In medical terms, it is associated with “brain * Cultures have varied ideas, values, and beliefs
death” - the ceasing of all brain functions regarding death and these are reflected in traditions,
- Causes: Aging, Disease, and Fatal Injury funerary practices, religion, and philosophy.
- Considered to be a natural occurrence
* Beliefs regarding death often include a belief in the
AGING or SENESCENCE - as a person advances in persistence of the human soul or spirit, and the
age, the certainty of death is seen in the gradual decline existence of an afterlife where the souls of the dead
of the human body reside.
- Include decline of the senses (sight and
hearing), gradual loss of vitality and mobility, REINCARNATION - belief that a person’s spirit begins a
mental decline, and increased frailty and new life in another body
susceptibility to injury or disease
ETERNAL OBLIVION - belief that the person’s
EXPLANATIONS FOR THE PHENOMENA OF HUMAN consciousness is completely erased upon death
AGING AND DECLINE:
- One view considers aging as being brought * How people deal with death is often influenced by
about by the gradual mutations and defects in culture.
the genes as the body ages, leading to damage
and loss of tissue in aging people. * Death is a life event which is surrounded by the most
- Another view considers aging as a product of ceremony and symbolism in many cultures. This may be
evolution. due to the fact that death is often a powerful event that
* All the characteristics that enabled humans to causes deep emotions among people.
successfully adapt, particularly the capacity for
reproduction early in life, were gained at a cost; Traditions and Rituals surrounding bereavement,
AGING - the consequence of our evolutionary burial, and remembrance of the deceased - seen as
advantage. means by which people make sense of the loss of a
- Another evolutionary theory suggests that loved one
limited lifespans offer great opportunities for
diversity within a species, thus ensuring variation * Communities and societies also assign a great
within the gene pool and long-term survival of significance to death, as evidenced by various
the entire human species. celebrations and commemorations across cultures (All
Souls Day, Chinese Ghost Festival, Mexican Day of
* In other disciplines, the definition of death is not merely the Dead).
confined to physical death.
* In Philippines society, death is considered an
Philosophy, Psychology, and other social sciences - experience that involves not only the family but also the
consider death as an experience which involves not only community.
the deceased individual but also other people and the - WAKE - often an opportunity for immediate and
community. extended family members, friends and
acquaintances of the deceased, and other
Psychology - the experience of death is often members of the community to come together in
associated with negative emotions such as grief, anxiety, memory of the deceased
anger, and fear. - ABULOY - voluntary contributions for the family
- Death of a Loved One - a powerful emotional of the deceased; collected to help defray the
experience that often leads to stress and cost of the funeral and other needs
depression - FUNERAL PROCESSION - also an important
- Various individuals cope with the experience of practice and members of the community who
death in different ways, and Adequate emotional witness this are expected to adopt a respectful
support is required for persons to overcome it. and sombre attitude as the procession passes
 - Filipinos also hold their departed loved ones in their situation is “unfair”; people in grief also
high regard and treat their memory with respect, experience this, often thinking that the
and the deceased are continually remembered deceased/dying person didn’t deserve such
through death anniversaries, occasional visits to fate
the cemetery, and religious observances. 3. BARGAINING - the dying person often
voices his/her wish that his/her life be
HOW DOES THE PROSPECT OF DEATH GIVE prolonged, and that he/she is willing to do
SIGNIFICANCE TO OUR LIVES? whatever it takes to survive; people tend to
think that things will improve if they behave
What happens to a person when he dies? in a certain way/make changes in their lives
● DUALIST PERSPECTIVE - believes that the (e.g. a once irritable person suddenly
mind/spirit, being incorporeal, persists when he becoming calm and considerate) - attempt
dies; to lessen the trauma and anxiety of facing
● death
4. DEPRESSION - the dying person
HOW SHOULD ONE FACE DEATH AND LOSS? experiences intense sadness and exhibits
● GRIEF - the natural reaction to death and dying; disinterest in life and its normal routines;
internal person may become withdrawn, sullen, and
- involves a multitude of emotions such as express hopelessness/helplessness; the
sadness, anxiety, anger, and guilt dying/grieving person may experience
- May also be brought about by other forms of certain emotional and mental problems
loss - the loss of a home, belongings, or depending on the gravity of his/her situation
employment; and other traumatic experiences 5. ACCEPTANCE - last emotional stage of
- Separation of family members, end of romantic grief; person finally comes to terms with
relationships, and substance abuse - can bring his/her impending death and has embraced
about feelings related to grief his/her mortality; dying people are found to
- Prolonged grief - carries several risks such as be calm and emotionally stable, and are
severe depression, social maladjustment, often a source of emotional support for their
emotional problems, and stress-related illnesses grieving family members
- Often brings about challenges or dilemmas
regarding personal beliefs *These experiences need not to be experienced in
● BEREAVEMENT - state of loss brought about by sequence, and that some people do not go through all of
death the stages when experiencing grief.
● MOURNING - process by which persons deal with
death GEORGE BONNANO - proposed the most recent theory
- Involves various practices, traditions, and on grief
observances that vary from culture to culture - Views that grief does not necessarily proceed
- Provides opportunities for social support and along conventional stages as proposed by
sympathy for those who are bereaved Kubler-Ross
- Considers humans as being naturally resilient,
ELISABETH KUBLER-ROSS - put forth the earliest and that grieving should not necessarily be
description of the phenomenon of grief defined by sadness or anxiety
- Studies involve terminally-ill patients and how - FOUR TRAJECTORIES OF GRIEF:
they dealt with death and dying 1. RESILIENCE - person remains emotionally
- Findings and insights lead her to propose that stable despite the loss, and continues w/ his.her
dying people, as well as people close to them, normal activities; most ideal emotional course
go through FIVE STAGES OF GRIEF: when experiencing grief for Bonanno - for him,
1. DENIAL - expressing disbelief regarding grieving people can still be happy and go about
his/her situation; refusing to believe the their normal routines
news about the death of a loved one at first 2. RECOVERY - person experiences a period of
2. ANGER - person expresses frustration with grief, but eventually gives way to recovery and a
his/her situation; dying people often vent return to normalcy
their anger and frustration on the people 3. CHRONIC DEPRESSION - grieving person
closest to them, and often expresses that experiences intense and chronic depression
 which continues long after the death/traumatic
experiences has passed; depression may persist
for several years, and the affected person often
needs counseling and support to overcome this
4. DELAYED GRIEF - the person may seem to be
well-adjusted but experiences feelings of grief,
anxiety, and distress at a later time