LIFE SCIENCES

SKILLS BOOKLET
UPDATE 2023

A problem is identified by making an

observation or a question is posed based on
the observation

Knowledge or information about the topic is

accessed from a variety of sources

Variables are identified

A hypothesis is generated
This is a tentative explanation for the
problem/observation
Hypothesis is revised, modified, adapted or new

Aims and Predictions are

generated
hypothesis is generated

Controlled experiments are designed

Fair Tests
Process is repeated

Observation, collection, manipulation and

analysis of data

Experimental data Experimental data

supports hypothesis does not support
hypothesis

Hypothesis is not Reject Hypothesis

rejected
 1. Research Question: This is a question that guides the investigation.
Maybe written as:

How is the dependent variable affected by the independent

variable?

e.g. How does the amount of moisture affect the number of seeds
that germinate?

e.g. How does the temperature affect the rate of transpiration?

2. Aim: A statement to explain the purpose of the investigation.

e.g. To determine how the amount of moisture affects the number of

seeds that germinate.

To determine if light is necessary for plant growth.

The aim should mention both dependant and independent variables.

** In exam questions the aim is often stated in the write-up. Look out for the
phrases “Scientists wanted to determine.”, “They wanted to investigate
how…”.

3. Hypothesis:
A tentative explanation for a phenomenon / observation or an investigation
question

A hypothesis is an idea about how something works that can be tested

using experiments. When conducting scientific experiments, researchers
develop hypotheses to guide experimental design. A hypothesis is a suggested
explanation that is both testable and falsifiable. You must be able to test your
hypothesis, and it must be possible to prove your hypothesis true or false.

Example:
Michael observes that maple trees lose their leaves in the fall. He might then
propose a possible explanation for this observation: “cold weather causes maple
trees to lose their leaves in the fall.” This statement is testable. He could grow maple
trees in a warm enclosed environment such as a greenhouse and see if their leaves
still dropped in the fall. The hypothesis is also falsifiable. If the leaves still dropped in
the warm environment, then clearly temperature was not the main factor in causing
maple leaves to drop in autumn.

In the above example:

The aim is: Why do maple trees lose their leaves in the fall? 

The hypothesis could be: Cold weather causes maple trees to lose there leaves

The hypothesis then guides the experimental design and you need to investigate
this. 

NOT ALL EXPERIMENTS WILL HAVE A HYPOTHESIS

If the aim was:  Does cold weather cause leaves to fall?

There would be no hypothesis because you are not asked to explain how or why
something works 

4. Variables:
Dependant – The dependant variable is a variable whose value depends upon
independent variable.
The dependent variable is what is being measured in an investigation.

Independent – The independent variable refers to the factor that is being

investigated. It is the factor that is deliberately changed to see what effect it
will have on the results of any experiment.

NB: The dependant viable is not always what we are directly measuring in the
investigation. For example, when we want to measure the rate of
photosynthesis in a plant, it is not easy to measure it directly. Instead, we can
measure the amount of oxygen that is released. This will tell us how fast
photosynthesis is taking place. The dependant variable is NOT the amount of
oxygen released but it is still the rate of photosynthesis.
Therefore, don’t look at your graph or table to determine the dependant and
independent variables. Rather look at the aim of the experiment and work it
out from the aim

Fixed variables (Controlled variables) – these are factors that must remain constant
so that the experiment is a fair test. Controlled variables will affect the result of
the investigation if they are not kept the same throughout the investigation.

e.g. Optimum environmental conditions / amount of chemicals / concentration of

solution

Controlled variables ensure that our investigation is valid. If we want to

improve validity, we ensure that all variables that will affect the result of our
investigation are controlled (the same).
 ACTIVITY 1
Consider the following AIM and give the independent, dependent and at least
2 fixed variables:
To investigate if the altitude at which a person lives affects how long they can
hold their breath under water.

Independent:
______________________________________________________
Dependant:
_______________________________________________________
Fixed Variables:
___________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 2

Identify the variables in the AIM below:

To determine how the amount of yeast affects the dough rising?

Independent:
______________________________________________________
Dependant:
_______________________________________________________
Fixed Variables:
___________________________________________________

5. Planning:

Planning for a scientific investigation involves the following:

 Ethical issues around the investigation, e.g. by getting permission
from the appropriate authorities before the investigation is conducted
 Making all the logistical arrangements, e.g. by identifying and getting
all the materials to be used in the investigation
 Deciding on the method/procedure that is going to be used or followed
e.g. how to catch the fish for the investigation
 Dealing with how the data will be collected, recorded, analysed and
presented.
NB: Use hints from the given investigation to determine PLANNING
STEPS applicable to the investigation

` The following are examples possible planning steps that you can take. When
using them make sure they are appropriate for the investigation being carried out.
1. E.g. *Seek permission from participants/authorities to collect data
(this is if
 you are using people, animals or an area that requires access)
*Determine the sample size
*Determine how to do random sampling
*Determine where sample will be done
*Train data capturers /trial collecting ensuring that all are able to
identify the
traits correctly.
*Design a table to record the data / Decide how data will be measured
and
recorded

ACTIVITY 3
Consider the following aim and give 3 planning steps you should take:
To determine how temperature affects the concentration level of learners.

6. Method:
** Not usually asked in examinations but must be revised for
practical assignments
 Write down the scientific method in bullet format for your investigation.
 The method should be written so that a complete stranger will be able
to carry out the same procedure in the exact same way and get almost
identical results.
 The method should be written in the past tense using the passive
voice.
 The method must be clear and precise instructions including
a. the apparatus
b. exact measurements or quantities of chemicals or substances
 Ensure that your method is written out in the correct sequence, with
each step of the experiment numbered.
 State the criteria you will look for or measure to get results.
 Give clear instructions how the results should be recorded (table, graph
etc.)
 Include safety precautions where possible.
The Control
Controlled experiments must always have a control and an experimental set-up.
The
control will depend on the aim of the experiment.
The experiment has all the factors including the factor being tested.
The control has all the factors except the factor being tested.

A control is used as a benchmark or a point of comparison against which the

results of
the experiment is measured.
The purpose of a control is to verify whether the result obtained in the ‘experiment’
is due
only to the factor or variable being investigated and nothing else

ACTIVITY 4

Consider the following and state the control of the experiment

To determine if light is needed for photosynthesis.

Experiment:
_____________________________________________________________

Control:
______________________________________________________________
___

Measurement
Measurement can be done either qualitatively or quantitatively.
Qualitative measurement:
Is a descriptive measurement (eg small, medium)
Quantitative measurement:
Is a numerical measurement (eg height, mass)
7. Precautionary measures
These will vary from experiment to experiment. You need to think of obvious things
so that
the experiment won’t fail. Here are some examples:

o Ensure that environmental conditions are kept at an optimal level (e.g.

temperature, humidity)
o Water plants regularly to ensure growth
o Cut stem under water so air bubbles don’t get into xylem vessels
o Give both plants same amount of sunlight for even growth
o Take water samples from the same depth at each site.
o Use same equipment to gather samples.
o Ensure that apparatus is airtight
o Ensure that animal don’t escape etc.

These are just suggestions and should not be used for just any experiment. You
need to think of how your experiment is carried out and what problems can arise.
Also think of what should be done to ensure that the experiment and control are
treated the same during the course of your investigation.

8. How to increase the reliability of the experiment:

What is reliability?
The idea behind reliability is that any significant results of an investigation must be
more than a once-off finding and be repeatable. Other researchers must be able to
perform exactly the same experiment, under the same conditions and generate the
same results. This will reinforce the findings of the experiment and ensure that the
wider scientific community accepts the hypothesis.

To improve reliability
Repeat the experiment/investigation
Increase the sample size / Increase the number of experimental set-ups used
Samples should be taken Randomly
Many readings should be taken to obtain an average reading

**When asked how investigators made an experiment reliable you must be

specific.
Don’t just write “They repeated it with many volunteers”
Instead write “They repeated the experiment 10 times with 200 volunteers”
9. How to increase the validity of the experiment: - How can the
experimental process be improved!

What is Validity? - Validity questions how the experiment/investigation was

carried out. It is concerned with the Variables.
Have all the factors/variables been controlled/fixed except the variable/factor being
tested?
Is the design for the investigation appropriate?
Validity therefore speaks to whether the scientific research method was done with
the appropriate care and diligence.
In questions which ask learners to suggest some factors that might have decreased
the validity of an investigation, the answers should centre around criticism of the
scientific process, for example some factors/variables that were not fixed/controlled
when carrying out the investigation.

e.g. Make (environmental)conditions of the two plants identical.

Ensure that all samples are taken in the same way.
Have only one person doing all the testing of all the samples.
Use the same quantity of all chemicals added (name the chemicals used in
the experiment)

Accuracy: Refers to the quality or preciseness or correctness of a measurement

Accuracy vs Validity: A poor design of an investigation may still result in accurate

measurements – but it does not necessarily make the results / conclusion/
investigation valid

10. Results: Are recorded in the form of a Table or Graph

Graphs
Graphs are a way of recording the relationship between two things / factors that
can change in picture form. These factors that change in relation to each other are
called variables.
Graphs are therefore a way of recording large amounts of information in a simple
form that can easily be understood. Graphs make it easier to interpret trends.

Depending on the information we want to record, we can use different types of

graphs. The most common graph is the line graph; we will also deal with bar
graphs, histograms, and pie graphs.

Before we start, we need to learn the terminology linked to graphs. The following
terms are common to most graphs:

Axis (pl. axes): The vertical axis is the y-axis

The horizontal axis is the x-axis
 Origin: The point where the x- and y-axis cross meet.
Ensure that the gap between your origin an the first point on the scale is the
same as all other points on the scale (ask your teacher to explain)

Independent variable: always goes on the x-axis.

This is the variable that we can control / change so that we can see what
happens.

Dependent variable: always goes on the y-axis.

This is the variable that depends on the independent variable i.e. it changes
as we change the independent variable / the variable that is measured.

Scale: This is the way we determine how to plot the information on the graph,
and we must take readings from the graph and carefully consider it before we
start the graph. We need to make sure that our scale covers all the figures
that we must plot. The scale starts at 0 and must be kept constant e.g. 5, 10,
15, 20 or 10, 20, 30 etc. The scale must also be clearly marked on the axes.

Caption: All graphs must have a caption that includes the information on both
axes i.e. both variables. The question will guide you to write the heading. The
heading must say what type of graph it is. The heading must not have the
units. The heading must be underlined.

Labels: Each axis must be correctly labelled – always include units (if there are
any)

Plotting points: Plot the points and clearly mark them on the graph with a dot.
Use a ruler to join the plotted points.

Bar Graph Histogram

Pie Chart Line Graph

Calculations for pie charts

In my class there are 30 students. 15 students like Tempo, 5 like bar ones and 10
like lunch bar.

To calculate the degrees do the following:

Number x 360 = ______o

Total

Therefore: Tempo 15 x 360 = 180O

30

Bar one 5 x 360 = 60O

30

Lunch bar 10 x 360 = 120O

30

Pie Charts are useful for showing percentages & proportion

When do we use a Bar graph, Histograms or line graph?

 Line graphs are used when we compare two different number values.
 Bar graphs are used when one of the variables is given in numbers.
 Histograms are used when information is presented in continuous
groups. These are Similar to bar graphs BUT THERE ARE NO SPACES
BETWEEN THE BARS.
 Remember:

 bar graphs have separate bars like the bars in a prison

 bars are always the same size (width) – measure and draw with a ruler
 spaces between the bars are always the same size
 do not draw bars against the y-axis
 scale must be clearly marked and the number written next to the mark
 it is strongly advised that a key be used. eg. A, B, C or 1, 2, 3.
 Do not write in the bars.

If the independent variable is not in the If the independent variable is in the

form of number then a bar graph form of numbers or units that form a
should be used continuum then a line graph is used
A Graph should have:

All graphs must have a heading which mentions the dependant & independent variable.
Ensure that your heading is detailed. Explaining all the information being shown in the
graph
Dependant variable on
the y-axis.
The label should be
included the units used
The numbers must form
a scale on y-axis
Don’t only write numbers
given

Must mention units also

Independent variable on the x-

axis.
There should always be a label
and units /bars should be evenly
spaced.
 A key must be given when
Keys: drawing a compound graph

TRENDS

A trend is a pattern in a set of results displayed in a graph.

Activity 5
(From T. Isaac study guide)
Year Total amount of solid Amount of recyclable
waste (millions of material in solid
tons) waste (millions of
tons)
2003 1,49 0,78
2004 1,59 0,82
2005 1,80 1,20
2006 1,93 1,30

Describe the general trend in the total amount of waste produced and the
amount of recyclable materials dumped from 2003 to 2006.
(5)

RELATIONSHIPS
As the one variable increases or decreases so too does the other variable
increase or decrease.

Do not use words such as directly and indirectly proportional.

Activity 6
(From T. Isaac study guide)
Amount of nitrate Yield of grass
fertiliser added to (100 kg/hectare)
crop (kg/hectare)
0 8
225 14
425 18
650 20
700 20
750 19

Describe the relationship between the amount of fertiliser added and the yield
of grass.
(3)

Tables

A table must have:

1. Heading: The heading should mention both dependant & independent

variables. It must be underlined.
2. Columns & Rows: The independent variable should be in the first column
and the dependant variable (data collected) in the second column.
Each column must have a heading and units. (if applicable).
3. Border: Table must have a frame or border (drawn in pencil and with a
ruler)

e.g. Table 1: Table showing births and deaths from 1990 till 1991

Independent Dependants variables More columns may be

variable in first (data collected) in added if more than
column second column one set if dependant
variables (data) is
recorded

e.g. Year Number of deaths Number of births

1990 40 51

1991 42 54
ACTIVITY 7 – To be done in your note book

1.1. Draw two graphs on the same set of axes showing the changes in heart rate
of two boys, John and Thabo, at different distances as they run a race.

Distance run John’s heart rate Thabo’s heart

(m) (beats per minute) rate
(beats per minute)
0 60 70
100 75 80
200 85 90
400 100 110
800 120 115
1500 120 130

1.2. What is the relationship between exercise (running further and further) and
heart rate
(heart beats per minute)?

__________________________________________________________________
____

__________________________________________________________________
____

1.3. Translate the information in the table into a line graph on the same set of
axes. It gives the % male and female cigarette smokers aged 16 and over
from 1972 until 1982.
 Year Percentage cigarette smokers
Males aged 16 & Females aged 16 &
over over
197 52 41

197 51 41

197 46 38

197 45 37

198 42 37

198 38 33

1.4 What trend can you infer from the two graphs:

(i) about smoking in general and

(ii) comparing smoking in males and smoking in females?
_____________________________________________________________
_____

_____________________________________________________________
_____

_____________________________________________________________
_____

_____________________________________________________________
_____

2.1. Translate the information in the table below showing the number of learners in a class
of
35 who like different types of sports, into a bar graph.

Types of sports Number of learners

who like the sport
Soccer 8
Rugby 5
Basketball 6
Netball 10
Volleyball 2
Cricket 4
2.2. Which sport is liked the least? ____________________________

2.3. Which sport is liked the most? ____________________________

3.1. Translate the following information showing the rainfall (mm) per month for Tshwane in
2004 into a histogram.
Month of the Rainfall ( mm)
year
January 200
February 350
March 210
April 100
May 50
June 10
July 0
August 0
September 10
October 150
November 200
December 280

4.1. Draw a pie chart above to show the proportion of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a
carbohydrate. The proportion of C:H:O is 1:2:1.

4.2. Translate the information showing the number of learners who like different
type of fruits into a pie graph.

Types of fruits No. of learners who like

the fruits
Kiwi 10
Apples 5
Pears 15
Oranges 10

5 Ludwe did an investigation to determine which mode of transport is

used by the learners in his school. He did a survey on 500 learners at
his school. He found that 55 learners come to school using bicycles,
103 use trains, 242 walk and 25 use buses and 75 use taxis.

Draw a table to process the data obtained by Ludwe.

6. Tabulate the differences between a plant and an animal cell.

11. Conclusion: is the answer to the focus question.
Maybe written as follows for continuous data:

Dependent variable increases/decreases with increased independent

variable

In some cases there are limitations to the changes in the dependent variable,
in those cases it should be written as follows:

Dependent variable increases/decreases until …..with increased

independent variable

ACTIVITY 8
Write general conclusion for the investigations below

1.

Plant Growth

Light Intensity

2. 3.

Plant Growth Plant Growth

Light Intensity Light

Intensity
 OTHER SCIENTIFIC SKILLS

SCIENTIFIC DIAGRAMS

Remember:
1. Diagrams must be drawn with a pencil.
2. Draw sharp, clear and solid lines.
3. No shading or colour.
4. Draw the same size and shape of the cell and the organelles inside.
5. Only draw outlines of structures, not the fine details.
6. Avoid shading or making dots that do not represent any structure.
7. Diagrams must be large enough to show all necessary detail
8. Labels and label lines should be in ink.
9. Labels should be printed in lowercase unless a structure is the name of a
person e.g. Golgi apparatus.
10. Labels must be one below each other, spaced around drawing.
11. Label lines should be drawn with a ruler and should be parallel.
12. Heading should include: Drawing of ………… what it is …………. which view
i.e. L/S or a C/S ………….. fresh material / seen under a microscope
……………. with magnification e.g. A line diagram of a cross section of a dicot
root as seen under a microscope X200. (Section of diagram and magnification
must be include only if relevant to diagram)
13. Heading must be underlined.
14. You may be asked to draw annotated diagrams. These are diagrams with
labels and functions or labels and descriptions of the structures.

Activity 9 – Do activity in your note book

Draw a plant cell with at least 5 labels. Use your rules of drawing.

(Teachers may also give learners an object to draw)