The Nature of Mathematics

“𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒈𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏
𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒓𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏.”

(𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒕, 1995)

Mathematics explains a phenomenon, behavior, structure of nature through patterns, constants

which are represented by numbers and equations; prediction.

Fibonacci Series

A series of numbers in which each number (Fibonacci number) is the sum of the two
preceding numbers.

Golden Ratio
The ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers as n becomes large, it approaches the
golden ratio; that is,
𝐹𝑛
𝐹𝑛−1
= 𝐿

where L is 1.6180339887...

"The ratio of a person's height, to the height of his or her navel is roughly the golden ratio"
- Markowsky (1992)

Another name for the Golden Ratio is the divine proportion. This must be so because
human beauty is based on divine proportion. The Golden Ratio is denoted by φ which is
also sometimes known as the golden mean or golden section.

1+ 5
φ = 1
= 1. 6180339887...

Leonardo Pisano (Leonardo of Pisa)

Fibonacci is short for the the Latin of "filius Bonacci" which means "son of Bonacci"

He observed numbers in nature; most popular is the Fibonacci numbers.

FIBONACCI NUMBERS

- The Fibonacci numbers are nature's numbering system

- They appear in nature, from the leaf arrangement in plants, to the pattern of the florets
of a flower, pinecone, or the scales of pineapple.

- Fibonacci numbers are therefore applicable to the growth of every living thing,
including a single cell, a grain of wheat, a hive of bees.

The Fibonacci numbers are the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence, and characterized
by every number after the first two is the sum of the two preceding ones. That is

f(n) = f(n -1) + f(n - 2)

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ... (add the last two to get the next)

FIBONACCI SPIRAL

Spirals arise from a property of growth called self-similarity or scaling - the tendency to grow in
size but to maintain the same shape. Not all organisms grow in this self-similar manner. We
have seen that adult people, for example, are not just scaled up babies: babies have larger
heads, shorter legs, and a longer torso relative to their size.

But if we look for example at the shell of the chambered nautilus we see a different growth
pattern. As the nautilus outgrows each chamber, it builds new chambers for itself, always the
same shape - if you imagine a very long-lived nautilus, its shell would spiral around and around,
growing ever larger but always looking exactly the same at every scale.

Mathematical Language and Symbols

● Precise - it is able to make very fine distinctions or definitions among a set of

mathematical symbols.
 ● Concise - mathematicians can express otherwise long expositions or
sentences briefly using the language of Mathematics.
● Powerful - one can express complex thoughts with relative ease.

For example, consider the sentence “The sum of any two real numbers is also a real
number.”

In mathematical notation, this declarative sentence can be written as: ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ R, 𝑎 + 𝑏

∈ R.

Mathematics is a Symbolic Language

Some of the symbols we will use in the module are the following:

∑ “the sum of”

∃ “there exists”

∀ “for every / for any”

∈ “element of / member of”

∉ “not an element of / not a member of” ⊆ “subset of”

⇒ “if ..., then”

⇔ “if and only if”

R “set of real numbers”

N “set of natural numbers”

Z “set of integers”

Q “set of rational numbers”

∞ “infinity”

Mathematical Language

● can describe a subset of the real world using only these symbols. e.g., In
Physics - Free falling bodies, speed, and acceleration; In Biology - modeling
diseases.
● It describes abstract structures. e.g., Pure Mathematics - Abstract Algebra,
Linear Algebra, Real Analysis, and Complex Analysis.
Therefore, Mathematics is the language of the sciences, business, economics, music,
architecture, arts, and politics.

There is an intimate connection between the language of Mathematics and the English
language.

In English Language In Mathematical Language

When you think about something:

1. First ask what this 1. You usually look for a definition of the mathematical
something is. word or concept.

2. Relate it with what you 2. You apply this based on the meanings attributed to
already know and classify it by identifying valid applications or operations of the
it. concept.

3. Think about the rules 3. You grasp the rules that govern its defined
that govern such things. application.

Different languages are the same because they communicate ideas through symbols.

However, a Chinese word may mean differently in the English or Greek language
resulting in confusion.

But, Mathematics tries to avoid this confusion by adopting a universally understood

symbolic system for its language.

Hence, the language of Mathematics can be considered as a common language of the

world.

Expressions vs. Sentences

English Language
- Sentence - contains a complete thought. It contains a subject that is a noun or a
clause, and a predicate.

Mathematical Language

- Sentence - must state a complete thought. Expression - mathematical object of

interest.

Objects that we use in Mathematics

● Numbers → operations and properties

● Variables → free and bound

● Operations → unary and binary

● Sets → relationships, operations, and properties

● Functions → injective, subjective, bijective

Mathematical Expression

An expression in Mathematics is an object of interest. This includes a correct

arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object. It does
not make sense if to ask if an expression is true or false. And a common type of
problem involving expressions are in simplifying, which means fewer symbols, fewer
operations, better suited for current use, and preferred style or format of terms.

Expressions have lots of different names:

An ordered pair (1,2)

A function 𝑓(𝑥)

A set {1,2,3,4,5}

Truth of Sentences

A Mathematical sentence must state a complete thought. And it may be either true,
false, and sometimes true / sometimes false. But never both.
 Use of Numbers

Cardinal Numbers - used for counting. “How many?”

Ordinal Numbers - tells the position of a thing in the list. “First, second, third, ...”

Nominal Numbers - used only as a name for identification. “Zip Code of Bacolod City:
6100”

Unary and Binary Operations

Unary Operation

Unary operations accept only one operand. They accept only one value when they do
arithmetic. The plus (+) and minus (-) sign, when attached before a single number are
read as positive and negative signs. They are called unary operations.

Consider the expression: +4 (read as “positive four”) This does NOT mean “add four”.

The value of 4 is considered as a single operand by the unary operator, +, and that
operation produces a value of positive 4. Note that there is an invisible positive sign that
exists before any number. Hence, +4 and 4 represent the same value.

The negative (or opposite) sign is also a unary operator. Consider the expression: −4.
The negative sign operator accepts a value of four as its operand and produces a value
of negative four. There is no invisible negative signs in math expressions. Hence, −4
and 4 represent different values.

In summary, unary operations involve only one value. More examples of unary
operations:

● Negation: −5
● Trigonometric functions: 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠45, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜋3
● Single-variable function: 𝑓(𝑥)
● Factorial: 8!
● Transpose of a matrix: 𝐴𝑇
● Square roots: 18
Binary Operations

An operation is binary if it takes two real numbers as arguments to produce another real
number. If the + and - signs act on two operands, then it is called a binary operation.
Among the binary

operators, the + and - signs require more attention than all other binary operations.
Recall the concept of double negative which is equivalent to two negatives make a
positive.

Consider the expression: 3 − (−2). Take note that the negative sign operator has
precedence over the subtraction operator, so it accepts operands first.

We write: 5 = 3 − (−2). This is also equal to 5 = 3 + 2. Hence, 3 + 2 = 3 − (−2). We

differentiate the binary operation with the unary operator by writing the unary operators
at the top of the operands.

Properties of Binary operations

1. Closure of Binary Operations - The product and the sum of any two real numbers is
also a real number.

∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ R, 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ R

∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ R, 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ∈ R

2. Commutativity of Binary Operation - Addition and multiplication of any two real

numbers is commutative, that is in mathematical symbols these are written,

Multiplication: ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ R, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥

Addition: ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ R, 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑥

For example,

1+2=1+1 (addition) and

2×3=3×2 (multiplication)

3. Associativity of Binary Operations - If a binary operation is associative, the order

in which we evaluate expressions that only involve that one binary operation does not
matter.

Addition: ∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ R, (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑧 = 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧)

Multiplication: ∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ R, (𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦) ⋅ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧)
4. Distributivity of Binary Operation - Let S be a non-empty set. Let ⋆ and # be two
different binary operations on S. Then ⋆ is said to be distributive over # on S if a⋆(
b # c ) = ( a ⋆ b ) # ( a ⋆ c ), ∀ a, b, c, ∈ S
Distributivity of multiplication over addition

∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ R, 𝑧(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = 𝑧𝑥 ± 𝑧𝑦

5. Identity Elements of Binary Operations - A non-empty set S with binary operation

⋆, is said to have an identity e ∈ S , if e ⋆ a = a ⋆ e = a, ∀ a ∈ S.

Addition: ∀𝑥 ∈ R, 𝑥 + 𝑒 = 𝑒 + 𝑥 = 𝑥

Multiplication: ∀𝑥 ∈ R, 𝑥 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥

6. Inverses of Binary Operations - Now what do you add to any real number 𝑧 to get
the identity element 𝑒 = 0 as a result? The answer is the negative of that number, − 𝑥 .
In symbols, we state it as

Additive Inverse: ∀𝑥 ∈ R, 𝑥 + (−𝑥) = −𝑥 + 𝑥 =0

Quantifiers

Quantifiers are used to describe the variable(s) in a statement.

Types:

Universal Quantifiers ∀ “for all” or “for every”

Existential Quantifiers ∃ “there exists” or “for some”

Compound Quantifiers

When more than one quantifier for a certain statement.

● Order does not matter if we are using the same quantifier. i.e., ∀𝑥, ∀𝑦, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) =
∀𝑦∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥. 𝑦)
● Order is definitely important for mixed quantifiers. i.e., ∀𝑥∃𝑦, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) ≠ ∃𝑦∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥,
𝑦)
 Fundamentals of Logic

Propositions
A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false, but cannot be
both. It is something that has a truth value (It could only be either true or false).

All the following declarative sentences are propositions. Each of which are either true or
false but not both.

I. Washington, D.C., is the capital of the United States of America.

2. Toronto is the capital of Canada.

3. I + I = 2.

4.2+2 = 3.

The following are examples of statements which are not considered as propositions.
None of the statements below can have a truth value.

1. Give me that plate.

2. Why is 10 afraid of 7?

3. Come forward, now!

 There are 2 types of propositions, simple and compound propositions.

A simple proposition conveys a single idea. A compound proposition conveys two or

more ideas and is formed using Logical Connectives, which will be discussed in this
module.

Simple propositions examples

1. x-y=5
2. Today is a Sunday
3. 7 ∈ { 2 k − 1 , k ∈ N }

Compound proposition examples

1. If 2x+3=1, then x= -1.

2. I will eat or I will sleep.
3. 10 is even and greater than 5.

- Notice that in the compound propositions, the highlighted words are the connectives
and are joining two propositions to form a new one. It may contain more than 2
propositions.

LOGIC CONNECTIVES
Negation
A statement is a negation of another if the word "not" is introduced in the negative
statement. Let 𝑃 be a proposition. The negation of 𝑃 is “not 𝑃 ” or ¬𝑃 .

For example:

Let 𝑃 : 2 is a rational number.

𝑄: 6 is an odd number.

The negation of these statements are:

¬𝑃 : 2 is not a rational number OR 2 is irrational.

¬𝑄: 6 is not an odd number OR 6 is an even number.

 Logical Connectives
Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be propositions. A logical connective is the mathematical equivalent of a
conjunction in English. The most common conjunctions in Mathematics are “ and ” and
“ or ”, which are denoted by ∧ and ∨ , respectively.

Example:

Let 𝑃 : It is windy.

𝑄 : The waves are high.

Conjunction
If two statements are joined using the word “ and ”, denoted by 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 , then it is a
statement that is TRUE if and only if both 𝑃 and 𝑄 are TRUE .

Example: 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄: It is windy and the waves are high.

Disjunction
If two statements are joined using the word “ or ”, denoted by 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 , then it is a
statement that is TRUE if and only if 𝑃 is TRUE or 𝑄 is TRUE , which is taken to
include the case when they are both TRUE .

Example: 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄: It is windy or the waves are high.

Conditional / Implication
The proposition 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄 (read as “ if 𝑃 , then 𝑄 ”) is called an implication or
conditional .

𝑃 is the premise and 𝑄 is called the conclusion. In ordinary language, statements like
“ If it rains, then I bring my umbrella ” is an implication. “ If it rains ” is 𝑃 or the
premise, while “ I bring my umbrella ” is the conclusion.
There are other ways of reading 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄 , such as:

𝑃 implies 𝑄 ;

𝑄 if 𝑃 ;

𝑄 is implied by 𝑃 ;

𝑃 only if 𝑄

Example: 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄: If it is windy, then the waves are high.

It can as well be rewritten as:

𝑄 if 𝑃; The waves are high if it is windy.

𝑃 only if 𝑄; It is windy only if the waves are high.

Biconditional / Biimplication
The proposition 𝑃 ⇔ 𝑄 (read as “ 𝑃 if and only if 𝑄 ” or “ 𝑃 is necessary and
sufficient for 𝑄 ”) is called a biimplication or biconditional. This proposition is TRUE if
and only if both 𝑃 and 𝑄 are either both TRUE or both FALSE . The proposition 𝑃
⇔ 𝑄 is equivalent to the statement:

𝑃 ⇔ 𝑄 ≡ (𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄) ∧ (𝑄 ⇒ 𝑃)

Example: 𝑃 ⇔ 𝑄: It is windy if and only if the waves are high.

Compound Propositions
Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if ... then, and if
and only if creates a compound statement. For instance, “I will attend the meeting or I

will go to school.” is a compound statement. It is composed of the two simple

statements, “I will attend the meeting.” and “I will go to school.” The word or is a
connective for the

two simple statements.

George Boole used symbols such as p , q , r , and s to represent simple statements and

the symbols ∨, ∧, ~, ⇒, and ⇔ to represent connectives.

Consider the following statements.

p : The game will be played in Atlanta.

q : The game will be shown on CBS.

r : The game will not be shown on ESPN.

s : The Dodgers are favored to win.

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

a: q ∧ p b: ~r ∧ s c: s⇔~p

Solution:

a. The game will be shown on CBS and the game will be played in Atlanta.

b. The game will be shown on ESPN and the Dodgers are favored to win.

c. The Dodgers are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played in Atlanta.
 Truth Tables
Truth Table for Negation
As it was discussed above, negation introduces the word "not" to the proposition thus
reversing its meaning thus the term "negate".

The first column, 𝑃 is the original statement while ¬𝑃 is the negation of 𝑃 . As you
can see, the truth value is flipped, that is, from T to F, and F to T.

Truth Table of a Conjunction

- The conjunction p ∧ q is true if and only if both p and q are true.

If you order cake and ice cream in a restaurant, the waiter will bring both cake and ice
cream. In general, the conjunction p q is true if both p and q are true, and the
conjunction is false if either p or q is false. The truth table at the left shows the four
possible cases that arise when we form a conjunction of two statements.

Sometimes the word but is used in place of the connective and. For instance, “I ride my
bike to school, but I ride the bus to work,” is equivalent to the conjunction, “I ride my
bike to school and I ride the bus to work.
 Truth Table of a Disjunction

- The disjunction p ∨ q is true if and only if p is true, q is true, or both p and q are true

Any disjunction p ∨ q is true if p is true or q is true or both p and q are true. The truth
table at the left shows that the disjunction p or q is false if both p and q are false;
however, it is true in all other cases.

Truth Table of an Implication/Conditional

- The conditional p ⇒ q is false if p is true and q is false. It is true in all other cases.

Truth Table of a Biimplication/Biconditional

- The statement ( p ⇒ q) ∧ ( q ⇒ p ) is called a biconditional and is denoted by p ⇔

q , which is read as “ p if and only if q .
 Summary of Logical Connectives

Logical Read as Symbol Truth value

Connective

Negation Not ¬ Reverses the truth value of the

proposition

Conjunction And ∧ Only true when both

propositions are true

Disjunction Or ∨ Only False when both

propositions are false

Conditional If ..., then ⇒ Only False when the premise is

... true but the conclusion is false.

Biconditional If and only if ⇔ True if both propositions are

both true or both false.

Different Forms of Implication

Every conditional statement can be stated in many equivalent forms. It is not even
necessary to state the antecedent before the consequent. For instance, the conditional
“If I live in Boston, then I must live in Massachusetts” can also be stated as I must live in
Massachusetts, if I live in Boston.
The Converse, the Inverse, and the Contrapositive
Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are called the converse,
the inverse, and the contrapositive.

The above definitions show the following:

■ The converse of p ⇒ q is formed by interchanging the antecedent p with the
consequent q.
■ The inverse of p ⇒ q is formed by negating the antecedent p and negating the
consequent q.
■ The contrapositive of p ⇒ q is formed by negating both the antecedent p and the
consequent q and interchanging these negated statements.

Example:

Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of

"If I get the job, then I will rent the apartment."

Solution

Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.

Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment, then I did not get the j
The truth table of the inverse, converse, and contrapositive of 𝑃 ⇔ 𝑄.

Give Give Implicatio Convers Inverse Contrapositiv

n n n e e

𝑃 𝑄 𝑃⇒𝑄 𝑄⇒𝑃 ¬𝑃 ⇒ ¬𝑄 ⇒ ¬𝑃
¬𝑄

T T T T T T

T F F T T F

F T T F F T

F F T T T T

Notice that the truth value of the Implication is equivalent of that of the Contrapositive.
And the truth value of the Converse is equivalent of that of the Inverse. When this
equivalence of the truth values happen, we say that the two propositions are Logically
Equivalent.