Field Identification

Field identification of
the 50 most common

plant families
in temperate regions
(including agricultural,
horticultural, and wild species)
by Lena Struwe
lena.struwe@rutgers.edu
© 2016, All rights reserved.
Note: Listed characteristics are the most common characteristics; there might be exceptions in
rare or tropical species. This compendium is available for free download without cost for non-
commercial uses at http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~struwe/. The author welcomes updates and
corrections. 1
Overall phylogeny – living land plants
Bryophytes Mosses, liverworts, hornworts
Lycophytes Clubmosses, etc.
Ferns and Fern Allies Ferns, horsetails, moonworts, etc.
Gymnosperms Conifers, pines, cycads and cedars, etc.
Magnoliids
Monocots
Fabids
Ranunculales
Rosids Malvids
Caryophyllales
Ericales Lamiids
The treatment for
flowering plants follows
the APG IV (2016) Campanulids
classification. Not all
branches are shown.
© Lena Struwe 2016,

All rights reserved. 2
Included families (alphabetical list):
Amaranthaceae Geraniaceae
Amaryllidaceae Iridaceae
Anacardiaceae Juglandaceae
Apiaceae Juncaceae
Apocynaceae Lamiaceae
Araceae Lauraceae
Araliaceae Liliaceae
Asphodelaceae Magnoliaceae
Asteraceae Malvaceae
Betulaceae Moraceae
Boraginaceae Myrtaceae
Brassicaceae Oleaceae
Bromeliaceae Orchidaceae
Cactaceae Orobanchaceae
Campanulaceae Pinaceae
Caprifoliaceae Plantaginaceae
Caryophyllaceae Poaceae
Convolvulaceae Polygonaceae
Cucurbitaceae Ranunculaceae
Cupressaceae Rosaceae
Cyperaceae Rubiaceae
Equisetaceae Rutaceae
Ericaceae Salicaceae
Euphorbiaceae Scrophulariaceae
Fabaceae Solanaceae
Fagaceae Vitaceae
3
Included families (taxonomic list):
FERNS AND FERN ALLIES Fagales: Betulaceae, Fagaceae,
Equisetaceae Juglandaceae
Geraniales: Geraniaceae
GYMNOSPERMS Malpighiales: Euphorbiaceae,
Cupressaceae, Pinaceae Salicaceae
Malvales: Malvaceae
ANGIOSPERMS Myrtales: Myrtaceae
Magnoliids Rosales: Moraceae, Rosaceae
Laurales: Lauraceae Sapindales: Anacardiaceae, Rutaceae
Magnoliales: Magnoliaceae Vitales: Vitaceae
Monocots Eudicots: Asterids

Alismatales: Araceae Apiales: Apiaceae, Araliaceae
Asparagales: Amaryllidaceae, Asterales: Asteraceae, Campanulaceae
Asphodelaceae, Iridaceae, Boraginales: Boraginaceae
Orchidaceae Dipsacales: Caprifoliaceae
Liliales: Liliaceae Ericales: Ericaceae
Poales: Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, Gentianales: Apocynaceae, Rubiaceae
Poaceae Lamiales: Lamiaceae, Oleaceae,
Orobanchaceae, Plantaginaceae,
Eudicots Scrophulariaceae
Caryophyllales: Amaranthaceae, Solanales: Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae
Caryophyllaceae, Polygonaceae
Ranuncululales: Ranunculaceae
Eudicots: Rosids
Brassicales: Brassicaceae
Cucurbitales: Cucurbitaceae
Fabales: Fabaceae
4
Amaranthaceae s. lat.
(incl. Chenopodiaceae) B
AMARANTH
FAMILY
 Herbs or shrubs (rarely trees
or vines), often reddish, many
salt-loving plants (halophytes)
 Stems often succulent, and/or jointed
 Leaves alternate, simple (A)
 No stipules
A
 Flowers small, actinomorphic (B)
 Sepals usually 3-5, free or fused
basally, surrounding the fruit (C)
 Petals absent
 Stamens as many as sepals,
positioned on the inside of each sepal
Chenopodium
 Ovary superior or half-inferior,
1-3 fused carpels, one locule and
one ovule, basal placentation
D
 Fruit a berry, capsule, or nutlet C
 Seeds strongly curved (D)
Note: Chenopodiaceae is now included in Amaranthaceae.
Examples: beet (Beta), amaranth, quinoa (Amaranthus), lamb’s quarters

(Chenopodium), spinach (Spinacia), cock’s comb (Celosia).

All rights reserved.
Amaranthaceae: Caryophyllales: Eudicots 5
Amaryllidaceae C
AMARYLLIS
& ONION
FAMILY D
 Biennial or perennial herbs

(monocots)
 with bulb (A) at base
 Simple, narrow leaves in basal
rosette (B), often only in two
directions (2-ranked) B
 Inflorescence a terminal
umbel (C), sometimes with
bulblets on a leafless stem
 Tepals 6, anthers 6 A
 Hypanthium (fused tepals and
base of stamens) often present
(not in Allium)
 Ovary superior (D) or inferior,
3-carpellate E
 Fruit a capsule Allium
 Seeds many, hard, black
(covered with phytomelans)
 Onion-like smell in Allium
Note: Alliaceae is now included in Amaryllidaceae .

Amaryllidaceae: Asparagales: Monocots 6
Amaryllidaceae
AMARYLLIS
& ONION
FAMILY
Galanthus
Narcissus
Examples: amaryllis (Hippeastrum), snowdrop (Galanthus), belladonna-lily

(Amaryllis), spider lily (Lycoris, Hymenocallis), daffodil (Narcissus), clivia
(Clivia), swamp lily (Crinum),.spring snowflake (Leucojum), Aztec lily
(Sprekelia), zephyr lily (Zephyranthes), garlic, onion, leek, chives
(Allium).
Amaryllidaceae: Asparagales: Monocots 7
Anacardiaceae
CASHEW &
POISON IVY
FAMILY
 Trees, shrub, lianas, or
perennial herbs
 With resin ducts and
laticifers (sap often toxic) A
 Often pinnately
compound leaves (A)
 Flowers 5-merous, small,
with nectary disc (B)
 Stamens 5 or 10 (B)
 One ovule per carpel,
1-5 carpels in a fruit
 Fruit a drupe B
Toxicodendron
Examples: cashew (Anacardium), sumac (Rhus), poison ivy and poison oak
(Toxicodendron), pistachio (Pistacia), mango (Mangifera), pink peppercorn
tree (Schinus).

Anacardiaceae: Sapindales: Malvids: Rosids: Eudicots 8
Apiaceae D
CARROT
FAMILY
 herbaceous
 Aromatic, some very
poisonous (oils, resins)
 Stems hollow (A)
 Leaves alternate, often B
dissected or lobed (B),
pinnate venation
 Leaf petiole broadened
with sheath (C) surrounding
stem or base of leaf
 Flowers arranged in
double umbels (D);
small, white or yellow, many
C
 Petals 5, not fused, sepals reduced
or absent E
 Fruit is a dry fruit that divides
into 2 parts (E, schizocarp) A Myrrhis
Notes: Apiaceae sometimes includes Araliaceae. The characters listed

here only work well for the temperate herbaceous Apiaceae.
Examples: parsley (Petroselinum), dill (Anethum), poison hemlock (Conium),
cilantro (Coriandrum), celery (Apium), Queen Anne’s lace/carrot
(Daucus), caraway (Carum), cumin (Cuminum), fennel (Foeniculum).

Apiaceae: Apiales: Campanulids: Asterids: Eudicots 9
Apocynaceae C
MILKWEED
& DOGBANE
FAMILY
 Leaves opposite, simple (A),
pinnate venation
 Leaf margin smooth (A)
 Stipules absent (A) B
 Latex (milky sap) in all D
branches and leaves
 Sepals 5, Petals 5,
sometimes fused
 Ovary superior
 Anthers often fused, and A
sometimes fused with style head
to a gynostegium (B), Vincetoxicum
pollen in pollinia (C) in some species
 Fruit usually with 2 separate carpels,
developing into 1-2 dry capsular parts or berries
 Seeds often with tufts of hairs at one end (D)
Note: Asclepiadaceae is now included in Apocynaceae.
Examples: dogbane (Apocynum), milkweed (Asclepias), rosy/Madagascar

periwinkle (Catharanthus), vinca (Vinca), oleander (Nerium), frangipani
(Plumeria), hoya (Hoya), bluestar (Amsonia), mandevilla (Mandevilla).

Apocynaceae: Gentianales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 10
Araceae C
AROID B
FAMILY
 Shrubs, vines, or herbs,
sometimes aquatic; often fleshy
 Rhizomes (A), corms,
tubers common
 Leaves simple, with reticulate
or parallel venation (B) E
 Inflorescence a terminal spadix
of tiny flowers,
subtended by a colored
leaf/bract (spathe) (C)
 Flowers sometimes unisexual,
highly reduced, sessile (D)
 Fruits usually berries (E)
A
Calla
D
Note: Lemnaceae is now included
in the Araceae.
Examples: taro (Colocasia), anthurium (Anthirium), arum (Amorphophallus

and other genera), elephant’s ear (Caladium), dumb cane (Dieffenbachia),
duckweeds (Lemna, Wolffia), and many cultivated plants (Monstera,
Philodendron, Spathiphyllum).

Araceae: Alismatales: Monocots 11
Araliaceae B
GINSENG
FAMILY
 Trees, shrubs, lianas, or herbs.
 Leaves alternate, simple (A),
palmate, or pinnate (often
divided or lobed)
 Flowers arranged in terminal
umbels(B), heads, or panicle;
small, white or yellow, many (B) D
 Petals 5, not fused, sepals
reduced or absent ( C)
 Fruit a berry (D), drupe or
dry fruit
A
C
Examples: English Ivy (Hedera), ginseng (Panax), umbrella tree

(Schefflera), aralia (Aralia).

Araliaceae: Apiales: Campanulids: Asterids: Eudicots 12
Asphodelaceae
ALOE
FAMILY
 Herbs, shrubs, rarely trees
 Succulents, especially leaves
 Leaves simple, alternate,
parallel-veined, often with
spiny or dentate margin (A)
 Inflorescence a raceme or
panicle
 Flowers actinomorphic or
zygomorphic
 Tepals 3+3, sometimes fused
A
 Stamens 6
 Ovary superior, 3 fused
carpels, 3 locules,
axile placentation (B) Aloe
B
 Fruit a capsule
 Seed with an aril
Note: Many of these genera were previously placed in Liliaceae.
Examples: aloe (Aloe), haworthia (Haworthia), asphodel (Asphodelus), red hot

poker (Kniphofia).

Asphodelaceae: Asparagales: Monocots 13
Asteraceae C
ASTER &
SUNFLOWER
FAMILY
 Herbaceous usually
 Leaves variable, with pinnate
venation
 Inflorescence a head
(capitulum, A) with many flowers,
with involucral bracts D
surrounding it (B)
 Flowers small, either tubular (C) A
or tongue-shaped (ligulate)
 Sepals absent
 Petals fused, usually with
5 small lobes (C)
 Anthers fused into a ring B
around style Artemisia
 Ovary inferior
 Fruit a dry nut (achene, D), often
with hairs on top (pappus)
Examples: Echinacea (Echinacea), dandelion (Taraxacum), burdock

(Arctium), mugwort, wormwood (Artemisia), chrysanthemum
(Dendranthema), ox-eye daisy (Leucanthemum), asters (Aster, etc.), thistles
(Cirsium, Carduus), sunflower (Helianthus), artichoke (Cynara), ragwort,
groundsel (Senecio), knapweed (Centaurea), boneset, snakeroot
(Eupatorium).

Asteraceae: Asterales: Campanulids: Asterids: Eudicots 14
Asteraceae
ASTER &
SUNFLOWER
FAMILY
Taraxacum
Anthemis
Ambrosia

Asteraceae: Asterales: Campanulids: Asterids: Eudicots 15
Betulaceae B
BIRCH A
FAMILY C
 Trees or shrubs
 Leaves simple, spiral (A)
 Leaf margin with teeth (A)
 Inflorescences unisexual;
male: hanging catkin (B),
female: short upright catkin (C)
 Flowers wind-pollinated, D
unisexual
 Petals absent
 Styles 2 or 3
 Fruit a nut or 2-winged
samara (D), surrounded by
leafy bracts (E)
Betula E
Examples: birch (Betula), alder (Alnus), ironwood (Carpinus), hazelnuts and

filberts (Corylus).

Betulaceae: Fagales: Fabids: Rosids: Eudicots 16
Boraginaceae s. str.
BORAGE A
FAMILY
 Herbs with stiff hairs
 Leaves alternate, simple
D
 Inflorescence a scorpioid
or helicoid cyme (A)
B
 Flowers sympetalous,
actinomorphic, 5-merous
 Corolla often pink as young,
then blue or purple (B)
 Anthers attached to corolla (C)
 Ovary superior, 2-carpellate, C
4 locules
 Style 1, attached to base of
ovary, in center (D)
 Fruit a schizocarp with
4 nutlets (E) E
Echium
Note: These characters refer to Boraginaceae s.str.
Examples: borage (Borago), forget-me-not (Myosotis), comfrey (Symphytum),

lungwort (Pulmonaria), viper’s bugloss (Echium).

Boraginaceae: Boraginales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 17
Brassicaceae s. str.
MUSTARD
FAMILY C B
 Herbaceous
 With mustard oils
 Leaves simple, alternate (A), A
often lobed, with
pinnate venation
 Leaf edge often dentate (A)
or lobed
 Inflorescence a raceme
 Petals 4, not fused, forming
a cross + from above (B),
white, yellow, or pink
 Stamens 6 (4 longer, 2 shorter)
 Fruit a dry capsule with
inner wall (silique; C) Arabis
Note: This family circumscription refers to Brassicaceae s. str. and does

not include Capparaceae (capers) and Cleomaceae.
Examples: white mustard (Sinapis), garlic mustard (Alliaria), horseradish

(Armoracia), cabbage, broccoli, brussels sprouts, kale, collards,
rutabaga, canola, black mustard, turnip (Brassica), arugula (Diplotaxis,
‘rustica’ type), mouse-ear and thale cress (Arabidopsis), yellow rocket
(Barbarea), radish (Raphanus), woad (Isatis), water cress (Nasturtium).

Brassicaceae: Brassicales: Malvids: Rosids: Eudicots 18
Campanulaceae D
BELLFLOWER
& LOBELIA B
FAMILY
 Herbs, rarely shrubs or trees
 With latex.
 Leaves usually alternate, simple
(rarely compound), without
stipules (A).
 Petals fused; 5
 Corollas either bellshaped (B)
or two-lipped or tubular (C) A
 Ovary inferior, with 2-5 carpels,
axile placentation
 With secondary pollen presentation,
with pollen deposited on the
outside of the style, or similarly (D)
 Fruit a berry or capsule Campanula
Note: Lobeliaceae is included

in Campanulaceae. C
Examples: bell flower (Campanula),

lobelia, cardinal flower (Lobelia),
balloon flower (Platycodon).
Lobelia

Campanulaceae: Asterales: Campanulids: Asterids: Eudicots 19
Caprifoliaceae
HONEYSUCKLE
FAMILY
 Woody vines or shrubs,
some herbaceous herbs
 Opposite leaves (A)
(rarely whorled),
simple or divided
 Flowers arranged in a
cyme, a head, or solitary
 Corolla fused, 5 petal lobes,
often zygomorphic
 Ovary inferior
 Fruit a berry or capsule.
Note: Caprifoliaceae includes the following families now: Dipsacaceae,

Valerianaceae.
Examples: Honeysuckles (Lonicera), snowberry (Symphoricarpus), bush
honesuckle (Diervilla), twinflower (Linnaea), beautybush (Kolkwitzia),
teasel (Dipsacus), valerian (Valeriana).

Caprifoliaceae: Dipsacales: Campanulids; Asterids: Eudicots 20
Caryophyllaceae
CARNATION
& PINK B C
FAMILY B
 Herbaceous
 Leaves opposite (A), simple, A
with pinnate venation
D
 Leaf edge smooth
 Stems often with thickened
nodes (A) at base of each leaf
pair
 Sepals 5, fused (B)
 Petals 5, not fused
 Fruit a dry capsule opening
at top (C)
 Seeds attached to central A
column inside capsule
 Seeds many, black, often C
strongly curved (D)
Examples: Carnation (Dianthus), corncockle (Agrostemma), chickweed

(Cerastium, Stellaria), soapwort (Saponaria), campion (Silene), baby’s
breath (Gypsophila).

Caryophyllaceae: Caryophyllales: Eudicots 21
Convolvulaceae A
MORNING
GLORY
FAMILY
 Herbaceous vines (usually), B
or woody vines, trees, or herbs
 Branches twining clockwise
 Leaves simple or divided,
alternate
 Flowers often solitary,
mostly 5-merous
 Corolla buds twisted (A)
 Large corollas, fused petals,
trumpet- or funnelshaped,
with 5 folds in the corolla (B)
 Superior ovary (C )
 Fruit usually a capsule, less C
often a berry, nut, or drupe.
Examples: bindweed (Calystegia, Convolvulus), morning glory and swett

potato (Ipomoea), dodder (Cuscuta)

Convolvulaceae: Solanales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 22
Cucurbitaceae
CUCUMBER A
& MELON
FAMILY
 Vines B
 One tendril per node (A)
 Leaves simple, alternate,
palmately veined, often lobed,
no stipules (B)
 Inflorescence axillary,
solitary flowers common
 Flowers unisexual (rarely not),
with hypanthium (C)
 Petals fused or absent, 5
 Anthers 5
 Ovary inferior, 3 carpels,
Bryonia
parietal placentation (D) C
D
 Fruit a berry or pepo (or capsule
or samara)
Examples: melon and cucumber (Cucumis), watermelon (Citrullus), squashes

and pumpkins (Cucurbita), loofah (Luffa).

Cucurbitaceae: Cucurbitales: Fabids: Rosids: Eudicots 23
Cupressaceae
A
CEDAR
FAMILY
 Conifer
 Trees or shrubs
 Bark peels off in strips
 Branches often flattened in
appearance (A)
 Leaves evergreen, scale-like (B)
B
 Unisexual cones with few
cone scales (C) C
 Female cones sometimes
berry-like, leathery (C).
A
Note: Taxodiaceae is now included in Cupressaceae.
Examples: cedar, cypress (Cupressus, Chamaecyparis), arbor-vitae (Thuja),

juniper (Juniperus), dawn redwood (Metasequoia), bald cypress (Taxodium),
giant seqouia (Sequoiadendron), coast redwood (Sequoia).

Cupressaceae: Coniferophyta 24
Cyperaceae C
SEDGE FAMILY
C F
B
 Herbaceous monocot
 Stems often as rhizomes (A)
and upright culms (B) A
 Stems 3-sided, without nodes,
solid, not hollow
 Leaves linear, grass-like, D
with parallel veins, arranged
at 3 angles (tristichous)
 Leaves sheathing at base
 Inflorescence often divided E
into male and female parts (C),
B
as spikelets (D) on terminal
branches
 Flowers small, unisexual,
sitting behind a bract (E)
 Sepals and petals absent A
(rarely present)
 Anthers 3, hanging free
 Ovary superior, often inside a
bottle-shaped structure (perigynium, F)
 Fruit a small, 1-seeded nut
Examples: sedge (Carex), nut sedge and papyrus (Cyperus)

Cyperaceae: Poales: Commelinids: Monocots 25
Equisetaceae
HORSETAIL
FAMILY
B
 Herbs
 Stems ridged, hollow, circular
with nodes and sheaths (A)
 Leaves sometimes absent, thin A
and hollow
 Sporangia in terminal heads (B)
 Spores small, with arms (C)
Examples: horsetail (Equisetum).
Equisetum

Equisetaceae: Equisetales: Ferns and Fern Allies 26
Ericaceae
BLUEBERRY
FAMILY
 Shrubs or small trees, sometimes
herbs (some species mycotrophic
and without chlorophyll). A
 Leaves simple, without stipules;
often leathery and evergreen.
 Flowers actinomorphic
(arely bilateral),
often hanging (A).
 Petals 5 (rarely 0-7), fused.
 Stamens in two whorls, B
5+5 (rarely less),
attached to petals
 Anthers inverted (bent upside
down during development),
often with pores as openings (B).
Vaccinium
 With nectary disk inside stamens.
 Ovary superior or inferior,
usually with 5 carpels
 Style single
 Fruit a capsule, berry, or drupe.
Note: Included in the Ericaceae is Empetraceae, Monotropaceae,
and Pyrolaceae.
Examples: blueberry, cranberry, etc. (Vaccinium), azalea and labrador tea
(Rhododendron, Ledum), heather (Calluna), wintergreen (Chimaphila, Pyrola),
sheep laurel and mountain laurel (Kalmia), indian pipe (Monotropa).

Ericaceae: Ericales: Asterids: Eudicots 27
Euphorbiaceae
SPURGE
FAMILY
 Herbs, shrubs, trees or vines
 With (usually white) latex
 Stems often succulent and
fleshy (A)
 Leaves simple, two stipules often
present (sometimes as two spines
below each leaf, A)
 Inflorescence cyme or
cyathium (B)
 Flowers unisexual, 5-merous (B);
B
sometimes highly reduced
without sepals and petals
 Nectaries common Euphorbia
 Ovary superior, 3 carpels
 Fruit a schizocarp, capsule,
or drupe
A
Examples: poinsettia and euphorbs (Euphorbia),

castor bean (Ricinus), cassava and manihot (Manihot),
rubber tree (Hevea), copper leaf (Acalypha), croton
(Croton, Codiaeum), physic nut (Jatropha) .

Euphorbiaceae: Malpighiales: Fabids: Rosids: Eudicots 28
Fabaceae
BEAN FAMILY
A
 Mostly herbaceous, some trees
and shrubs
 Leaves alternate, compound
(A, with many small leaflets),
sometimes with tendrils
 Stipules at base of each leaf
(variable in size)
 Corolla of ‘butterfly-type’ (B),
bilateral with 5 parts: B
banner/standard, wings, keel
 Keel hidden between wings
 Stamens and style hidden inside keel
C
 Stamens 10 , 9 often fused
 Fruit a bean (legume, C), a dry capsule
without inner dividing walls, and with seeds attached to one side
 Seeds splits in 2, nutrients stored in dicotyledons inside seed
Note: The flower characters work only for subfamily Faboideae.
Examples: beans (Phaseolus), peas (Vicia, Pisum), licorice (Glychyrriza),

soybean (Glycine), chickpeas, peanuts (Arachis), lentil (Lens), sweet pea
(Lathyrus), carob (Ceratonia), alfalfa (Medicago), clover (Trifolium).

Fabaceae: Fabales: Fabids: Rosids: Eudicots 29
Fagaceae A
OAK FAMILY
 Trees
 Leaves simple, usually alternate,
often lobed (A)
 Inflorescences unisexual with
male catkins or heads (B), and B
a few female flowers inside
wooden bracts (cupule) at the
base of the male inflorescence (C)
 Woody bracts
 Flowers unisexual, tiny, often
highly reduced, wind-pollinated
 Fruit a nut (acorn in oaks), D
surrounded by the cupule (D) Quercus
C
Examples: oak (Quercus), chestnut (Castanea), beech (Fagus).

Fagaceae: Fagales: Fabids: Rosids: Eudicots 30
Geraniaceae D B
GERANIUM
FAMILY
 Herbs A
 Often with aromatic oil glands
and hairs, fragrant
 Leaves simple or compound,
usually palmately veined
C
and lobed, alternate (A)
 Stipules common
 Inflorescence a cyme, umbel
or flowers single
 Flowers actinomorphic D
or zygomorphic
 Petals 5, free (B)
 Stamens 10, in two whorls,
E
Geranium
fused at base into a ring,
staminodes common (C)
 Ovary superior, usually 5 fused carpels,
styles 5 (C)
 Style growing longer and firmer in fruit (D)
 Fruit a capsule or schizocarp (E)
Examples: crane’s bill, stork’s bill, filaree (Geranium, Pelargonium, Erodium).

Geraniaceae: Geraniales: Malvids: Rosids: Eudicots 31
Iridaceae
IRIS
FAMILY
 Herbs or shrubs
 Rhizomes, corms, and
bulbs common B
 Leaves sometimes unifacial, or
simple and linear-narrow, often
sheathing at base, A
parallel-veined (A)
 Inflorescence terminal, spike,
cluster or solitary flowers,
often with bracts below (B)
 Tepals 3+3, sometimes of
different sizes
 Stamens 3
 Ovary inferior, 3 fused carpels,
3 locules, placentation axile (C) C
 Style often petal-like
 Fruit a capsule
Iris
Examples: iris (Iris), gladiolus (Gladiolus), freesia (Freesia), crocus, saffron

(Crocus), blue-eyed grasses (Sisyrhinchium).

Iridaceae: Asparagales: Monocots 32
Juglandaceae A
WALNUT
FAMILY
 Trees, deciduous
 Leaves alternate, pinnately
compound (A), no stipules,
aromatic when crushed
 Inflorescences unisexual
 Male catkins long, hanging (B)
 Female flowers solitary or
small groups
 Flowers reduced, no sepals or B
C
tepals, wind-pollinated
 Fruits drupe-like, but is a nut
enclosed in fleshy or hard
involucres (husks), sometimes
these fall off (C)
Juglans
Examples: hickory and walnut (Juglans), pecan (Carya), wingnut

(Pterocarya).

Juglandaceae: Fagales: Fabids: Rosids: Eudicots 33
Juncaceae
RUSH
FAMILY
 Herbs, often with rhizomes (A)
and perennial C
 Stem sometimes round, hollow,
or triangular, similar to leaves
 Leaves simple, grass-like and
slender, parallel-veined, alternate, B
sheathing around stem (B),
often tristichous (arranged in
3 rows)
 Inflorescences as cymes or heads. A
 Flowers small, rather reduced,
actinomorphic
 Tepals 6, not fused,
Juncus
brownish with thin margins (C).
 Stamens 6
 Ovary superior, 3 fused carpels
 Style 3-branched
 Fruit a capsule, usually brown
Examples: rush (Juncus), wood rush (Luzula).

Juncaceae: Poales: Commelinids: Monocots 34
Lamiaceae
MINT B
FAMILY
 Herbaceous (some woody in
the tropics)
 Aromatic, with essential oils,
often hairy with glands in or on E
leaves or glandular hairs
 Leaves opposite, simple (A),
arranged at 180 degrees angle
to each other (looks like cross
from above)
 Stipules absent (A)
 Stem usually quadrangular D
 Flowers in groups (verticillasters) C
in leaf axils or in
terminal spikes (B) A
 Sepals fused, 5 (C)
Origanum
 Corolla 2-lipped (D)
 Stamens 2 or 4 (E)
 Fruits: 4 nutlets hidden
inside calyx
Examples: basil (Ocimum), mint (Mentha), sage (Salvia), thyme (Thymus),

rosemary (Rosmarinus), lavender (Lavandula), catnip (Nepeta), beebalm
(Monarda), dead nettle (Lamium), coleus (Coleus), teak (Tectona).

Lamiaceae: Lamiales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 35
Lauraceae A
LAUREL
FAMILY
 Trees and shrubs
 With aromatic oil glands,
leaves often punctate
 Leaves simple, evergreen,
alternate, rarely lobed
 Stipules absent
 Inflorescence axillary, cyme
or solitary flowers (A)
 Flowers small, actinomorphic,
with hypanthium
 Tepals 3+3, free
 Stamens 3-12, some as
staminodes
Laurus
 Anther opens with 2 or B
4 valves popping open (B)
 Ovary 1-carpellate,
usually superior
 Fruit berry or drupe
Examples: bayleaf (Laurus), avocado (Persea), sassafras (Sassafras), cinnamon,

camphor (Cinnamomum).

Lauraceae: Laurales: Magnoliids 36
Liliaceae s. str.
C
LILY B
FAMILY
 Perennial herbs
 Bulbs or rhizomes (A)
 Does not smell like onion
 Leaves alternate (rarely whorled),
often basal, sheathing at base,
parallel-veined (B)
 Inflorescence terminal, raceme
or solitary flower D
 Tepals 6, free (C), often spotted
or striped, with nectaries at base
 Stamens 6, free.
A
 Ovary superior, 3-carpellate,
3 locules (D), axile placentation
 Style single, stigma 3
 Fruit a capsule Tulipa
 Seeds flattened, ellipsoid to rounded
Note: Liliaceae were previously a larger family, but many genera have been
moved to other families such as Alstroemeriaceae, Colchicaceae,
Melianthaceae, and Smilacaceae.
Examples: tulips (Tulipa), lily (Lilium), fritillary (Fritillaria), trout lily

(Erythronium).

Liliaceae: Liliales: Monocots 37
Magnoliaceae C
MAGNOLIA
FAMILY
 Tree and shrubs B
 Leaves simple, alternate (A), with
deciduous stipules around the
buds in spring
 Flower terminal, solitary, large (B)
 Tepals many ( rarely few), whorled
or spirally arranged A
 Anthers many (C)
 Ovaries many, apocarpous,
on elongated structure in
center of flower Liriodendron
 Fruit an aggregate of berries, follicles,
or samaras
Examples: magnolia (Magnolia),

tulip tree (Liriodendron).

Magnoliaceae: Magnoliales: Magnoliids 38
Malvaceae s. lat. A
COTTON
FAMILY
 Herbs (shrubs or trees)
 With stellate or peltate hairs
(star-shaped or stalked scales)
 Leaves alternate, simple or
palmately compound (A), with
palmate venation (rarely pinnate)
 With stipules that fall off early
 Flowers actinomorphic, 5-merous,
often with an epicalyx (extra calyx
outside normal calyx; B) C B
 Petals free, 5 (C), often
convolute in bud D
 Stamens 5-many, often fused in a
tube around the style or as
separate bundles Malva
 Ovary usually superior, 2-many
carpels
 Fruit usually a capsule or a wheel-shaped schizocarp (D)
Note: This family now includes the mainly tropical families Bombacaceae
and Sterculiaceae, as well as the tree family Tiliaceae. The characters
listed here works best for temperate herbaceous Malvaceae.
Examples: Cotton (Gossypium), hibiscus (Hibiscus), mallow (Malva),
marshmallow (Althaea), linden, basswood (Tilia), cacao (Theobroma),
kapok (Ceiba), jute (Corchorus), cola (Cola), okra (Abelmoschus), durian
(Durian), balsa wood (Ochroma), baobab (Adansonia).

Malvaceae: Malvales: Malvids: Rosids: Eudicots 39
Moraceae
MULBERRY
FAMILY B A
 Trees, shrubs, or herbs

 Monoecious or dioecious
 Often with latex (milky sap)
 Leaves simple, with stipules (A)
 Inflorescence axillary (head,
catkin (B), spike, raceme, or
flattened or urn-shaped
receptacle)
C
 Flowers unisexual, very small (C)
 Sepals 0-10, fused at least at base
D
 Petals absent (D)
Morus E
 Stamens 1-6
 Styles 2 (D)
 Fruit is a multiple of many 1-seeded achenes (nutlets; E),
sometimes in/on a fleshy perianth or receptacle
Examples: mulberry (Morus), fig /banyan trees (Ficus),

breadfruit/jackfruit (Artocarpus), osage-orange (Maclura).

Moraceae: Rosales: Fabids: Rosids: Eudicots 40
Myrtaceae B
MYRTLE
FAMILY
 Trees and shrubs
 Leaves and stems with oil glands,
very aromatic
 Leaves opposite or alternate,
simple, sometimes leathery (A)
 Flowers actinomorphic,
with hypanthium A
 Sepals and petals 4-5
 Stamens many, free or fused C
into a few bundles, often the
showy part of the flower (B)
 Nectary disk on top of ovary
or inside flower Eucalyptus
 Ovary syncarpous, inferior,
placentation axile
 Fruit a capsule (C) or fleshy
Examples: eucalyptus (Eucalyptus), cloves (Syzygium), bottlebrush

(Callistemon), tea tree (Leptospemum), myrtle (Myrtus), guava (Psidium),
allspice (Pimenta).

Myrtaceae: Myrtales: Malvids: Rosids: Eudicots 41
Oleaceae B
C
OLIVE and
JASMINE
FAMILY
 Trees and shrubs (vines)
 No latex
 Leaves opposite, simple or A
compound, no stipules (A)
 Inflorescence a panicle or raceme (B)
D
 Flowers actinomorphic
 Sepals and petals 4, fused (C)
(reduced in wind-pollinated
species)
 Stamens 2 (C)
Ligustrum
 Ovary 2-carpellate, superior,
2 ovules in each locule
 Fruit a drupe, berry (D), capsule
or samara
Examples: golden bells (Forsythia), olive (Olea), jasmine (Jasminum), ash

(Fraxinus), fringe tree (Chionanthus), privet (Ligustrum), lilac (Syringa),
osmanthus (Osmanthus).

Oleaceae: Lamiales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 42
Orchidaceae
ORCHID
FAMILY
 Herbs, terrestrial or epiphytes
 Tubers, corms and rhizomes common (A) B
 Epiphytic species with air roots
(with white velamen)
 Leaves alternate or whorled,
often sheathing at base, simple,
with parallel venation (B) C A
 Inflorescence a raceme, spike,
or solitary flower
 Flowers zygomorphic (C)
 Tepals 3+3, free, lower tepal
often enlarged into a lower lip
(labellum, C), some with spurs or sacs
 Stamen 1, fused with style and
stigma into a gynostegium/column Calypso
 Pollen spread as pollinia

 Ovary inferior, 3-carpellate, inside 180 degree twisted flower stalk
(resupinate)
 Fruit a capsule, with many dust-sized seeds
Note: some of the advanced floral characters are missing in subfamilies
Cypripedioideae and Apostasioideae.
Examples: vanilla (Vanilla), cattleya (Cattleya), dendrobium (Dendrobium),

boat orchid (Cymbidium), epidendrum (Epidendrum), slipper orchid
(Cypripedium, Paphiopedilum), moth orchid (Phalaneopsis).

Orchidaceae: Asparagales: Monocots 43
Orobanchaceae s. lat. B
BROOM-RAPE
FAMILY
 Fully or partial root parasites on
other plants, sometimes without
chlorophyll (then white, brown,
purple, red or pink)
 Root system small (A) or haustoria
 Herbs or rarely shrubs
C
 Leaves opposite or alternate,
simple, sometimes scale-like
 Inflorescences often with colored
bracts (B), as racemes, spikes (B)
or solitary flowers D
 Petals 5, fused, 2-lipped
Melampyrum
(3 lobes on lower lip; C)
 Stamens 4, 2 long and 2 short
A
 Ovary superior, 2-carpellate
 Fruit a capsule (D), 1-locular,
with many tiny seeds
Note: Several genera have recently been moved from Scrophulariaceae into
Orobanchaceae.
Examples: broom-rape (Orobanche), Indian paintbrush (Castilleja), beech

drops (Epiphagus), lousewort (Pedicularis), cow-wheat (Melampyrum),
eyebright (Euphrasia), false foxglove (Agalinis).

Orobanchaceae: Lamiales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 44
Pinaceae A
PINE
FAMILY
 Conifers, usually evergreen
 Monoecious trees (rarely shrubs)
B
 Bark not falling off in long strips
 Resinous, fragrant
 Leaves as linear needles,
sometimes flattened, D
1-10 in fascicles on branches,
spirally arranged (A)
 Male cones smaller (B), fall off after C
releasing pollen, wind-pollinated
 Female cones large, with woody
and spirally arranged cone scales (C), B
maturing over several years, each Pinus
scale with 2 winged seeds (D)
Examples: pine (Pinus), spruce (Picea), larch (Larix), douglas fir (Pseudotsuga),
fir (Abies), cedar (Cedrus), hemlock (Tsuga).

Pinaceae: Coniferophyta 45
Plantaginaceae
PLANTAIN &
SNAPDRAGON
FAMILY A
 Herbaceous (rarely shrubs)
 Hairy plants, often aromatic
 Leaves alternate or opposite B
 Flowers bilateral (A, often
2-lipped)
 Stamens 4, 2+2 together (A)
 Ovary superior (B)
 Seeds attached to center of
fruit (axile placentation)
 Fruit a dry capsule (B)
 Seeds numerous
Veronica
Note: Many species in this family previously belonged to

Scrophulariaceae. Callitrichaceae and Globulariaceae are also
included in Plantaginaceae.
Examples: plaintain (Plantago), speedwell (Veronica), snapdragon

(Antirrhinum), foxglove (Digitalis), turtlehead (Chelone), chinese house
(Collinsia), butter-and-eggs, toad flax (Linaria), beard tongue
(Penstemon).

Plantaginaceae: Lamiales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 46
Plantaginaceae
PLANTAIN
FAMILY
Linaria
Digitalis
Plantago

Plantaginaceae: Lamiales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 47
Poaceae D
GRASS
FAMILY
 Herbaceous or seldom woody
 Stems often rhizomatous C
and/or with erect culms
(A, shoots) B
 Stems round, hollow,
C
with nodes (B)
 Leaves linear, with parallel
venation, sheathing, with ligule
at top of sheath
 Inflorescences with terminal
and axillary spikelets (C),
subtended by bracts (glumes)
 Flowers without sepals and petals
 Spike (awn) often present on bracts A
 Stamens and ovary hidden inside Poa
bracts (D), called palea and lemma
 When flowering, styles and anthers hanging out from spikelets
 Stamens 3
 Style often branched and plumose (feather-like)
 Fruit a one-seeded nut (caryopsis)
Examples: corn/maize (Zea), wheat (Triticum), barley (Hordeum), rye

(Secale), oats (Avena), rice (Oryza), bamboo (many genera), bluegrass
(Poa), reed (Phragmites), sugarcane (Saccharum), fescue (Festuca),
bentgrass (Agrostis).
Poaceae: Poales: Commelinids: Monocots 48
Polygonaceae A C
BUCKWHEAT D
& KNOTWEED
FAMILY
 Herbs or shrubs, sometimes
vines or trees
 Stems with swollen nodes
 Leaves alternate, simple (A), often
with stipular sheath surrounding
the stem at base of leaf (ocrea, B)
 Inflorescences in fascicles
arranged in spikes or racemes (C)
 Flowers small, often pinkish
or greenish (D)
 Tepals 3+3 or 5, fused at base (D) B
 Stamens often with nectaries
at their base
 Ovary superior
E
 Fruit a 3-sided achene or nutlet with Polygonum
a single seed (E)
Examples: rhubarb (Rheum), buckwheat (Fagopyrum), smartweed, knotweed,

pinkweek, persicaria (Polygonum, Persicaria, Fallopia), sorrel (Rumex).

Polygonaceae: Caryophyllales: Eudicots 49
Ranunculaceae
BUTTERCUP C
FAMILY A
 Herbs, lianas or shrubs

compound (A), often lobed or
dissected, with or without stipules
 Inflorescence a cyme or
flowers single
 Flowers with spirally arranged
parts (B) D
 Sepals often petal-like, free
 Petals free, few to many, often
with nectaries (C) on inside base
and/or spurred
 Stamens many (B)
 Gynoecium with few-many
B Ranunculus
carpels, separate (apocarpous),
superior (B)
 Fruit a follicle, achene (D) or berry
(often aggregated from several carpels)
Examples: buttercup (Ranunculus), anemone, windflower (Anemone), pasque

flower (Pulsatilla), clematis (Clematis), meadow rue (Thalictrum),
baneberry, bugbane, cohosh (Actaea), monkshood, wolfsbane
(Aconitum), marsh marigold (Caltha), columbine (Aquilegia), love-in-a-
mist (Nigella), hepatica (Hepatica), larkspur (Delphinium), hellebore
(Helleborus), goldenseal (Hydrastis).

Rancunulaceae: Ranunculales: Eudicots 50
Ranunculaceae
BUTTERCUP
FAMILY
Actaea
Aquilegia
Anemone
Aconitum
Rancunulaceae: Ranunculales: Eudicots 51
Rosaceae
ROSE
& APPLE B
FAMILY A
 Herbaceous or woody, often

shrubs or trees
 Stipules (A) at base of each leaf
 Sepals 5, petals 5 (B), free D
 Hypanthium (C, cup-like
structure composed from the
fused petal, sepal, and stamen
bases)
 Stamens usually numerous (D)
 Fruit type variable, often pome
(apple-like), drupelets C Rosa
(blackberry-like), drupe (stone
fruit), dry capsules, or dry nutlets
Examples: Rose (Rosa), apple (Malus), pear (Pyrus), blackberry /raspberry

(Rubus), Lady’s mantle (Alchemilla), hawthorn (Crataegeus),
strawberries (Fragaria), plum/almond/peach/apricot (Prunus), spiraea
(Spiraea)

Rosaceae: Rosales: Fabids: Rosids: Eudicots 52
Rosaceae Fragaria
ROSE
& APPLE Alchemilla
FAMILY
Rosa
Potentilla
Malus

Rosaceae: Rosales: Fabids: Rosids: Eudicots 53
Rubiaceae
COFFEE
FAMILY Galium
 Herbs, shrubs, or trees
 Leaves opposite, simple with
entire margin (A)
 With interpetiolar stipules (or
stipules leaf-like to resemble
whorled leaves, B)
 Inflorescence cymose, or
flowers solitary
 Flowers actinomorphic (C) C
 Sepals (0)4-5, fused at base
 Petals 4-5, fused, corolla often
B D
trumpetshaped
 Stamens 4-5, inserted into corolla A
wall, as many as petals Coffea
 Ovary inferior, usually 2-carpellate,

placentation axile (D)
 Fruit a capsule, drupe, berry, or
schizocarp, sometimes aggregate
Examples: bedstraw, madder (Galium,

Rubia), quinine tree (Cinchona), coffee
(Coffea), yohimbine (Pausinystalia),
buttonbush (Cephalanthus), West
Indian jasmine (Ixora), morinda,
noni (Morinda), pentas (Pentas),
ipecacuanha (Psychotria).
D
Rubiaceae: Gentianales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 54
Citrus
Rutaceae
RUE or CITRUS A
FAMILY
 Trees, shrubs, lianas (herbs),
sometimes with thorns
compound, no stipules
 Leaves often with oil glands as
small dots inside leaves (fragrant)
 Flowers actinomorphic (A) C B
 Sepals 4-5, free or fused
 Petals 4-5, free or fused
 Nectary disk inside flower
below ovary and stamens (B)
 Stamens 8-many, often in D
groups, sometimes fused (C)
 Ovary superior, 4-many fused carpels, axile placentation (D)
 Fruit a berry, drupe, schizocarp or hesperidium (D, juicy part is swollen
hairs); fruit wall often with oil glands
Examples: lemon, lime, grape fruit, orange, mandarine, kumquat (Citrus), rue
(Ruta), prickly-ash (Zanthoxylum).

Rutaceae: Sapindales: Malvids: Rosids: Eudicots 55
Salicaceae B
WILLOW Salix
FAMILY
 Trees or shrubs, dioecious
 Leaves deciduous, simple,
alternate (A) A
 With or without stipules
 Inflorescences as unisexual
catkins (B)
 Each flower with a bract
below (C) B F
 Sepals and petals absent (C)
 Each flower with nectaries
 Ovary from 2 fused carpels,
style very short (D)
 Fruit a capsule with many seeds (E)
 Seeds with long hairs (F)
(wind-dispersed) D E
C
Note: Flacourtiaceae was recently included in Salicaceae. The field
characters listed here work mostly for Salicaceae in its older, more
restricted sense.
Examples: willow (Salix), poplar, cottonwood, aspen (Populus).

Salicaceae: Malpighiales: Fabids: Rosids: Eudicots 56
Scrophulariaceae A
MULLEIN &
FIGWORT
FAMILY
 Herbs, never parasitic
 Stem not angular
 Leaves alternate or opposite
 Flowers usually at least slightly
zygomorphic (rarely actinomorphic, A)
 Sepals 5, fused at base B
 Petals 5, fused at least at base (B)
 Stamens 2 or 4 (rarely 5), inserted
into corolla tube (B)
 Ovary superior, 2 fused carpels
 Fruit a capsule with many seeds
Verbascum
Note: Many genera of ‘old’ Schrophulariaceae were recently moved out of

the family into Plantaginaceae, Orobanchaceae. The characters listed
here are for the new version of the family, and unfortunately there
aren’t many good field characters to identify Scrophulariaceae s. str.
Examples: figwort (Schrophularia), mullein (Verbascum), butterfly bush

(Buddleja), mudworts (Limosella).

Scrophulariaceae: Lamiales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 57
Solanaceae Solanum
C
TOMATO,
PEPPER, &
POTATO
FAMILY
 Herbaceous in temperate areas,
often woody in tropics
 Leaves alternate (A), often lobed, often
hairy, sometimes with prickles
 Stipules absent (A)
 Sepals 5, fused
 Petals 5, fused a little or a lot, D
corolla star-, trumpet-, or funnel-
shaped or tubular A
 Ovary superior (B)
 Anthers often fused, porate (C) B
(peppershaker-type)
 Berry (D), drupe, or capsule
 Seeds many, attached to center E
of fruit (axile placentation, E)
Examples: potato/tomato (Solanum, incl. Lycopersicon), chili pepper/sweet

pepper (Capsicum), angel trumpet (Brugmansia), tobacco (Nicotiana),
petunia (Petunia), tomatillo (Physalis), jimsonweed (Datura).

Solanaceae: Solanales: Lamiids: Asterids: Eudicots 58
Vitaceae
GRAPE
FAMILY B
 Most often lianas,

sometimes herbs
or trees
 Tendrils opposite
the leaf (A)
 Simple, palmate
leaves, sometimes
divided or pinnate
 Inflorescence
opposite a leaf
on the stem
 Small flowers, A
4-5 merous (B);
free sepals,
free petals (fused C
on top in Vitis) Vitis
 Fruit a berry (C).
Note: Leeaceae is now included in Vitaceae.
Examples: grapes (Vitis), virginia creeper (Parthenocissus), grape ivy (Cissus)

All rights reserved. Vitaceae: Vitales: Rosids: Eudicots 59
Resources
BOOKS and WEBSITES
 Plant Systematics by Michael G. Simpson, edition 2 (2010). Elsevier Academic
Press. Excellent textbook for introduction to morphology, classification and
evolution of plants, many color photos.
 Angiosperm Phylogeny Group: An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV
(2016): Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 181, 1–20. See also
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APG_IV_system.
 Mabberley’s Plant-Book by David Mabberley, edition 3 (2009). Cambridge
University Press. Dictionary over scientific and common names, incredibly
detailed and comprehensive.
IMAGES used in this compendium (all copyright free or used under Creative
Commons licensing)
 Lindman, C. A. M. 1901-1905. Bilder ur Nordens Flora. Project Runeberg, ©
Gerhard Keuck, 1999, http://caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/lindman/
 Köhler, F. E.1883-1914. Medizinal-Pflanzen in naturgetreuen Abbildungen und
kurz erläuterndem Texte, Gera, http://caliban.mpiz-
koeln.mpg.de/koehler/index.html
 Curtis, W. The Botanical Magazine; Or, Flower-Garden Displayed. Bot. Reg. xxvi,
71 (1840).
 Thomé, O. W. 1885. Flora von Deutschland Österreich und der Schweiz. © Kurt
Stueber, 2007. http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/thome/index.html
HOW TO CITE THIS MANUAL:

Struwe, L. 2016. Field identification of the 50 most common plant families in temperate
regions (including agricultural, horticultural, and wild species). Rutgers University,
New Brunswick, NJ, USA. Published by the author, available at
http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~struwe/
© Lena Struwe 2016, All rights reserved. 60

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Field Identification

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Field identification of

the 50 most common

Bryophytes Mosses, liverworts, hornworts

Lycophytes Clubmosses, etc.

Ferns and Fern Allies Ferns, horsetails, moonworts, etc.

Gymnosperms Conifers, pines, cycads and cedars, etc.

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Monocots Eudicots: Asterids

Note: Chenopodiaceae is now included in Amaranthaceae.

Examples: beet (Beta), amaranth, quinoa (Amaranthus), lamb’s quarters

© Lena Struwe 2016,

 Biennial or perennial herbs

Note: Alliaceae is now included in Amaryllidaceae .

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: amaryllis (Hippeastrum), snowdrop (Galanthus), belladonna-lily

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Notes: Apiaceae sometimes includes Araliaceae. The characters listed

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Note: Asclepiadaceae is now included in Apocynaceae.

Examples: dogbane (Apocynum), milkweed (Asclepias), rosy/Madagascar

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: taro (Colocasia), anthurium (Anthirium), arum (Amorphophallus

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: English Ivy (Hedera), ginseng (Panax), umbrella tree

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Note: Many of these genera were previously placed in Liliaceae.

Examples: aloe (Aloe), haworthia (Haworthia), asphodel (Asphodelus), red hot

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: Echinacea (Echinacea), dandelion (Taraxacum), burdock

© Lena Struwe 2016,

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: birch (Betula), alder (Alnus), ironwood (Carpinus), hazelnuts and

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Note: These characters refer to Boraginaceae s.str.

Examples: borage (Borago), forget-me-not (Myosotis), comfrey (Symphytum),

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Note: This family circumscription refers to Brassicaceae s. str. and does

Examples: white mustard (Sinapis), garlic mustard (Alliaria), horseradish

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Note: Lobeliaceae is included

Examples: bell flower (Campanula),

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Note: Caprifoliaceae includes the following families now: Dipsacaceae,

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: Carnation (Dianthus), corncockle (Agrostemma), chickweed

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: bindweed (Calystegia, Convolvulus), morning glory and swett

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: melon and cucumber (Cucumis), watermelon (Citrullus), squashes

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Note: Taxodiaceae is now included in Cupressaceae.

Examples: cedar, cypress (Cupressus, Chamaecyparis), arbor-vitae (Thuja),

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: sedge (Carex), nut sedge and papyrus (Cyperus)

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: horsetail (Equisetum).

© Lena Struwe 2016,

© Lena Struwe 2016,

Examples: poinsettia and euphorbs (Euphorbia),