Exogeneous Processes and

Chapter 2:
The Rock Cycle

Rocks gradually wear away,Fig. 1. A treecalled

a process had grown from the Biological,
weathering. rocks due tochemical
weathering
and physical weathering are
three types of weathering. Weathering and erosion are part of the rock cycle.
You may have seen weeds growing through cracks in the pavement. If you have gone for a walk in the
countryside, you may even have seen bushes or trees growing from cracks in rocks or disused buildings.
This is because plant roots can grow in cracks. As they grow bigger, the roots push open the cracks and
make them wider and deeper. Eventually pieces of rock may fall away.
People can even cause biological weathering just by walking. Over time, paths in the countryside become
damaged because of all the boots and shoes wearing them away.

II. LESSON OBJECTIVES:

Lesson Standard:
 The three main categories of rocks.
 The origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks
 Geologic processes that occur on the surface of the Earth such as weathering, erosion, mass
wasting, and sedimentation (include the role of ocean basins in the formation of sedimentary
rocks).
Learning Competencies:
 Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties.
 Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
 Explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and deposited elsewhere.
III. LESSON PROPER:
Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks
A mineral is a solid matter possessing a definite chemical
structure that occurs naturally but does not have life. It is
commonly found in rocks. Some rocks are composed of
two or more minerals. The building blocks of minerals
which is made up of an atom is called element.
Considerations about Minerals:
 It occurs naturally
 It is inorganic (never alive)
 Internal structure is in orderly pattern
 It has a characteristic of a definite chemical
composition Fig. 2. Different examples of minerals

Properties of a Mineral:
o Crystal Form – describes the growth pattern of the crystals of the mineral species. It is largely
determined by the environmental conditions under which a crystal develop.
o Luster – the quantity and quality of light which is reflected from the surface of a mineral.
 Metallic luster – minerals which is opaque and very reflective possessing a high absorptive
index.
 Non-metallic luster – minerals described by vitreous (glassy e.g. quartz), pearly, silky,
resinous, earthy (dull).
 Submetallic – a mineral that has somewhat metallic in luster.
o Colors – the visual perceptual property corresponding to humans.
o Streak – color which mineral display when it has been in its powdered form. It is considered to be
much reliable indication of color.
o Hardness – defines the level of difficulty which the smooth surface of the mineral can be scratched.
 Mohs scale – used to measure the hardness of a mineral.
 Diamond having 10 (hardest) and talc having 1 (softest) on the scale.
o Cleavage – the splitting of crystals along the smooth plane. The simplest type of cleavage is
exhibited by micas.
o Fracture – takes place when a mineral split in a direction possessing difficult indistinct cleavage.
 Conchoidal fracture results in a series of smoothly curved concentric rings about the
stressed point, generating a shell-like appearance.
 Irregular fracture results in a rugged or rough surface.
o Specific gravity – refers to the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal of water.

The Mineral Group:

1. The silicate minerals have the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as their fundamental building block.
a. Feldspar – the most abundant group
b. Quartz – second most abundant group
c. Muscovite
d. Hornblende
2. The nonsilicate minerals without silicon are namely:
a. The carbonate (e.g. calcite which is useful in the formation of stony coral)
b. Sulfides (e.g. galena, sphalerite, use as ore for zinc)
c. Sulfates (e.g. gypsum, anhydride, use in plaster)
d. Native elements (e.g. gold, diamond, use in trade and jewelry)
e. Halides (e.g. halite, use as common salt)
The ore refers to the types of rock that contains useful metallic minerals, like hematite (mined for iron) and
galena (mined for lead), that can be mined for a profit, as well as some nonmetallic minerals, such as
fluorite and sulfur.
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at the earth’s surface by natural forces. Below are three types of
weathering.
1. Mechanical Weathering
- Also called physical weathering. It causes rocks to
break and crumble into pieces. The sun is ultimately the
most important source of the energy needed for
weathering. It drives the hydrologic cycle that provides
rainwater as an agent for weathering. Rocks expands
when heated and contracts when cooled. The daily
changes in temperature cause the rock surface to
expand and contract over and over.
Fig. 3. Frost wedging

o Frost-wedging – rainwater or melted snow seeps into the cracks of rocks and trapped and
when the temperature drops, water from the cracks will freeze and slowly widens the
cracks.
o Clay minerals are mixed with hard rocks. Clay is water absorbent so it easily to swell and
expand when mixed with water. The expansion of clay cracks the surrounding of the rocks.
o In beaches, saltwater sometimes gets into the crack and small vesicles of the rock. Heat
from the sun allows the water evaporate but the salt crystals remains. If this process
repeated happen, the salt crystals expand and exert pressure on the rock, which will slowly
break apart.

2. Chemical Weathering
- Weathering of rocks may achieve through a
chemical reaction since it produces transformations.
Chemical weathering changes the makeup of rocks
and soil.
o Hydration – chemical combination of water
with a given substance or mineral resulting
to a change in structure. It causes an
increase Fig. 4. Hydration in rocks
in volume.
o Hydrolysis – chemical breakdown of a substance when combined with water. Water acts
as a weak acid on silicates like feldspar.
o Solution – Process of dissolving minerals of rock in water. The soluble substances are
removed by the continuous action of water. As minerals are taken away, the rock no longer
remains solid.
o Carbonation – the mixing of carbon dioxide with water to form a weak carbonic acid
(H2CO3), which in turn reacts with limestone (CaCO 3). Atmospheric carbon dioxide
combines with rainwater, forming carbonic acid.
o Oxidation – The reaction of a substance with oxygen. Oxygen (O 2) is absorbed from the
atmosphere or from the oxygen dissolved in soil water. The familiar rusting of iron is
oxidation.
o Reduction – process of removal of oxygen. It is the reverse of oxidation. It is prominent in
the oxides of iron.

3. Biological Weathering
- Plants and animals are the agents of biological weathering. We know how roots of trees are
powerful enough to break walls and concrete floors. Humans and their activities can speed up
 weathering. Burning coal, natural gas, and oil releases chemicals such as nitrogen oxide and sulfur
dioxide into the atmosphere. Then they fall back to Earth as acid rain. Acid rain rapidly weathers
limestones, marble, and other kinds of stone.

Erosion
Weathering wears down exposed rocks. The product of
weathering are then transported or eroded to other areas for
deposition. Crustal movements make earth’s surface
uneven. Erosion tends to remove unevenness on the
surface of the earth. Gravity is the main force that directs
erosion. Erosion happens as a result of the action of water,
wind, and ice in their various forms like rainfall, snowfall,
glaciers, hailstorm, tsunamis, avalanches, sandstorms,
wave currents, and wave action. To some extent, people,
animals, or plants also affect erosion. Fig. 5. Erosion causes the road broken
- Water in motion is the major agent of erosion. Rain knocks off and carries away bits of soil and
slowly breaks off tiny rock fragments. Surface run-off brings rainwater and its load of sediments
toward running bodies of water. A running river erodes materials from its banks and bed. A muddy
color is a sign that erosion is taking place. It indicates that bits of rock and soil are suspended in
the water and being transported. Transported materials are called sediment.
- Wind carries dust, sand, and ashes. Winds form sand dunes many meters high. Sand-laden wind
blast against rock with tremendous force, slowly wearing away the soft rock.
- Ice, in the form of gigantic glaciers, moves slowly downslope and across the terrain. Glaciers
scrape and push everything in their path, including huge boulders. Rocks pushed by a glacier rub
against the surface. Rock and soil are scraped away, carving out depressions, and steep-sided
mountain valley. Eroded materials found near and around glaciers are called moraine.

Mass Wasting
Mass Wasting is the large movement of earth
materials due to the influence of gravity. A great
mass of rocks, soil, and debris drops by the pull
of gravity. In this way, tremendous amounts of
materials from slopes and cliffs are eroded. Mass
wasting is also called mass movement or slope
movement. The landform is “wasted” away and
falls to a lower level of elevation. It makes big
changes to the side of a mountain.
The following give rise to mass wasting: Fig. 6. Mass wasting

- Increased steepness heightens the influence of the gravity on the rocks of the mountainside. It
means that gravity is greater than the force that pushes the rock materials against the slope.
Hence, the possibility of mass wasting increase.
- Increase water-soaking washes away small particles that keep mountainside intact, loosens the
grip of rocks on each other.
- Decreased vegetation will make a mountain slope prone to mass wasting. The root system of
vegetation stabilizes soil particles on the surface and anchors soil under the surface.
- Earthquakes loosen and break off rocks on mountain slopes; the loosened earth materials slides
down the slope.
In a rock or mudslide, the slope of the mountain remains intact while loosened masses of rock material or
mud slide down it. An accumulation of rocks at the base of the slope is called talus.
Rock Cycle
Rock cycle is the process that describes the
gradual transformation between the three
main types of rocks: sedimentary,
metamorphic, and igneous. It is occurring
continuously in nature through geologic
time.
Types of Rock
1. Igneous Rocks – forms from magma
that cools and solidifies in a process
called crystallization.
Magma is a mixture of molten rocks and
less dense than surrounding rocks. It
works its way towards the surface
Fig. 7. The Rock Cycle producing volcanic eruptions. Lava is
the erupted magma except that most of
the gas component has escaped and classified as volcanic or extrusive – rocks on the surface of the
earth. The rocks formed inside the earth is referred as intrusive rocks.
Three types of Magma:
a. Basaltic – It has low silica content, low viscosity, and gases escape easily.
b. Andesetic – It has medium level of silica content, intermediate viscosity, and cause intermediate
explosion.
c. Rhyolitic – It has a high silica content, high viscosity and cause explosive eruption.
Texture
o Fine grained texture (Rhyolite) formed at the surface, small masses within the upper crust, small
crystals.
o Course grained texture (Granite) formed below the surface.
o Porphyritic texture (Andesite porphyry) has large crystals embedded in a matrix of smaller crystals.
o Glassy texture (Obsidian, Pumice) – result from rapid cooling (being quenched)

Bowen’s Reaction Series – explains that a mineral remains in the molten solution after crystallization. This
will react with remaining liquid to produce the next mineral.

Fig. 8. Bowen’s Reaction Series

 Fig. 9. Classification of Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks – formed from the sediment or
weathered product commonly known as sedimentum or
settling. It is the rock that geologist reconstruct many details
of Earth’s history because it is deposited in variety of
different setting at the surface. It contains fossils and
source of electrical power.
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
- Detritus (detrital sedimentary rocks) - Solid particles from
weathered rocks (igneous rocks)
- Soluble material from chemical weathering which forms the
chemical sedimentary rocks.
Types of Sediments:
 Detrital or Classic – formed by the fragmentation of the
parent rock by weathering, followed by erosion or
transportation of these fragments over variable distances to
their place of disposition.
 Chemical – formed by precipitation from solution.
 Biological or Organic – sediments in which organisms were
involved in their formation or deposition in one way or
another.

Fig. 10. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

3. Metamorphic Rocks – Metamorphism means to change. Most metamorphic changes occur at high
temperatures and pressure. These occurs deep below the Earth’s surface and extend into the
mantle.
Two types of Metamorphism:
a) Contact – formed when magma intrudes into existing rock. Changes in rocks are minor.
b) Regional – formed during mountain building process that occurs over a large area. Major changes
to rocks.
The Metamorphic Agents:
 Heat causes existing materials to recrystallize or new minerals form.
 Pressure causes the spaces between mineral grains to close.
 Chemically active fluid promote recrystallization by enhancing ion migration.
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks:
A. Texture
  Foliated Texture – formed when minerals recrystallize at right angles to the direction of force
causing a layered or banded appearance. (e.g. slate, schist, and gneiss)
 Nonfoliated Texture – no banded texture and resembles a coarse-grained igneous rock and
contains one mineral. (e.g. marble and quartzite)

Fig. 11. Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

MEKAILA TUANDA
HUMSS 11-2

IV. ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES:
Part A. Gather sufficient information about the types of chemical weathering. Complete the table below.
Use the example for carbonation.
Chemical Process Definition Chemical Reaction Action on Rocks Geological
and Minerals Outcome

Carbonation
An acid Carbonic Acid Formation
acid, with dissolves of caves
reacts to
CaCO into and karst
minerals. ² limestones; topogrpahy
dissolve .
materials are
washed
away.
Hydration
Chemical CaSO • Water reacts Sodium
bonds of 2H2O chemically mineral
minerals ⁴ with the interact
changed as rock, with water
its interacts modifying to form a
with water. its chemical salt water
 reaction. solution.
Hydrolysis
Breakdown CaCO3+HC The acid in Feldspar to
of a I the water produce
substance works to clay and
when dissolve salt.
combined mineral
with water. wirhin
specific
rocks.
Oxidation
Reaction of Mg+O2 Changing Breakdown
rock mineral the mineral of rocks by
with oxygen. composition oxygen and
of the rock. water,
giving
iron-rish
rocks a
rusty-
coloured
weathered
surface.
Reduction
The process 3CO+3CO2 Changes to Decreases
of removal its structure the number
of oxygen. and mineral of oxygen.
composition
.
Solution
Minerals Two or more Removal of Dissolves
dissolved by substance rock in limestone
acidic dissolved in solution by as it sleeps
solution. a liquid acidic into cracks
form. rainwater. and
cavities.
Over many
years
solution of
the rock
can form a
spectacular
cave
system.

Part B. Describe and draw a diagram of each rock. The igneous coarse-grained rock has been done for you
as an example.
 IGNEOUS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Fine-grained Coarse- Clastic Chemical Foliated Non-foliated

grained
Grains are
large and are
tightly close to
each other.

Drawing Drawing Drawing Drawing Drawing Drawing

V. ASSESSMENT:
Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Frost wedging happens when water freezes within a rock. The rock splits apart because ice
_________.
a. Is denser than water c. has a greater volume than its liquid form
b. Has greater mass than water d. is solid and hard

2. Which of the following process is NOT oxidation?

a. Rusting of iron minerals c. breaking rocks into pieces
b. Decay of organic matter d. burning of trees in forest

3. When pressure is applied to a rock, the grains will _________.

a. Expand c. Flatten
b. Disappear d. Disintegrate

4. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks have random grains because they were formed under great ___.
a. Heat and pressure c. Heat
b. Pressure d. Great heat but not too high pressure

5. If grains in an igneous rock are light-colored, the rock must be ________.

a. Ultramafic c. Felsic
b. Mafic d. Andesitic

VI. SUMMARY:

 Exogenous processes of weathering, erosion, and mass wasting shape earth’s

relief or surface features.
 Weathering wears away the surface; erosion transports the products of weathering.
 Mechanical weathering involves physical causes. Chemical weathering involves
chemical reaction that produces new substances.
 Mass wasting is the large movement of earth materials due to the influenced of
gravity.
 The processes of converting from one type of rock to another comprise the rock
cycle.
VII. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
The learners could visit the following links for further knowledge for the following lessons.

Minerals

- https://geology.com/minerals/what-is-a-mineral.shtml
- https://kidshealth.org/en/kids/minerals.html
- https://www.geologysuperstore.com/index.php/rocks-minerals-fossils.html
Exogenous Processes

- https://www.slideshare.net/StefanJadeNavarro/exogenous-processes-on-earth
- https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Exogenous+Process

The Rock Cycle

- https://sciencetrends.com/rock-cycle-definition-diagrams-examples/
- http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/?q=rock-cycle

VIII. REFERENCES:
 Exploring Natural Science: Earth and Life Science (2017), D.C. Angeles & C.G. Gicaraya, Don Bosco
Press, Inc.
 Workbook in Earth and Life Science (First Edition), R. A. Salazar Ed. D. et. al., OLFU
 Bitesize: The Rock Cycle (website: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zwd2mp3/revision/1)