LEOI 22 Theory

3.
Theory
3.1 Interference
Light is an electromagnetic wave associated with electric and magnetic fields. When two or
more light waves overlap, the total light wave at any point and at any instant is governed by the
law of superposition. As a result, the resultant electric or magnetic field at any point and at any
instant is the addition of the instantaneous electric or magnetic fields produced at the point by
the individual light waves. If the individual light waves have phases that bear no fixed
relationship to each other over time, then the strength of the added electric or magnetic field at
a point would vary randomly over time. Such strength, if averaged over time, would become
more or less identical at all points on an observation screen. Under such circumstances, the
screen would be more or less uniformly illuminated and an interference pattern would not be
seen on the screen. These sources are called as incoherent sources.
By contrast, coherent sources are those whose output waves maintain a constant phase relation
to each other over time. Usually, these light waves come from the same source so that they bear
some degree of frequency and phase correlation between them. When the light waves from two
coherent sources arrive at a point in phase, the field of the resultant wave is the sum of those of
the individual waves; thus the individual waves reinforce each other, known as constructive
interference. When the two coherent waves arrive at another point out of phase, the field of the
resultant wave is the difference of those of the individual waves; hence the individual waves
undermine each other, named as destructive interference. Thus, an interference phenomenon is
observed only when the sources are coherent.
Light wave interference from two sources was first demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1801.
Young designed an apparatus to allow a plane light wave to fall on two closely spaced parallel
slits, serving as a pair of coherent light sources as waves emerging from them originate from
the same wave front and therefore maintain a fixed phase relationship. The light from these two
slits produces a visible pattern of bright and dark parallel bands called fringes on a viewing
screen. Young’s experiment obtained convincing evidence for the wave nature of light.
3.2 Michelson Interferometer

An important instrument involving wave interference is the Michelson interferometer invented
by A. A. Michelson in 1881 using a similar principle. Now, Michelson interferometers have
been used to measure wavelengths or other lengths with great precision.
M1
M 2'
BS CP M2
Figure 1 Diagram of Michelson interferometer

Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of a Michelson interferometer. A ray of light from a
monochromatic source S is split equally into two rays by a beam-splitter BS, which is inclined
at 45 to the incident light beam. One beam is reflected by BS vertically upward toward a fixed
mirror M1, the second ray is transmitted horizontally through BS toward a movable mirror M2.
After reflecting from M1 and M2, the two rays eventually recombine at BS to produce an
interference pattern, which can be viewed by an observer’s eye E. The purpose of using a
compensator plate CP here is to ensure that the two rays pass through the same thickness of
glass, as CP is cut from the same piece of glass as BS so that their thicknesses are identical.
The interference condition for the two rays is determined by their path differences. In general,
the interference pattern is a target pattern of bright and dark circular fringes. As M2 is moved,
the fringe pattern collapses or expands, depending upon the moving direction of M2. In either
case, the fringe pattern shifts by one-half fringe each time M2 is moved a distance that is equal
to a quarter of the wavelength of light. As a result, the wavelength of light can be measured by
counting the number of fringe shifts for a given displacement of M2. On the other hand, if the
wavelength of light is known, mirror displacement can be measured precisely, within a fraction
of the wavelength of light using the same procedure.
3.3 Fabry-Perot Interferometer

When one beam of light passes through a plane-parallel plate with two reflecting surfaces, it is
reflected many times between the two surfaces and hence multiple-beam interference occurs.
The higher the surface reflectance is, the sharper the interference fringes are. That is the basic
principle of a Fabry-Perot interferometer.
 Observer
G1
High reflectance coating
G2
Light Source
Figure 2 Schematic of Fabry-Perot interferometer
As shown in Figure 2, two partially reflecting mirrors G1 and G2 are aligned parallel to each
other, which form a reflective cavity. When monochromatic light is incident on the reflective
cavity with an angle θ, many parallel rays pass through the cavity to get transmitted. The
optical path difference between two neighboring rays is given by :
  2nd cos
Thus, the transmitted light intensity is:

1
I   I0
4R 
1 sin 2
1  R 2

where I0 is the incident light intensity, R is the mirror reflectivity, n is the refractive index of
the medium in the cavity, d is the cavity length or mirror spacing, and  is the wavelength of
the monochromatic light.
Thus, I’ varies with δ. When

  m (m = 0, 1, 2…)
I’ becomes a maximum so that constructive interference of the transmitted light occurs; when
  (2m  1) / 2 (m’ =0, 1, 2…)
I’ becomes a minimum and destructive interference of the transmitted light is observed.
3.4 Twyman-Green Interferometer

Twyman-Green interferometer is a variant of the Michelson interferometer and it is mainly
used to measure the defects in optical components such as lenses, prisms, windows, laser rods,
and plane mirrors. Although the beam splitter and mirror arrangement in a Twyman-Green
interferometer resembles a Michelson interferometer, there is a difference between these two
interferometers. That is the light source used in a Michelson interferometer is usually an
extended source (though it can also be a laser), while a Twyman-Green interferometer always
uses a point light source such as a laser. The quality of an optical component under test can be
evaluated from the irregularities of the interference pattern caused by placing the component
into one beam path of a Twyman-Green interferometer. In particular, spherical aberration,
coma, and astigmatism can be identified as specific variations in the fringe pattern.
M1
W1
Sample
BS
S A
M2
L1 W2
B C
L2
Screen
Figure 3 Schematic of Twyman-Green interferometer
In above figure, if the sample under test has perfectly flat surfaces, then the returning wave
front is plane and no fringes are observed. However, if the optical flat is not perfectly flat on
either side, the wave from M2 returning to the beam splitter is no longer plane. Thus, the phase
difference between the superimposed waves of M1 and M2 will vary across the field of view
and a fringe pattern will appear. These fringes form a contour map of the distorted wave front,
so that the imperfections of the sample are displayed in terms of wave front aberrations.

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3.

3.2 Michelson Interferometer

Figure 1 Diagram of Michelson interferometer

3.3 Fabry-Perot Interferometer

Figure 2 Schematic of Fabry-Perot interferometer

Thus, the transmitted light intensity is:

Thus, I’ varies with δ. When

3.4 Twyman-Green Interferometer

Figure 3 Schematic of Twyman-Green interferometer

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