LESSON 1: DOING A PHILOSOPHY

Week 1

Study these Terms

● Identity- the fact of being who or what a person or thing is
● Pythagorean- group professing to be followers of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras; they
believe that the essence of all things are numbers and that the universe was sustained by
harmony.
● Atoms- extremely small amount of a thing or quality.
● Modern Calculus- originally called infinitesimal calculus, it is the study of continuous change.

Value of Doing a Philosophy

The meaning of Philosophy Etymologically the word ‘’philosophy’’ comes from the Greek word,
PHILO meaning to love and SOPHIA meaning wisdom. Philosophy originally means ‘’love of
wisdom’’ and in a broad sense, wisdom still the
goal of philosophy is also defined as the science of natural light reason, under this definition,
four things are to be considered.

1. SCIENCE-It is called science because the investigation is systematic. It follows certain steps
or it employs
certain procedures.

2. NATURAL LIGHT OF REASON- the capacity for intelligent thought that all human beings
have just by virtue of being human.

3. STUDY OF ALL THINGS- This sets the distinction between philosophy from other sciences.
All other sciences concern themselves with a particular object of investigation. For example, A
Philosopher studies human beings, society, religion, language, God, and plants among other
concerns.

4. FIRST CAUSE OR HIGHER PRINCIPLE- A principle is that form in which something

proceeds in any manner whatsoever. The First Principles:

● Principle of Identity - whatever it is, it is, and whatever is not is not, everything its own being
and not being is not being (ex: Apple cannot be mango and Mango cannot be an apple)
● Principle of Noncontradiction - it is impossible for a thing to be and not to be at the same
time and at the same respect (Kate can stay at home but cannot stay at school at the same
time)
● Principle of Excluded Middle - a thing is either or is not, everything must be either be or not
be, between being and not being, there is no middle possible ground. (Ex: yes or no, pros and
cons)
● Principle of Sufficient Reason - nothing exists without sufficient reason for its being and
existence. (Ex: 1 plus 1 = 2)

Branches of Philosophy

METAPHYSICS- literally means “after physics” type of philosophy or study that uses broad
concepts to help define reality and our understanding of it. Metaphysical studies generally seek
to explain inherent or universal elements of reality which are not easily discovered or
experienced in our everyday life.

ETHICS - is derived from the Greek term ethos, meaning “moral philosophy”. Branch of
philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions. Ethics is
generally a study of the nature of moral judgment.

EPISTEMOLOGY - is derived from the Greek term epistēmē, meaning “knowledge”. It deals
with nature, sources, limitations and validity of knowledge. It explains: How we know what we
claim to know; how we can find out what we wish to know; and how we can differentiate truth
from falsehood.

LOGIC - The term logic comes from the Greek word logike and was coined by Zeno, the Stoic.
Etymologically, it means a treatise on matters pertaining to human thought. It does not provide
us knowledge of the world directly, for logic is considered as a tool and therefore does not
contribute directly to the content of our thoughts.

AESTHETICS - is derived from the Greek term aisthetikos, meaning “sensitive” . , is a branch
of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well as the philosophy of art.

Pre-Socratic Philosophers

PHILOSOPHERS IN MILETUS
Philosophy is said to have begun in the Ionic Colonies of Asia Minor around 6th BC through
Thales of Miletus.

1. THALES is known as the first Greek philosopher and the father of philosophy. Engage in the
inquiry of searching for the natural world and various phenomena without relying on
supernatural explanation and divine components.

2. ANAXIMANDER who wondered about the beginning of the universe and where it came from.
He claimed that the universe was formed from boundlessness.
3. ANAXIMENES argued that air was the fundamental element through the process of refraction
or compression, the air surrounds earth in a more or less compressed state.

4. HERACLITUS claimed the Unity of Opposites in characterizing the cosmos. ‘No man cannot
step on the same river twice’

5. XENOPHANES claimed that there is a single God. He did not subscribe to the idea of an
anthropomorphic God. He suggested if Gods are ‘’human-like’’ then horses, oxen and lions
would have equine, bovine and leonine.

6. PYTHAGORAS believes that the cosmos is a structured system ordered by numbers. Believe
that nature can be quantified.

Western Philosophy

Western Philosophy is primarily concerned with uncovering the truth through systematic
argumentation and theory. Greece was home to one of the great civilizations during the ancient
period. The Sophist are known as the teachers who traveled throughout Greece and trained
their students to win each and every argument, they participated in. One of their leaders,
Pythagoras, called themselves philosophos- a term which means “lovers of wisdom”.

The following are among the most notable ancient Greek philosophers:

1. Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE) A mathematician and scientist, he was credited with the
formulation of the Pythagorean. His work earned him many followers, and established a
community of learners who were devoted to the study of religion and philosophy.

2. Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE) He proposed that everything that exists is based on a
higher order or plan which he called logos. For him, change is a permanent aspect of the human
condition and he was credited with saying, “No man ever steps on the same river twice.”

3. Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE) Known as a laughing philosopher because of his
emphasis on the value of cheerfulness. Atomic Theory is about everything that is composed of
atoms.

4. Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 370 BCE) He was a known advocate of a simple and
virtuous life. For Diogenes, one should not only talk of virtue but should show it in words and
actions. His emphasis on austerity and simplicity often went to the extreme and he was said to
have lived like a beggar.

5. Epicurus (341 BCE- 270 BCE) He believed that philosophy could enable man to live a life of
happiness. His views gave rise to Epicureanism, a school of philosophy which believes that
wisdom and simple living will result in a life free from fear and pain.
6. Archimedes (287 BCE to 212 BCE) His inquiries into mathematics led to earlier
developments which gave rise to modern calculus. He pioneered the use of mathematics to
analyze natural phenomena

Week 2

Study these Terms

● Ethics- moral principle that govern a person’s behavior or conducting of an activity
● Knowledge- facts, information and skills acquired by a person through experience or
education
● Zoology- scientific study of the behavior, structure, physiology, classification and
distribution of animals
● Psychology- scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those affecting
behavior in a given context.
● Politics- activities associated with the governance of a country or other area.

The Greek Triumvirate

Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE) He was considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times.
He made great contributions to the field of ethics. He was credited with formulating the Socratic
Method or Elenchus- a means of examining a topic by devising a series of questions that let the
learner examine and analyse his knowledge and views regarding the topic.

Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE) A student of Socrates, he wrote down his teacher’s writings and
incorporated some of his own ideas into them. His teaching and writings are considered the
foundation of Western philosophy. Plato’s lasting contribution to learning was his founding of the
Academy, an institution of higher learning which was the first of its kind in the West.

● Knowledge through concept is the only true knowledge

● Concept or idea is the only true reality
● One of his famous works is ‘’The Republic
● Senses are often deceitful
● Humans detach themselves for what is corporeal because the soul without the
limitation of body can be better recognize by the eternal form of truth

Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE) He attended the Academy, and was a prominent student of
Plato. He was involved in a great variety of disciplines such as zoology, psychology, ethics, and
politics. His studies in logic led to the formulation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning
which gave rise to deductive reasoning.

● Perceptual and cognitive faculties are dependable

● Human beings philosophize because they wonder about the world
● Endowment of senses will lead a person in direct contact with the world
● And therefore, allow him to analyze whether what appears upon close scrutiny and
analysis is correct.

Doing Philosophy
● To ask questions, to reflects and to formulate and evaluate arguments
● Doing philosophy involves asking the right questions, critically examining the work of previous
philosophers, truly understanding the works and the reasoning behind the works, and possibly
building on the works of previous philosophers by expanding or testing this methodology.

Philosophical Reflection
● It is the tool in doing philosophy which is the act of giving time to think about meaning and
purpose of life. It could be done through debate, discussions, essays and other activities.
● There are two types of Philosophical reflection: the Primary reflection (fragmented and
compartmentalizes thinking; instrumental thinking; means-end of thinking or selfish way of
thinking) and Secondary Reflection (integrates the fragmented and compartmentalizes
experience into coherent whole).
● Partial point of view is one's perception is limited by other factors or based on a single factor.
(ex: My brother told me that his girlfriend is kind and beautiful yet it is different from my opinion
so I told him that he's just in love.)
● Holistic point of view is having a view where we understand both the whole and the parts of
something, and, we understand how the parts, when brought together, make up the whole.
(ex:As a teacher it is important to know the personal background of my whole class rather than
some of the class.)

Week 3
LESSON 2: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

STUDY THESE TERMS

● Fact is something you can prove to be either true or false.
● Opinion is how a person or thing feels about something.
● Truth is the quality or state of being true.
● Coherence- quality of being logical and consistent
● Pragmatic- dealing with things sensibly and realistically in a way that is based on practical
rather than
theoretical considerations.
WHAT IS FACT?
● It is a provable statement. It can be shown to be true or false without any doubt, usually
through
some indisputable evidence, like measurement or an observation. (study.com)
● Fact is something that is known to have happened or to exist, especially something for which
proof
exists. (dictionary.Cambridge.org)
● Facts are pieces of information that can be discovered. (collinsdictionary.com)
WHAT IS OPINION?
● Opinion expresses a personal belief, idea or feeling that is not provable. (study.com)
● Ideas that a person or a group of people have about something or someone, which are based
mainly on their feelings and beliefs. (dictionary.Cambridge.com)
● View of judgment formed about something, not necessarily on fact or knowledge.
(en.oxforddictionaries.com)
● Statement of advice by an expert on a professional matter. (en.oxforddictionaries.com)

THEORIES OF TRUTH

Theories of Truth

Correspondence Theory
Coherence Theory
Pragmatic Theory

CORRESPONDENCE THEORY - states that the key to truth is the relation between
propositions and the world. This means that "a belief is true if there exists an appropriate entity -
a fact- to which it corresponds. If there is no such entity, the belief is false."
•Example:
There is a water fountain in front of the Cultural Center of the Philippines. There are lots of trees
in the forest.

COHERENCE THEORY - states that the truth of any (true) proposition consists in its coherence
with some specified set of propositions (or significant wholes). This means that the truth
conditions of a proposition are based on other proposition. In simpler terms, the Coherence
Theory of Truth insists that a belief is true if and only if it is part of a coherent system of beliefs.

•Example:
•Sun is the center of the universe as discovered by Nicolas Copernicus.
•The exact measurement of a right triangle is 90 degrees.

PRAGMATIC THEORY

•The view especially associated with William James, that the truth of a statement can be define
in terms of the utility of accepting it.
•There are things that are false that it may be useful to accept, and conversely there are things
that are true that it may be damaging to accept.

Example: Many children believe in the idea that Santa Claus is true. Remember when you were
young and you would try to stay awake until wee hours of the morning in order to catch Santa
putting your gifts inside your Christmas socks. But as you grow up, you would realize that you
would have outgrown the idea of believing in Santa. - It maybe practical before, but not today.
Week 4

STUDY THESE TERMS

● Argumentatum- an argument, demonstration or appeal to reason.

● Hominem- attacking an opponent’s character or motives rather than answering the argument
or claim. Appealing to one’s prejudices, emotion or special interests rather than to one’s intellect
or reason.
● Petitio- logical fallacy in which a premise is assumed to be true without warrant or in which
what is to be proved is implicitly taken for granted.
● Populum- concludes that proposition must be true because many or most people believe it,
often concisely encapsulated.
● Misericordiam- based on strong appeal to the emotion.
● Ignorantiam- by use of unanswerable challenge to disprove rather than by serious attempt to
prove.

OBJECTIVE VS. SUBJECTIVE

Objective Information is the analysis based on facts, measurable and observable.

(diffen.com). An Objective Perspective is one that is not influenced by emotions, opinions or
personal feelings- it is a perspective based in fact, in things quantifiable and measurable.
(Montgomery,2015)

Subjective Information is based on personal opinions, interpretations, points of view, emotion

and judgment. (diffen.com) A Subjective Perspective is one open to greater interpretation
based on personal feeling, emotion and aesthetics. (Montgomery,2015)

FALLACIES
Fallacy is a defect in an argument other than it’s having false premises. To detect fallacies, it is
required to examine the argument’s content. Here are some of the usually committed errors in
reasoning and thus, coming up with false conclusion and worse, distorting the truth:

A. Appeal to pity (Argumentatum ad misericordiam) is a specific kind of appeal to emotion in

which someone tries to win support for an argument or idea by exploiting his or her opponent’s
feelings of pity or guilt.

B. Appeal to ignorance (Argumentatum ad ignorantiam) whatever has not been proved false
must be true and vice versa.

C. Equivocation is a logical chain of reasoning of a term or a word several times, but giving the
particular word a different meaning each time.
D. Composition infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true some part
of the whole.

E. Division one reasons logically that something true of a thing must also be true of all or some
of its parts.

F. Against the person (Argumentatum ad hominem) attempts to link the validity of a premise
to a characteristic or belief of the person advocating the premise. However, in some instances,
questions of personal conduct, character, motives are legitimate if relevant to the issue.

G. Appeal to force (Argumentatum ad baculum) is an argument where force, coercion or the

threat of force is given as a justification for a conclusion.

H. Appeal to the people (Argumentatum ad populum) is an argument that appeals or exploits

people’s vanities, desire for esteem and anchoring on popularity.

I. False Cause (post hoc) since that event followed this one, that event must have been
caused by this one. This fallacy is also referred to as coincidental correlation or correlation not
causation.

J. Hasty generalization one commits errors if one reaches an inductive generalization based
on insufficient evidence. The fallacy is commonly based on a broad conclusion upon the
statistics of a survey of a small group that fails to sufficiently represent the whole population.

K. Begging the question (petitio principii) is the type of fallacy in which the proposition to be
proven is assumed implicitly or explicitly in the premise.

LESSON 3: HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT

Week 5

Study these terms:

● Embodied Spirit-living animating core within each of us, the driving force behind all that we
think, say and do. Sensations, feelings, insights, fancies -- all these are private and, except
through symbols and at second hand, incommunicable.
● Human Person-The human person is a living human body, and, conversely, a living human
body is a human person.
● Spatial-pertaining to or involving or having the nature of space
● Temporal- relating to time as opposed to eternity. of or relating to earthly life. lay or secular
rather than clerical or sacred
● Intermediary-person who acts as a mediator or agent between parties something that acts as
a medium or means an intermediate
LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN PERSON

1. FACTICITY
o refers to the things in our life that are already given.
o refers to all details that surround us in the present our environment, our language our past
decisions, our past and present relationships and even our future deaths.

2. SPATIAL –TEMPORAL BEINGS

o As temporal beings, our most obvious limitation is our finitude–our finite quality or
state.
o As spatial beings, we are limited by our bodies to be present in two or more places at
the same time.
o We are limited by space (spatial) and time (temporal).
o Our spatial-temporal situation sets our preconditions of understanding.

3. THE BODY AS INTERMEDIARY

o Intermediary means acting as a mediator (Merriam-Webster).
o Our body serves as an intermediary between us and the physical world.
o Our body limits our experience of the world to our world.
o This imposes limitations concerning communication and expression.

TRANSCENDENCE
o Is the ability to change, be dynamic, and continually redefining oneself which works with our
facticity to create change.
o Transcendence comes from the Latin prefix trans-, meaning "beyond," and the word scandare,
meaning "to climb
o used to describe a spiritual or religious state, or a condition of moving beyond physical
needs and realities.

o St. Thomas Aquinas, a philosopher and one of the greatest theologian in the
o Catholic Church in the 13th century, said that “of all creatures, human beings have
o the unique power to change themselves and things for the better.”
o Ability to surpass your limit.
o You are able to transcend your limit through your physical and mental abilities. (Abella, 2016)

HOW DO LIMITATIONS LEAD TO TRANSCENDENCE?

1. Facticity
o At times we use our facticity as an excuse for our difficulties and failures
2. Spatial-temporal Being
o We are more concerned with the past and/or future that is why we never appreciate the
present.
o We cannot be at the place where we want to be at an instant.
3. The Body as Intermediary
o Having a body may prevent us from disclosing what we really want to express.

Week 6

Study these terms

o Asceticism- self-discipline and avoidance of all forms of indulgence, typically for religious
reasons.
o Transmigration or metempsychosis- is a doctrine that adheres to the belief that a person’s
soul passes into some other creature, human, or animal.
o Karma the sum of a person's actions in this and previous states of existence, viewed as
deciding their fate in future existences.
o Polytheism- a belief in or worship of more than one god.

Discussion
A. Hinduism

Brahman Is Self-Hood

o Hinduism is one of the oldest Eastern traditions, practiced by hundreds of millions of people
for about 5000 years.

o One concept common to all expressions of Hinduism is the oneness of reality.

o Brahman is a formless and changeless, infinite and eternal, neither male or female, and
beyond space and time.

o Only Brahman is real; everything else is illusory manifestation of it.

o At the heart of Hinduism lies the idea of human beings’ quest for absolute truth, so that one’s
soul and the Brahman or Atman (Absolute Soul) might become one.

o For the Indians, God first created sound and the universe arose from it.

o According to Hinduism, human beings have a dual nature: one is the spiritual and immortal
essence (soul); the other is empirical life and character.

o The existence of the body, in fact, is considered as nothing more than an illusion and even an
obstacle to an individual’s realization of one’s real self.

o Hindus generally believe that the soul is eternal but is bound by the law of Karma (action) to
the world of matter, which it can escape only after spiritual progress through an endless series
of births (Reincarnation).

o God allots rewards and punishments to all beings according to their karma (Puligandla 1997)
o Humanity’s basic goal in life is the liberation (moksha) of spirit (jiva).
o Hinduism holds that humanity’s life is a continuous cycle (samsara).

Buddhism: From Tears to Enlightenment

o Another major Eastern tradition is Buddhism, contained in the teachings of its founder,
Siddharta Gautama or the Buddha.

o Turning away from Hindu polytheism and palace pleasures, Gautama began searching for
answers to the riddle of life’s sufferings, disease, old age and death.

o He explored Brahminic philosophies then tried the rigors of asceticism.

o While resting and meditating in a grove of trees, he came to a clear realization that the
solution lays in his own mind (Enlightenment). (Puligandla 1997).

o Gautama’s life was devoted to sharing his Dharma or Law of Salvation- a simple presentation
of the gospel of inner cultivation of right spiritual attitudes, coupled with a self-imposed discipline
whereby bodily desires would be channeled in the right directions.

o Convinced that the way of escaped from pain and misery lay in the transformation of one’s
mind and that liberation could come only with a sloughing off of all vain clinging to the things of
this life, Buddha set about sharing his discovery with anyone who would listen to him.

o The reaching of Buddha has been set forth traditionally in the Four Noble Truths leading to the
Eightfold Path to perfect character or arhatship, which in turn gave assurance of entrance into
Nirvana at death.

In Four Noble Truths:

1. Life is full of suffering;
2. Suffering is caused by passionate desires, lusts, cravings;
3. There is an end to suffering;
4. The end to suffering is contained in the eightfold path.

Eightfold Path
1. Right Understanding
2. Right Thought
3. Right Speech
4. Right Action
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right Concentration
Nirvana means the state in which one is absolutely free from all forms of bondage and
attachment.

Distinguish the Limitations and Possibilities for Transcendence

o After understanding the precepts of Hinduism and Buddhism, let us distinguish the limits and
possibilities of human beings common to all Indian thoughts:

1. It is the spiritual that endures and is ultimately real. In Hinduism, the human aspiration is to
move to the divine. What we believe is how we live; if our beliefs are in error, then our lives
will be unhappy.
2. There is the preoccupation with the inner life- the road to enlightenment that stretches not
outward but inward. To understand nature and the universe, we must turn within.
3. There is an emphasis on the nonmaterial oneness of creation. This means that there are no
polarities; a single spirit provides cosmic harmony.
4. There is the acceptance of direct awareness as the only way to understand what is real. The
Indians find this direct perception through spiritual exercises, perhaps through the practice of
yoga.
5. There is a healthy respect for tradition, but never a slavish commitment to it. The past can
teach but never rule.

o According to St. Augustine, Si comprehendis, non est Deus- “Whatever you understand
cannot be God” simply because you understand it.
o As St. Thomas would affirm in the Summa Theologica “God is honored by silence- not
because we cannot say or understand anything about Him, but because we know that we are
incapable of comprehending Him.”
o St. Augustine of Hippo believes that tsunamis, for instance and other calamities are part of
natural evil.

Evil and Suffering

✔ Suffering is close to the heart of biblical faith.
✔ Buddha, who saw life in suffering and tried to control it instead of cursing it.
✔ Job of the Old Testament, did not just complain, he cursed the day he was born.
✔ In Christianity, suffering leads to the Cross, the symbol of reality of God’s saving love for
human beings.
✔ Compassion is the heart of religion, but compassion can disappear from it.
✔ Religion, without compassion, becomes law and a burden imposed in its adherents.
✔ If there is no compassion, religion can start wars that destroy enemies.
✔ Jesus condemned religion without compassion and constructed, thus the parable of the
Good
Samaritan
 LESSON 4: HUMAN PERSON IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Week 7

STUDY THESE TERMS:

● Ecology - According to Haeckel (1866), ecology refers to the scientific analysis of the
interaction between animals, plants and their inorganic environment. Put simply, ecology deals
with the balance of nature.
● Ethics - Ethics is defined as a moral philosophy or code of morals practiced by a person or
group of people.
● Sustainable Development - Sustainable development is development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

DISCUSSION:

● Humankind is a part of the world, and we significantly affect our environment in the same way
that changes in our environment affect us.
● Environment philosophy is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings
with the environment and its non-human contents.
● Philosophers believe that the human person has the ability to change the environment to suit
his purposes.
● It is in an orderly environment where human persons thrive best. Disorders give rise to several
problems and challenges for humankind.
● As a rational being, the person is not only capable of transforming the world, but also of
understanding the laws which govern nature. It can be said that the world is a text which the
person can read and understand in order to live a better life. He may treat it as:

1. A source of raw materials to be used in any way he pleases

2. As something that envelops and surround him, and thus have a unique relationship with it
● This means that persons can help environment become greater than what it originally is

Views on the Attribution of Moral Consideration

1. ANTHROPOCENTRISM
● Refers to a human-centered, or “anthropocentric,” point of view.
● Humans are the only, or primary, holders of moral standing.
● Anthropocentric value systems see nature in terms of its value to humans.
● A world view that considers humans to be the most important factor and value in the Universe.
● Anthropocentric view suggests that humans have greater intrinsic value than other species.
● Influences ethical judgments about interactions with other organisms.

2. HUMANISM
● Progressive philosophy of life that, without theism or other supernatural beliefs, affirms our
ability and
responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to greater good.
● Affirming the dignity of each human being, it supports that maximization of individual liberty
and opportunity consonant with social and planetary responsibility.
● A democratic and ethical life stance which affirms that human beings have the right and
responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives.

3. PATHOCENTRISM
● A philosophical position regarding the difference or similarities in the reaction to pain in
humans and animals.
● Ethical discussion of a major consideration in the study and implementation of bioethics and
the use of living beings in experimentation.

4. BIOCENTRISM
● A philosophical viewpoint that all living organisms, not just humans, are deserving of equal
and moral and ethical consideration.
● The belief that the rights and needs of humans are not more important than those of other
living things.
● Basic precepts of the Buddhist ethics are to avoid killing or harming any living thing. The
Christian saint Francis of Assisi preached to animals and proclaimed a biocentric theology that
explicitly included animals and plants.

5. ECOCENTRISM
● This concept believes that ecology is the central and most significant part of the earth and
thus promotes a nature-based system of values.
● Believes that man is the most advanced species with the brain and ability to take care of all
other species on earth.
● Focuses on the interests of all species and natural features on Earth’s ecosystems, refusing to
place any aspect or species above the others.
● Ecocentrist – Focus on the intrinsic value all these entities in their own right while
acknowledging their instrumental value to one another as part of the natural process.

6. HOLISM
● Etymologically, holism comes from the Greek word “holos” meaning “all” or “total”.
● Concisely summarized by Aristotle in Metaphysics, “the whole is more than the sum of its
parts”.
● The idea that all the properties of a given system cannot be determined or explained by its
component parts alone, but the system as a whole determines in an important wat how the parts
behave.
● The view that denies that all large-scale social events and conditions are ultimately explicable
in terms of the individuals who participated in.