UNIT IV

LECTURE-31

WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

Hardness of water

Causes of hardness of water

Hardness of water is that characteristic, which prevents the lathering of soap. This is due to
presence of Ca and Mg salts in water. Water passes through rocks and flows on the ground. The
calcium and magnesium salts that are present in the rocks are dissolved in water and make it
hard. A sample of hard water, when treated with soap (sodium stearate) doesn‘t produce lather,
but forms a white scum or precipitate. This precipitate is formed, due to the formation insoluble
soaps of calcium and magnesium. Typical reactions of soap (sodium stearate) with calcium
chloride and magnesium sulphate are depicted as follows:

Thus, water which does not produce lather with soap solution readily, but forms white
precipitate, is called hard water‘. On the other hand water which lathers easily on shaking with
soap solution, is called soft water. Such water, consequently, does not contain dissolved calcium
and magnesium salts in it.

Types of Hardness

Hardness of water is of two types:

(a) Temporary hardness (carbonate hardness)

(b) Permanent hardness (non – carbonate hardness)

(a) Temporary hardness (carbonate hardness): The hardness that can be removed simply by
boiling is called the temporary hardness. It is due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates,
Temporary hardness is mostly destroyed by boiling of water, when bicarbonates are
decomposed, yielding insoluble carbonates or hydroxides, which are deposited as a crust at
the bottom of the vessel. Thus,

(b) Permanent (or) Non – carbonate hardness: Permanent hardness cannot be removed by
boiling. It is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium ions
and other heavy metals. These salts cannot be removed by boiling. They are removed by
different other methods.

Measurement of Hardness: To estimate hardness, it is essential to know the various units to

measure it. Hardness of water is measured in terms of CaCO3 because it is highly insoluble
in water and also its molecular weight is 100 that make the calculation easier.

Units of Hardness:

(i) Parts per million (ppm)

It is defined as the number of parts of equivalent CaCO 3 per 106 part of water i.e. 1ppm =
1part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness in 106 parts of water.

(ii) Milligrams per liter (mg/L)

It is the number of milligrams of equivalent CaCO3 present per liter of water.
1mg / l = 1 mg of CaCO3 eq. hardness per liter of hard water.
1mg / l = 1mg of CaCO3eq per 106 mg of water. = 1 part of CaCO3eq per 106 parts of
water = 1ppm
 (iii) Degree Clarke (ºCl)
It is the number of grains of equivalent CaCO 3 per gallon of water (or) it is parts of
CaCO3
per gallon of water.
It is thus, parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 70,000 parts of water. Thus,
10ºclarke (10ºCl) = 1 grain of CaCO3 eq. hardness per gallon of water or
10ºCl = 1 part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 70,000 parts of water.

(iv) Degree French (ºFr)

It is the number of parts of CaCO3 per 105 parts of hard water thus,
10Fr = 1 part of equivalent CaCO3 per 105 parts of hard water

Relation among units of hardness

1ppm = 1 mg / l = 0.07ºCl = 0.1ºFr
 Numerical Problems based on hardness of water

Although hardness of water is never present in the form of CaCO 3 because it is insoluble in
water, hardness of water is conveniently expressed in terms of equivalent amount of CaCO3 The
reason for choosing CaCO3 as the standard for reporting – hardness of water is the case in
calculations as its molecular weight is exactly 100. Moreover, it is the most insoluble salt that
can be precipitated in water treatment.
3. Calculate the carbonate hardness and non-carbonate hardness of a sample of water
containing the dissolved salts in one liter of hard water as given below also calculate the
total hardness/ Ca(HCO3)2 = 32.4mg; CaSO4 = 13.6mg; MgCl2 = 19.00mg; Mg(HCO3)2 =
14.6mg

Carbonate hardness due to Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2 = 20 + 10 + 30 mg / l (or) ppm Non

carbonate hardness (permanent hardness) due to CaSO4& MgCl2 = 10+20 = 30 mg/ l (or) ppm
Total Hardness = 30 + 30 = 60 mg / l (or) ppm.
LECTURE-32
Disadvantages of Hard Water
Boiler troubles
Boiler troubles are mainly caused by the impurities present in the boiler feed water. The
total removal of salts in boiler feed water is not made use of the scales produced in the
boilers can act as insulators of heat. As a result of it more heat has to be supplied from
outside of the boilers. The major boiler troubles are:

(1) Scales and sludge formation (2) Caustic embrittlement

(3) Boiler corrosion (4) Priming and foaming

(1) Scales and sludge formation:

When water is evaporated in boilers to produce steam continuously the concentration of
the salts present in the water increases progressively. As the concentration reaches a
saturation point the salts are thrown out of water as precipitates either as sludge or as scale
adhering to the walls of the boiler. If the precipitate formed is soft, loose and slimy, it is
called sludge. If the precipitate produced is hard and adheres very strongly to the walls of
the boilers, it is known as scale.
Reasons for scale and sludge formation
(a) The solubility product of the salt must be exceeded by the product of concentration
of constituent ions.

(b) The solubility of the salt decreases with rise of temperature

(c) The increase in the temperature can lead to reactions that results in the formation of
insoluble.

Scales: Scales are hard deposits, which stick very firmly to the inner surface of the boiler.
Scales are difficult to remove even with the help of hammer and chisel. Scales are the
main source of boiler troubles. Scales may be formed inside the boiler due to :
 (i) Decomposition of calcium bicarbonate

However scale composed chiefly of calcium carbonate is soft and is the main cause of
scale formation in low – pressure boilers but in high pressure boilers, CaCO3 is soluble

(ii) Deposition of calcium sulphate: The solubility of CaSO4 in water decreases with
rise of temperature. Thus, solubility of CaSO 4 is 3200ppm at 150C and it reduce to
55ppm at 300C and 27 ppm at 320C. In other words, CaSO4 is soluble in cold water,
but almost completely insoluble in super-heated water. Consequently, CaSO4 gets
precipitated as hard scale on the boiler. This is the main cause of scales in high –
pressure boilers.

(iii) Hydrolysis of Magnesium salts. Dissolved Mg salts undergo hydrolysis forming

magnesium hydroxide precipitate, which forms a soft type of scale.

(iv) Presence of Silica (SiO2) Even present in small quantities, deposits as calcium
silicate (CaSiO3) and / or Magnesium silicate (MgSiO 3), these deposits stick very
firmly on the inner side of boiler surface and is very difficult to remove. One important
source of silica in water is the sand filter.

Sludge: Sludge is a soft, loose and slimy deposit formed within the boiler as shown in
Figure Sludge can easily scrapped off with a wire brush. It is formed at comparatively
colder portions of the boiler and collects in areas of the system, where the flow rate is slow
or at bends. Sludge is formed by substances which have greater solubility in hot water than
in cold H2O. ex: MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4 etc.
 Figure: Scale and sludge
Disadvantages of sludge formation
(1) Sludge is poor conductor of heat, so they tend to waste a portion of heat generated.

(2) If sludge are formed along with scales, then former gets entrapped in the lather and
both get deposited as scales.
(3) Excessive sludge formation disturbs the working of the boiler. It settles in the
regions of poor water circulation, such as pipe connection, plug opening, thereby
causing even choking of the pipes.
Prevention of sludge formation
(1) By using well softened water. (2) By frequently blow – down operation

(2) Caustic embrittlement:

Caustic embrittlement is a type of boiler corrosion, caused by using highly alkaline water
in the boiler. During softening process by lime – soda process, free Na 2CO3 is usually
present in small proportion in the softened water. In high pressure boilers, Na 2CO3
decomposes to give NaOH and CO2and this makes the boiler water ―Caustic

The iron surrounded by dilute NaOH behaves as cathode while the iron in contact with
concentrated NaOH becomes anode which is consequently dissolved or corroded.
Prevention of Caustic embrittlement:
(1) By using sodium phosphate (Na 3PO4) as softening reagent, instead of sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3)
(2) Neutralizing alkali (NaOH) with a very small amount of acid
(3) By adding tannins or lignin to boiler water since these blocks the hair cracks, thereby
preventing infiltration of caustic soda solution in these.
(4) By adding small amount of Na2SO4 to boiler water in order to block small hair cracks
at stressed areas.

(3) Boiler Corrosion:

Boiler corrosion is ―decay of boiler material by a chemical or electrochemical attack of
its environment. The main reasons for boiler corrosion are:
(a) Dissolved Oxygen

(b) Dissolved CO2

(c) Acids produced by the hydrolysis of dissolved salts

(d) Dissolved oxygen: Water usually contains about 8ml of O 2 in presence of
prevailing high temperature attacks boiler material.

(a) Dissolved oxygen: Water usually contains about 8ml of O2 in presence of prevailing
high temperature attacks boiler material.

Removal of Dissolved oxygen

(i) By adding calculated quantity of sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) or hydrazine (N2H2) or

sodium sulphide. Thus,
(ii) By mechanical de- aeration i.e. water sparing in a perforated plate fitted tower
heated from side and connected to vacuum pump. High temperature, low pressure and
large exposed surface (provided by perforated plates) reduce dissolved oxygen in water.

(4) Priming and foaming:

When steam is produced rapidly in the boilers, some droplets of the liquid water are carried
along with the steam. This process of wet steam formation is called priming. Priming is
caused due to:
(a) The presence of considerable quantities of dissolved solids (mainly – due to suspended
impurities and due to dissolved impurities in water)
(b) Steam velocities high to carry droplets of water into the steam pipe.
(c) Sudden boiling
(d) Improper or faulty design of boiler
(e) Sudden increase in steam production rate.

Priming can be avoided by:

(i) Controlling rapid change in steaming velocities.

(ii) The proper design of boiler

(iii) By blowing off sludge and scales from time to time

(iv) Maintaining low water levels in boilers

Foaming: Foaming is the formation of small but persistent foam or bubbles at the water
surface in boilers, which do not break easily. Foaming is caused by the presence of oil and
alkalis in boiler feed water. Actually oils and alkalis react to form soaps which greatly towers
the surface tension of water and thus increase the foaming tendency of the liquid.

Foaming can be avoided by:

(a) The addition of anti – foaming agents, like castor oil which acts by counteracting the
reduction in surface tension.
 (b) Removal of oil from boiler water by adding compounds like sodium aluminate (NaAlO2)

LECTURE-33

Zeolite process
Zeolites are hydrated sodium alumino silicates capable of exchanging its sodium ions with
hardness producing cations in water.

Na2O Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O; where x=2 to 10 and y= 2 to 6

Zeolites are of two types:

(i) Natural Zeolites:These are amorphous and non porous in nature. They are derived from green
sand by washing, heating and treating with NaOH. E.g. Natrolite- Na2O Al2O3.4SiO2.2H2O

(ii) Synthetic Zeolites: These are porous and are prepared by heating together solutions of
sodium silicate, sodium aluminate and aluminiumsulphate.

Principle and working of Zeolit/Permutit process:

Zeolites can be represented as Na2Z from which Na can easily be replaced by Ca and Mg ions
present in hard water.

Ca(HCO3)2+ Na2Z = CaZ + 2NaHCO3

Mg(HCO3)2+ Na2Z = MgZ +2NaHCO3

CaZ + 2NaCl = Na2Z + CaCl2

MgZ + 2NaCl = Na2Z + MgCl2

Hard water is percolated through Zeolite bed in a cylindrical tank. Sodium ions are replaced by
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions to form CaZ and MgZ. After sometimes the bed gets exhausted. At this stage
supply of water is stopped and regeneration is carried out by passing 10% brine solution.

Advantages of Zeolite process

 1. Water of about 15 ppm hardness is obtained.
2. Mineral acids destroy the zeolite bed so they must be neutralisedbefor hand.
3. Acid radicals which are not removed during softening cause caustic embrittlement and
boiler corrosion.
NaHCO3 = NaOH + CO2
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3
4. If large quantities of Fe2+ and Mn2+ are present in water it converts zeolite into iron and
manganese zeolite which cannot be regenerated.

Disadvantages of zeolite process:

1. Turbid water cannot be used-the suspended impurities will clog the pores of zeolite.

2. Mineral acids should be removed/neutralized mineral acids destroy the zeolite.

3. If water contains large amounts of coloured ions suchasMn2+andFe3+ it must be pretreated

because the corresponding manganese and iron zeolite cannot be easily regenerated.

4. Zeolite treatment replaces only the cations like Mg 2+and Ca2+, leaving all the anions like
HCO3-and CO32-in the soft water
5. HCO3-ions will decompose in boiler and release CO2corrode the boiler

LECTURE-34

Ion exchange (or) de-ionization (or) de-mineralization process

Ion – exchange resins are insoluble, cross – linked, long chain organic polymers with a micro
porous structure, and the functional groups attached to the chains are responsible for the ion –
exchanging properties. Resins containing acidic functional groups (-COOH, SO3H etc.) are
capable of exchanging their H+ ions with other cations, which comes in their contact, whereas
those containing basic functional groups (-OH) are capable of exchanging their anions, which
comes in their contact. The ion – exchange resins may be classified as:

(i) Cation Exchange resins (RH+): These are mainly sulphonated styrene copolymers.
These are capable to exchange their hydrogen ions with the cations, in the water (Figure
32).
(ii) Anion Exchange Resin

Process: The hard water is passed first through cation exchange column, which removes all the
cations as Ca+2, Mg+2 etc. form it, and equivalent amount of H+ ions are released from this
column to water. Thus:

After cation exchange column the hard water is passed through anion exchange column, which
removes all the anions like etc. present in the water and equivalent amount of OH - ions are
released from this column to water, thus; SO-2, CO-3

H+ and OH– ions (released from cation exchange and anion exchange columns respectively) get
combined to produce water molecule. Thus, water coming out from the exchanger is free from
cations as well as anions. Ion free water is known as deionized or demineralised water.
Regeneration: When ion exchange capacities of cation and anion exchangers are lost, they are
then said to be exhausted. The exhausted cation exchange column is regenerated by passing a
solution of dil. HCl (or) dil. H2SO4. The column is washed with deionized water and washing
(which contains Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl– SO42- ions) is passed to sink or drain. The exhausted anion
exchange column is regenerated by passing a solution of dil. NaOH. The regeneration can be
represented as:
The column is washed with deionized water and washing (which contains Na + and SO42- or Cl-
ions) is passed to sink or drain. The regenerated ion exchange resins are then used again.

Figure 32: Diagrammatic representation of Ion exchange column

Advantages:
(a) The process can be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline water.

(b) It produces water of very low hardness (say 2ppm). So it is very good for treating water for
use in high pressure boilers.

(c) The softened water is completely free from salts.

Disadvantages:

(a) The equipment is little expensive.

(b) If water contains turbidity then the output of the process is reduced. The turbidity must be
below 10ppm.
LECTURE-35

Lime Soda Process

Lime [Ca(OH)2] and soda [Na2CO3] are the reagents used to precipitate the dissolved salts of

Ca+2 and Mg+2 as CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2.

• The precipitated CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 are filtered off.

• Lime reacts with temporary hardness, CO2, acids, bicarbonates and alums.

• Lime cannot remove the calcium permanent hardness which should be removed by soda.

• The precipitation reactions with lime and soda are very slow.

• Only calculated amounts of lime and soda are to be added. Excess amount of lime & soda

causes boiler troubles like caustic embrittlement.

• Calculation of lime & soda required for the process:

(A) Cold Lime – Soda Process : In this method, calculated quantities of lime and soda are
mixed with water at room – temperature. The precipitates formed are very fine and hence cannot
be removed by filtration immediately. Normally it takes about 24hrs for setting. To hasten
setting, coagulants like sodium aluminate, aluminum sulphate or Alum (potash alum) have to be
added. These coagulants get hydrolyzed to gelatinous precipitates of aluminum hydroxide which
easily entrap the fine particles of solids and help them to settle.

The residual hardness of cold L-S process treated water is generally 50-60 ppm. Cold lime –
soda process can be carried out by 2 methods:
(1) Batch process (intermittent type) (2) Continuous Process

(1) Batch process: This process is carried out in tank provided with mechanical stirrers for
through mixing. Calculated quantities of lime and soda are added to the water tank and
thoroughly mixed. Required amount of a coagulant is also added to facilitate settling down of the
precipitate. It takes about 2 hrs for the precipitate to settle down completely at the bottom of the
tank, when it kept undisturbed. The softened water from the top is drawn out using pump and
passed through sand filters. The sludge formed at the bottom is removed and cleaned with water.
Now the tank is ready for another batch of operation.

Figure 33

(2) Continuous Process: Raw water and calculated quantities of chemical (lime + Soda+
Coagulants) are fed from the top into the inner vertical chamber, fitted with a vertical rotating
stirrer carrying a number of blades. As the raw water and chemical flow down, there is a
vigorous stirring and continuous mixing, whereby softening of water takes place. As the softened
water comes into the outer co – axial chamber, it rises upwards. The heavy sludge settles down
in the outer chamber by the time the softened water reaches up. The softened water then passes
through a filtering media (usually made of wood) to ensure complete removal of sludge. Filtered
soft water finally flows out continuously through the outlet at the top. Sludge settl- ling at the
bottom of the outer chamber is drawn off occasionally.
 Figure 34

(B) Hot Lime – Soda Process: This process is operated at a higher temperature of 90 – 100ºC.
The following advantages result from the use of the high temperature of operation.

(i) The reaction rate is increased and the softening reaction is completed in about 15 minutes.

(ii) Sludge settles faster and the addition of coagulants is not required.

(iii) Dissolved gases like CO2 are expelled.

(iv) Viscosity is decreased and so filtration is faster. These advantages increase softening
capacity of Hot L-S process to several more times than that of cold L-S Process.

The softening unit consists essentially of a reaction cum settling tank and a filtering set up. The
filtering bed consists of sand/ gravels anthracite coal, calcite or magnesite. The use of sand beds
in alkaline water will result in contamination of dissolved silica. If slight excess of chemical are
used over that theoretically required, not only the process is fasted bed also complete removal of
hardness is achieved.

Figure 35

If on other hand, a larger excess of chemicals is used they will be carried through to the softened
water and hence decreases its quality. The L-S plants do not completely – remove the hardness
and the residual hardness is generally 15 – 30ppm.

Difference between Cold and Hot lime soda process

LECTURE-36

CALCULATIONS OF THE REQUIREMENT OF LIME AND SODA

Rules for solving numerical problems on lime-soda requirements for softening of hard water:
 The units in which the impurities are analyzed and expressed are to be noted.
 Substances which do not contribute towards hardness (KCl, NaCl, SiO 2, Na2SO4 etc.) should be
ignored and explicitly stated.
 A substances causing "hardness should be converted into their respective CaCO 3equivalents.
 CaCO3 equivalent of hardness causing impurity. = 100×wt. of the impurity/2×chemical
equivalent of impurity = Multiplication factor x wt. of impurity.

Salt Molecular Chemical Multiplication

weight equivalent Factor
Ca(HCO3)2 162 81 100/162
Mg(HCO3)2 146 73 100/146
CaSO4 136 68 100/136
CaCl2 111 55·5 100/111
MgSO4 120 60 100/120
MgCl2 95 47·5 100/95
CaCO3 100 50 100/100
MgCO3 84 42 100/84
CO2 44 22 100/44
Mg(NO3)2 148 74 100/148
HCO3 61 61 100/122
OH 41 17 100/34
CO23 60 30 100/60
NaAlO2 82 82 100/164
Al2(SO4)3 342 57 100/114
FeSO4.7H2O 278 139 100/278
H+ 1 1 100/2
HCl 36·5 36·5 100/73
  If the impurities are given as CaCO3 or MgCO3, these should be considered due to
Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2 respectively and they must only be expressed in terms of CaCO 3 and
MgCO3
 The amount expressed as CaCO 3 does not require any further conversion. However, the amount
expressed as MgCO3 should be converted into its CaCO3 equivalents by multiplying with 100/84
 The amount of lime and soda required are calculated as follows. Lime = (74/100) {temporary
calcium hardness + (2 × temporary magnesium hardness) + Perm Mg hardness + CO 2 + HCl +
H2SO4 + HCO–3 + salts of Fe2+, Al3+ – NaAlO2)
 Soda = (106/100) {Perm Ca hardness + Perm Mg hardness + salts of Fe 2+, Al3+ + HCl + H2SO4 +
HCO3– – NaAlO2}
 If Ca2+ and Mg2+ is given, 1 equivalent of lime and 1 equivalent of soda is required for
Mg2+ whereas 1 equivalent of soda is required for Ca 2+.The ions Ca2+ and Mg2+ are treated as
permanent hardness due to Ca and Mg.
 If the lime and soda used are impure and if the percentage purity is given, then the actual
requirements of the chemicals should be calculated accordingly. Thus, if lime is 90% pure, then
the value obtained in step (6) must be multiplied by 100/90 to get actual lime requirement.
Similarly, if the soda is 95% pure then the value obtained in step (6) is multiplied by 100/95 to
get actual soda requirement.
 The value obtained in step (6) is also multiplied by the volume of water which has to be purified.
Thus, the final formula for calculating the amount of lime or soda required is given as:
Lime = (74/100) {temporary calcium hardness + (2 × temporary magnesium hardness) + Perm Mg
hardness + CO2 + HCl + H2SO4 + HCO–3 + salts of 100 Fe2+, Al3+ – NaAlO2} × 100/% purity ×
volume of water
Soda = (106/100) {Perm Ca hardness + Perm Mg hardness + salts of Fe 2+, Al3+ + HCl + H2SO4 –
HCO–3 – NaAlO2} × 100/% purity x volume of water.
LECTURE-37

LIME- SODA PROCESS BASED NUMERICALS

1. Calculate the amount of lime and soda required to soften 25,000 litres of water having following
analysis.
Ca(HCO3)2 4.86 ppm; Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.3 ppm; CaSO4 = 6.8 ppm; MgCl2 = 5.7 ppm;
MgSO4 = 9.0 ppm; SiO2 = 3.5 ppm; NaCl= 5.85 ppm.
2. Calculate the quantity of lime and soda required for softening 50,000 litres of water containing
the following salts per litre
Ca(HCO3)2 = 8.1 mg; Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.5 mg; CaSO4 = 13.6 mg; MgSO4 = 12.0 mg MgCl2= 2.0
mg; and NaCI = 4.7mg.
3. Calculate the amount of lime (84°/s pure) and soda (92% pure) required for treatment of 20,000
litres of water, whose analysis is as follows:
Ca(HCO3)2 40.5 ppm; Mg(HCO3)2 = 36.5 ppm; MgSO4 = 30.0 ppm; CaSO4 = 34.0 ppm;
CaCl2 = 27.75 ppm; and NaCl = 10.00 ppm. Also calculate the temporary & permanent
hardness of water sample. (L = 1.762 Kg; S = 1.728 Kg; temp. 50 ppm; p = 75 ppm).
4. Calculate the amounts of lime and soda needed for softening 100,000 litres of water containing
HCI =7.3 mg/L; Al = 34.2 mg/L; MgC12 9.5 mg/L :NaCl 29.25 mg/L .
5. A water sample using FeSO 4 as a coagulant at the rate of 278 ppm, gave following data on
analysis for raw water:
Ca2+ = 240 ppm; Mg2+ = 96 ppm; CO2 = 44 ppm HCO3- = 732 ppm,
Calculate the lime and soda required to soften 250,000 litres of water.
6. Calculate the quantities of lime and soda required for softening 300,000 litresof water, using 20
ppm of sodium aluminate as a coagulant. Impurities in water are as follows
Ca2+ = 160 ppm; Mg2+ = 96 ppm; HCO3- = 403 ppm, dissolved CO2 34 ppm.
7. Calculate the amount of lime and soda required to soften 10,000 litres of water containing the
following ions per litre.
Mg2+ 4.8 mg Ca2+ = 16.0 mg; HCO3- = 73.2 mg.
8. Calculate the cost of lime and soda required for softening 1 million litres of water containing:
Mg(HCO3)2 = 73 mg/L; MgSO 4 = 120 mg/L; CaSO4 = 68 mg/L; CaCl2 = 111 mg/L. The cost
of lime of 80% purity is Rs. 200 per 100kg and that of soda of 90% purity is Rs. 120 per
100kg.
9. Explain with chemical equation and calculate the amount of lime (94% pure) and soda (80%
pure) needed for softening 20,000L of water containing the following salts: CaSO4 = 40.8mg/L,
MgCl2 = 19.0mg/L, Mg(HCO3)2 = 14.6mg/L, Ca(HCO3)2 = 16.2mg/L. If 10% of chemicals are
to used in excess in order to complete the reaction quickly.\
LECTURE-38

Reverse osmosis
The flow of solvent from a region of low concentration to region of high concentration when two
solutions of different concentrations are separated by a semi permeable membrane is known as
osmosis. Osmotic pressure is the hydrostatic pressure which must be applied to the solution of
higher concentration, in order to just prevent osmosis.

Reverse osmosis: If a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied to the high
concentration side, the flow of solvent gets reversed and this process is called Reverse osmosis.

Figure 36

How Does Reverse Osmosis Works

Reverse osmosis is one of the processes that makes desalination (or removing salt from seawater)
possible. Beyond that, reverse osmosis is used for recycling, wastewater treatment, and can even
produce energy.

Water treatment plants and systems are now adapting reverse osmosis to address some of these
concerns. In Perth, Australia (notably dry and arid, yet surrounded by sea), nearly 17 percent of
the area's drinking water is desalinated sea water that comes from a reverse osmosis plant.
Worldwide, there are now over 13,000 desalination plants in the world, according to the
International Desalination Association. But while knowing that reverse osmosis can convert
seawater to drinking water is useful, what we really need to understand is how the heck the
processoccurs