The Psychology

of Memory and
Learning
This presentation explores the fundamental
aspects of how the human mind stores,
retrieves, and processes information, focusing
on the key principles and mechanisms
underlying memory and learning.
Memory Process

Encoding Storage Retrieval

The process of transforming The process of maintaining The process of accessing and
information into a form that can information in the memory over recalling stored information from
be stored in the memory. This time. This includes short-term the memory. This includes
includes attentional processes, memory, long-term memory, and recognition, recall, and the
perception, and the initial the various mechanisms involved various strategies and cues used
registration of information. in storing and retaining to retrieve information.
information.

Understanding the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval is crucial for effective
learning and memory formation. By exploring these key concepts, we can gain insights
into how the human mind encodes, stores, and retrieves information, which can have
important implications for education, training, and everyday cognitive functioning.
Memory Process

Encoding
Encoding is the process of getting information into
our brain.

Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it. We
organize the information with other similar information and connect new concepts to existing
concepts. Encoding information occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing.
The Psychology of Memory and Learning: Automatic Processing

Reading Familiar Words Recognizing faces Driving

When you read a word in your native language, You can often recognize a friend's face in a If you frequently drive the same route, you
you recognize it instantly without having to crowd without actively searching for them or might find yourself arriving at your destination
sound it out or think about its meaning. analyzing their features. without remembering the details of the drive,
because your brain was handling it
automatically.

Automatic processing is usually done without any conscious awareness

The Psychology of Memory and Learning: Effortful Processing

Solving a Complex Math Problem Playing a New Musical Instrument Learning how to Drive
Working through each step of a challenging Learning to play an instrument for the first When you first learn to drive, you have to
math problem demands concentration and time involves focused practice and attention consciously think about each action, like
deliberate thinking. to each note and movement. steering, braking, and checking mirrors.

Effortful processing refers to the deliberate, conscious way our brains handle
tasks or information that require focused attention and mental effort.
3 Types of Encoding

Semantic Encoding Visual Encoding Acoustic Encoding

Encoding of words or sentences and their Encoding of images Encoding of sounds, or words
meaning
The Psychology of Memory and Learning

Experiment by Craik and Tulving (1975) Findings

Participants were given words and asked to process Words processed semantically (meaning) were better
them in different ways: visually, acoustically, or remembered than those processed visually (font) or
semantically. Their memory was then tested acoustically (sound/rhyme).
unexpectedly.

Depth of Processing Self-Reference Effect

Semantic encoding, which involves deeper processing, The tendency for an individual to have better memory
leads to better memory retention compared to for information that relates to oneself in comparison to
shallower visual or acoustic processing. material that has less personal relevance.
Memory Process

Storage
Storage is the creation of a permanent record of
information.

In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to pass through three distinct stages: Sensory Memory,
Short-Term Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory. These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
(1968). Their model of human memory, called Atkinson and Shiffrin's model, is based on the belief that we process memories in the
same way that a computer processes information.
What is a sensory memory?

Sensory memory
In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the
environment are processed first in sensory
memory: storage of brief sensory events, such as
sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage
—up to a couple of seconds. We are constantly
bombarded with sensory information. We cannot
absorb all of it, or even most of it. And most of it
has no impact on our lives. Sensory information
about sights, sounds, smells, and even textures,
which we do not view as valuable information,
we discard.
What is Long-Term Memory?

Short-Term memory
Is a temporary storage system that processes incoming
sensory memory. The terms short-term and working
memory are sometimes used interchangeably, but they are
not exactly the same. Short-term memory is more accurately
described as a component of working memory. Short-term
memory takes information from sensory memory and
sometimes connects that memory to something already in
long-term memory. Short-term memory storage lasts 15 to
30 seconds.
How does short term memory go to long term memory?

Rehearsal
Rehearsal is essential for moving information from short-
term to long-term memory. Active rehearsal involves
repeating information until it is memorized, like children
learning the alphabet by singing the ABCs. Elaborative
rehearsal links new information to existing knowledge, such
as remembering a new phone number by associating it with
a familiar area code. Craik and Lockhart's (1972) levels of
processing hypothesis states that deeper thinking improves
memory retention.
What is Long-Term Memory?

Long-Term memory
Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of
information with an unlimited capacity. It includes
everything you can remember beyond a few minutes ago.
Memories in LTM are organized in semantic (associative)
networks, where related concepts are linked based on
experiences and frequency of association. Activating one
concept in a semantic network can partially activate related
concepts, making them easier to recall, a process known as
spreading activation.
2 Types of Long-Term Memory

Explicit Memory Implicit Memory

This is where you consciously recall information. This involves skills and responses we don't consciously think about.
2 Types of Explicit Memory

Episodic Memory Semantic Memory

Memories of specific events or experiences. General knowledge and facts.
3 Types of Implicit Memory

Procedural Memory Priming Emotional Conditioning

Skills, Procedures, or Habits Exposure to a stimulus affects responses Emotional responses based on past experience
Components of Long-term Memory

Long-term memory
Continuous storage of information

Explicit Implicit
Needs conscious remembering Cannot be consciously recalled. i.e
observable behaviors

Episodic Procedural
Personal events experienced Information about how the way
to do something

Semantic Priming
Knowledge of words, concepts, Exposure to a stimulus affect the
and language response

Emotional Conditioning
Classically conditioned
emotional responses
Fun Fact!

Marilu Henner
Hyperthymesia is a rare condition where a person has an
exceptionally vivid and detailed memory of their personal
experiences.

She can recall almost every day back to age seven

The Psychology of Memory and Learning

Retrieval Recall
The process of accessing and bringing information The ability to remember information without any
from memory into conscious awareness. This can be external cues or prompts. This requires actively
through recall, recognition, or cued recall. reconstructing the information from memory.

Recognition Relearning
The ability to identify information or stimuli as having The process of learning something that has been
been previously encountered. It involves matching new previously learned and then forgotten. Relearning is
information to existing representations in memory. typically faster than initial learning due to the
established memory traces.
Memory Retrieval

Retrieval Recall Recognition Relearning

A person recalling a memory from Recall is what we most often think A person seeing a familiar object or A person studying and practicing a
the past, such as a childhood event about when we talk about memory face and instantly recognizing it skill they had learned previously,
or a fact learned in school. retrieval: it means you can access from a previous experience. such as a musical instrument or a
information without cues foreign language.
Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory

The amygdala is involved in fear and fear

memories. The hippocampus is associated
with declarative and episodic memory as
well as recognition memory. The
cerebellum plays a role in processing
procedural memories, such as how to play
the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears
to be involved in remembering semantic
tasks.
Fun Fact!

The amygdala plays a crucial role in memory

formation by regulating emotions like fear and
aggression. It influences how memories are
stored, especially through the impact of stress
hormones. For instance, in an experiment with
rats, a neutral tone paired with a foot shock
created a fear memory. When the rats heard
the tone later, they froze, showing they
remembered the shock. However, when
neurons in the lateral amygdala, which is vital
for fear memories, were destroyed, the fear
memory diminished. The amygdala also aids in
memory consolidation, helping to transfer new
experiences into long-term memory, especially
if they are emotionally charged.
Function of Hippocampus

The hippocampus is crucial for processing explicit

memories, but implicit memories like procedural
memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning
rely on the cerebellum.

In a classical conditioning experiment, rabbits were

conditioned to blink in response to a puff of air to
the eyes. When their cerebellums were damaged,
they couldn't learn this conditioned response.
Additionally, brain scan studies show the prefrontal
cortex's involvement in processing and retaining
information. For example, a study found better
recall for a semantic task compared to a perceptual
task, with PET scans showing higher activation in
the left inferior prefrontal cortex during the
semantic task. Another study found that encoding
information activates the left frontal region, while
retrieval activates the right frontal region.
Function of Neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitters like epinephrine, dopamine,

serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine are crucial for
memory formation. Strong emotions often lead to
stronger memories through increased
neurotransmitter activity, a concept known as arousal
theory.

i.e. Strong emotional experiences trigger

neurotransmitter release, which strengthens memory.
For instance, during stressful events, the brain
releases more glutamate, aiding memory formation.
This phenomenon is evident in "flashbulb memories,"
where people have exceptionally clear recollections of
significant events. For example, 97% of Americans
aged 8 or older during the 9/11 attacks can vividly
remember where they were and how they learned
about the event, even a decade later. Flashbulb
memories can also form from personal or positive
events, not just widely shared or negative ones.
Can we trust our memories?
Memory is not like a video recording. Human
memory, even flashbulb memories, can be frail.

False memory Leading questions

Psychological phenomenon whereby an individual recalls an actual are inquiries phrased in a way that suggests a particular answer or
occurrence substantially differently from how it transpired or an event that influences the respondent's reply. These questions can guide or prompt the
never even happened. respondent towards a specific response, often by implying or containing
the desired answer within the question itself.
Problems with Memory: Anterograde Amnesia

Anterograde Amnesia
With anterograde amnesia, you cannot remember new information, although you can remember information and events that happened
prior to your injury. Many people with this form of amnesia are unable to form new episodic or semantic memories, but are still able to form
new procedural memories.
i.e. The brain damage from H. M.'s surgery caused anterograde amnesia, preventing him from forming new memories. He repeatedly read
the same magazine and failed to recognize people he met after the surgery. Despite not remembering prior encounters with a puzzle, he
solved it faster each day due to relearning.
Problems with Memory: Retrograde Amnesia

Retrograde Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma. People with retrograde
amnesia cannot remember some or even all of their past.
Memory Construction and Reconstruction

Construction Reconstruction
The formulation of new memories. Process of bringing up old memories
Suggestibility

When someone witnesses a crime, that person’s memory of the details of the crime is very important in
catching the suspect. Because memory is so fragile, witnesses can be easily (and often accidentally) misled due
to the problem of suggestibility. Suggestibility describes the effects of misinformation from external sources
that leads to the creation of false memories.

i.e. In the fall of 2002, a sniper in the DC area terrorized the public for over three weeks, killing ten people in
various locations. Fear gripped the community, leading to over 140,000 tips and 35,000 potential suspects.
Most of the tips were dead ends, until a white van was spotted at the site of one of the shootings. The police
chief went on national television with a picture of the white van. After the news conference, several other
eyewitnesses called to say that they too had seen a white van fleeing from the scene of the shooting. At the
time, there were more than 70,000 white vans in the area. Police officers, as well as the general public, focused
almost exclusively on white vans because they believed the eyewitnesses. Other tips were ignored. When the
suspects were finally caught, they were driving a blue sedan.
 Eyewitness
Misidentification Case
In studying cases where DNA evidence has exonerated
people from crimes, the Innocence Project discovered that
eyewitness misidentification is the leading cause of
wrongful convictions (Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law,
Yeshiva University, 2009).
Discussion on the Criminal Case of Ronald Cotton
 Preserving Eyewitness Memory:
The Elizabeth Smart Case
Contrast the Cotton case with what happened in the Elizabeth Smart case. When Elizabeth was 14 years old and fast asleep in
her bed at home, she was abducted at knifepoint. Her nine-year-old sister, Mary Katherine, was sleeping in the same bed and
watched, terrified, as her beloved older sister was abducted. Mary Katherine was the sole eyewitness to this crime and was very
fearful. In the following weeks, the Salt Lake City police and the FBI proceeded with caution with Mary Katherine. They did not
want to implant any false memories or mislead her in any way. They did not show her police line-ups or push her to do a
composite sketch of the abductor. They knew if they corrupted her memory, Elizabeth might never be found. For several months,
there was little or no progress on the case. Then, about 4 months after the kidnapping, Mary Katherine first recalled that she
had heard the abductor’s voice prior to that night (he had worked exactly one day as a handyman at the family’s home) and then
she was able to name the person whose voice it was. The family contacted the press and others recognized him—after a total of
nine months, the suspect was caught and Elizabeth Smart was returned to her family.
The Misinformation Effect Paradigm by: Elizabeth Loftus (Cognitive Psychologist)
The participants were shown films of car accidents and were asked to play the role of the eyewitness and describe what
happened. They were asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they (smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted)
each other?”

Smashed Collided Bumped Hit Contacted

The Misinformation Effect by: Elizabeth Loftus (Cognitive Psychologist)

According to Loftus, an eyewitness’s memory of an event is highly flexible and susceptible to the misinformation effect. To
test this theory, Loftus and John Palmer (1974) conducted an experiment with 45 U.S. college students. These
participants were shown films of car accidents and asked to act as eyewitnesses, describing what happened. They were
specifically asked to estimate the speed of the cars using different verbs: "smashed," "collided," "bumped," "hit," and
"contacted."

The results showed that the verb used in the question significantly influenced the participants' speed estimates. Those
who heard the word "smashed" estimated the cars to be traveling at a much higher speed than those who heard
"contacted." This implied information about speed, based on the verb used, affected the participants’ memory of the
accident.

In a follow-up study conducted one week later, participants were asked if they saw any broken glass in the accident
scenes (none was actually shown in the films). Those who had been asked the "smashed" question were more than twice
as likely to incorrectly recall seeing broken glass compared to those who heard other verbs. Loftus and Palmer’s study
demonstrated that leading questions could not only influence eyewitnesses’ memory of speeds but also lead to false
memories of non-existent details, such as broken glass.
Participants who heard the word “smashed” estimated that the cars were traveling at a much higher speed than
participants who heard the word “contacted.” The implied information about speed, based on the verb they heard, had an
effect on the participants’ memory of the accident. In a follow-up one week later, participants were asked if they saw any
broken glass (none was shown in the accident pictures). Participants who had been in the “smashed” group were more than
twice as likely to indicate that they did remember seeing glass.

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Contacted Hit Bumped Collided Smashed
 Theory Prevalence
Some researchers believe that A study by John Briere and Jon
extremely traumatic and distressing Conte (1993) found that 59% of
experiences can be repressed for adults receiving treatment for
years and later recalled through childhood sexual abuse had
False Memory techniques like hypnosis and guided forgotten their experiences.
imagery (Devilly, 2007).
Syndrome
Refers to the phenomenon
where people recall entire
events that did not actually
happen, often related to
Ross Cheit (2007) suggested that The Recovered Memory Project
trauma, such as sexual abuse.
repressing these memories created was created so that victims of
psychological distress in adulthood childhood sexual abuse can recall
these memories and allow the
healing process to begin.
 Loftu's Argument Example
Loftus is not saying that childhood For example, researchers Stephen
sexual abuse doesn’t happen, but Ceci and Maggie Brucks (1993,
she does question whether or not 1995) asked three-year-old
Criticism of those memories are accurate, and children to use an anatomically

Repressed she is skeptical of the questioning

process used to access these
correct doll to show where their
pediatricians had touched them
Memories memories, given that even the during an exam. Fifty-five percent
slightest suggestion from the of the children pointed to the
therapist can lead to genital/anal area on the dolls,
misinformation effects even when they had not received
any form of genital exam.
 Interview Blind Photo Judicial
Techniques Lineups Measures
To improve the It is recommended Judges are
accuracy of memory that police lineups increasingly
recall, especially in be conducted informing jurors
Addressing children, blindly, where the about potential

Memory Falws interviewers are

encouraged to use
lineup
administrator does
misidentification
issues and may
neutral and non- not know which suppress unreliable
leading questions photo is of the eyewitness
(Goodman, 2006; suspect, to reduce testimony.
Pipe, 1996). bias and leading
cues.
Forgetting
Refers to loss of information from long-term memory.

Encoding Failure
To remember something, we must pay attention to the details and actively work to
process the information (effortful encoding)
i.e. Not remembering someone's name in a party because you're preoccupied with
current dialogue with friends.
The Psychology of Memory and Learning

Sin Type Description Example

Accessibility of memory Forget events that occured

Transience Forgetting
decreases over time long ago

Forgetting caused by lapses

Absent-mindedness Forgetting Forget where your phone is
in attention

Accessibility of information Recalling a dream memory as

Blocking Forgetting
is temporarily blocked a waking memory
Source of memory is Result from leading
Misattribution Distortion
confused questions
Result from leading
Suggestibility Distortion False memories
questions
Memories distorted by Align memories to current
Bias (Racial and Gender) Distortion
current belief system beliefs
Inability to forget
Persistence Intrusion Traumatic events
undesirable memories

*Based on information from Schacter's 'Seven Sins of Memory' (Schacter, 1999)

Example of Misattribution: Source of memory is confused

Australian eyewitness expert Donald Thomson appeared on a

live TV discussion about the unreliability of eyewitness memory.
He was later arrested, placed in a lineup and identified by a
victim as the man who had raped her. The police charged
Thomson although the rape had occurred at the time he was on
TV. They dismissed his alibi that he was in plain view of a TV
audience and in the company of the other discussants, including
an assistant commissioner of police. . . . Eventually, the
investigators discovered that the rapist had attacked the woman
as she was watching TV—the very program on which Thomson
had appeared. Authorities eventually cleared Thomson. The
woman had confused the rapist's face with the face that she had
seen on TV. (Baddeley, 2004, p. 133)
Example of Bias

Case Example:

The Central Park Five Background: In 1989, five Black and Latino teenagers
(Kevin Richardson, Raymond Santana, Antron McCray, Yusef Salaam, and Korey
Wise) were wrongfully convicted of the brutal assault and rape of a white female
jogger in Central Park, New York City.

Stereotypical Bias:

Racial Profiling: The media and public perception were influenced by racial
stereotypes, portraying the accused teenagers as inherently violent and
dangerous based on their race and ethnicity.

Outcome: In 2002, after years of incarceration, the true perpetrator, Matias

Reyes, confessed to the crime, and DNA evidence confirmed his involvement. The
Central Park Five were exonerated and released. The case highlighted the role of
racial and stereotypical biases in the justice system, emphasizing how prejudiced
views can lead to wrongful convictions and disproportionate incarcerations.
Interference

Proactive Interference:

Old information hinders the recall of newly learned

information

Retroactive Interference

Information learned more recently hinders the recall of

older information.
Memory Enhancing Strategies

Chunking Elaborative rehearsal Mnemonics

Organize information into manageable bits or A technique in which you think about the use various strategies, such as patterns,
chunks. meaning of new information and its relation to acronyms, or associations
knowledge already stored in your memory. i.e. Mr. VEM J. SUN for Mercury, Venus, Earth,
i.e. Garrulous" (meaning excessively talkative) Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
Psychology of Learning
What is Learning?

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or

knowledge that results from experience.
Are Reflexes and Instincts a result of learning?

Reflexes Instincts
An automatic motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the Are innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such
environment. as maturation and the change of seasons.
What are the examples of reflexes?

Knee-Jerk reflex
A sudden kick movement of the lower leg in response to a tap on the patellar tendon.

Pupil Contraction
The pupils constricting in response to bright light.

Sneezing
Involuntary expulsion of air through the nose and mouth in response to nasal irritation.

Gag Reflex
Contraction of the throat muscles triggered by touching the back of the throat.

Withdrawal Reflex
Quickly pulling your hand away from a hot surface.
What are the examples of instincts?

Suckling
A sudden kick movement of the lower leg in response to a tap on the patellar tendon.

Startle (Moro) reflex

The pupils constricting in response to bright light.

Crying
Involuntary expulsion of air through the nose and mouth in response to nasal irritation.

Rooting reflex
Contraction of the throat muscles triggered by touching the back of the throat.

Fight-or-flight respons
Quickly pulling your hand away from a hot surface.
Associative Learning

Learning involves a complex interplay of conscious and unconscious processes, particularly in the context of complex
tasks like surfing or studying psychology. Associative learning, a fundamental process in learning, occurs when the mind
connects events that happen together. This process underlies classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
observational learning, which will be discussed in detail later.
Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
A Russian scientist known for his work on classical conditioning. Originally a physiologist studying the digestive system of
dogs.

Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Neutral Stimulus (NS)

(UCS) (UCR) A stimulus that initially does not
A stimulus that naturally and The unlearned, natural reaction to trigger any particular response. For
automatically triggers a response. the UCS, such as salivation when instance, a bell.
For example, meat powder. meat powder is presented.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly The learned response to the CS, such as salivating in
paired with the UCS, begins to elicit a response. The bell response to the bell alone.
becomes a CS after being associated with the meat
powder.
Real World Application of Classical Conditioning

Moisha’s experience with chemotherapy provides a clear example of classical conditioning in action. Initially, the
chemotherapy drugs (unconditioned stimulus) caused her to vomit (unconditioned response). Over time, the doctor’s
office, where she received the treatment, became associated with this unpleasant reaction, making her feel nauseous
(conditioned response) during check-ups. Additionally, Moisha learned to associate syringes, used for her medication,
with nausea because they were paired with the chemotherapy and the doctor’s office, demonstrating higher-order
conditioning. However, classical conditioning typically does not extend beyond second-order conditioning; for instance, a
bell rung during her treatment is unlikely to induce nausea on its own.

During their vacation in the Cayman Islands, Kate and her spouse visited Stingray City, where they interacted with
southern stingrays. Historically, people cleaning fish and conch (unconditioned stimulus) at a sandbar attracted stingrays
(unconditioned response), who came to eat the scraps. Over time, scuba divers feeding the stingrays by hand led to the
stingrays becoming classically conditioned. Now, the sound of a boat engine (neutral stimulus, which becomes a
conditioned stimulus) signals to the stingrays that food is coming (conditioned response). When Kate and her spouse
arrived, the stingrays, conditioned to associate the boat engine with feeding, eagerly approached them. They fed, petted,
and even kissed the stingrays, who then left after the food was gone.
Other Key Terms Classical Conditioning
Acquisition: Learning to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to a conditioned response.

Extinction Spontaneous Recovery

Weakening and eventual disappearance of the The return of a previously extinguished conditioned
conditioned response when the unconditioned response following a rest period.
stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned
stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus Generalization

Responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus Responding to stimuli that are similar to the
and not to similar stimuli. conditioned stimulus.
Behaviorism

John B. Watson Ethical Consideration

A key figure in behaviorism, emphasized that Watson’s work, particularly with Little Albert,
psychology should focus on observable behavior rather demonstrated how fears could be conditioned. Little
than internal mental processes. He believed all Albert initially showed no fear of various stimuli but
behavior could be understood through stimulus- was conditioned to fear a white rat by associating it
response reactions. Influenced by Pavlov’s classical with a loud noise. This experiment showed that
conditioning, Watson applied these principles to emotions could be conditioned responses and
human emotions. highlighted concepts like stimulus generalization,
where Little Albert began to fear other similar stimuli.
Watson’s research, while groundbreaking, would be
deemed unethical by today's standards.
Advertising and Associative Learning

Advertising executives are pros at applying the principles of associative learning. Think about the car commercials you
have seen on television. Many of them feature an attractive model. By associating the model with the car being
advertised, you come to see the car as being desirable (Cialdini, 2008). You may be asking yourself, does this advertising
technique actually work? According to Cialdini (2008), men who viewed a car commercial that included an attractive
model later rated the car as being faster, more appealing, and better designed than did men who viewed an advertisement
for the same car minus the model.

Have you ever noticed how quickly advertisers cancel contracts with a famous athlete following a scandal? As far as the
advertiser is concerned, that athlete is no longer associated with positive feelings; therefore, the athlete cannot be used
as an unconditioned stimulus to condition the public to associate positive feelings (the unconditioned response) with
their product (the conditioned stimulus).
Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a form of associative learning where organisms learn to associate

behaviors with their consequences, either rewards or punishments. Unlike classical
conditioning, which involves linking a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a
conditioned response, operant conditioning focuses on the behavior itself and its subsequent
outcomes. A pleasant consequence, such as a reward, increases the likelihood of a behavior
being repeated, while an unpleasant consequence decreases it. B.F. Skinner expanded on
Edward Thorndike’s law of effect, which posits that behaviors followed by satisfying results are
more likely to be repeated, whereas those followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be
repeated. Skinner conducted experiments using a Skinner box, where animals like rats or
pigeons learned to perform specific actions (e.g., pressing a lever) to receive a reward, thus
demonstrating how behaviors are shaped by their consequences.
Basics of Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment

Something is added to increase the likelihood of a Something is added to decrease the likelihood of a
behavior. behavior.

Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment

Something is removed to increase the likelihood of a Something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a
behavior. behavior.
What is SHAPING?

In his operant conditioning experiments, Skinner used a technique called shaping to teach complex behaviors. Instead of only
rewarding the final target behavior, shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior. This
method is necessary because organisms typically don’t display complex behaviors spontaneously. By breaking the behavior
into small, achievable steps, shaping gradually guides the organism toward the target behavior.

The process includes:

Reinforcing any behavior that resembles the target behavior.

Reinforcing responses that increasingly resemble the target behavior, while discontinuing reinforcement for previous
steps.

Gradually reinforcing behaviors that come closer to the target until the desired behavior is achieved.
Shaping is especially useful for teaching complex or chained behaviors and is widely employed by animal trainers. An essential
part of shaping is stimulus discrimination, where the organism learns to distinguish between specific stimuli, similar to how
Pavlov’s dogs responded only to a particular bell tone. This ensures that the organism associates the behavior with the correct
stimulus in operant conditioning.
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Primary reinforcers are those that have innate, unlearned reinforcing qualities, such as food, water,
sleep, shelter, sex, and touch. These are things organisms naturally seek because they satisfy basic
physical needs or provide pleasure. For example, jumping into a cool lake on a hot day is inherently
reinforcing because it satisfies the need for physical comfort and provides pleasure.

On the other hand, secondary reinforcers have no inherent value but become reinforcing when
associated with primary reinforcers. Examples include praise or money. Praise, like saying "Great
shot!" to a soccer player, is reinforcing because it’s linked to affection and social approval. Money is
valuable because it can be exchanged for primary reinforcers like food or secondary reinforcers like
luxury items. Without this association, secondary reinforcers hold no value—for instance, money on a
remote island with no way to spend it would be useless. Similarly, things like stickers on a behavior
chart are secondary reinforcers because they only hold value when connected to some form of
reward.
Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement

This schedule provides a reinforcer every time a Also known as intermittent reinforcement, this
specific behavior is exhibited. This method is effective schedule offers reinforcement only some of the time
for establishing a new behavior quickly, as the the desired behavior occurs. This approach can lead to
consistent rewards reinforce the behavior strongly. more durable behavior patterns, as the
unpredictability of reinforcement often results in
greater persistence in the behavior over time.
Reinforcement Schedules: Continuous and Partial

Fixed Interval Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement delivered at predictable time intervals, such as every In a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule, reinforcement is delivered
5, 10, 15, or 20 minutes. For instance, a factory worker may receive after a predictable number of responses, such as after 2, 4, 6, or 8
regular breaks after completing specific tasks at set intervals, which actions. For example, a freelance writer may receive payment after
influences their work pace and productivity. completing a set number of articles, motivating them to write
consistently to reach their payment threshold.

Variable Interval Variable Ratio

In a variable interval reinforcement schedule, reinforcement is In a variable ratio reinforcement schedule, reinforcement is given
delivered at unpredictable time intervals, such as after 5, 7, 10, or 20 after an unpredictable number of responses, such as after 1, 4, 5, or
minutes. For example, a person checking their email may receive 9 actions. For example, playing a slot machine exemplifies this
notifications at random times, encouraging them to consistently schedule, where players continue to engage due to the potential for
monitor their inbox throughout the day. unexpected wins after varying numbers of plays.
Cognition and Latent Learning

Strict behaviorists like Watson and Skinner focused on behavior while disregarding
cognition, with Skinner viewing the mind as a "black box," something completely
unknowable and, therefore, not worthy of study. In contrast, Edward C. Tolman
demonstrated that organisms can learn without immediate reinforcement, suggesting a
cognitive aspect to learning. His experiments with rats showed that they developed a
cognitive map (a mental representation of their environment) while exploring a maze
without rewards. Later, when food was introduced, these rats quickly navigated the maze,
illustrating latent learning (learning that occurs but is not immediately evident until there
is a reason to use it).
Observational Learning (Modeling)

In observational learning, we learn by watching and then imitating others, often referred to as models. This type of
learning is linked to specific neurons called mirror neurons, which are activated when we observe others performing
actions.

Humans and animals, including chimpanzees, are capable of observational learning. In a study, one group of chimpanzees
learned to drink juice more efficiently by observing another group use straws. The first group, which initially dipped their
straws, switched to sucking directly after watching the second group, demonstrating the effectiveness of modeling
behavior.

However, observational learning can have significant implications, as illustrated by Claire's experience with her son, Jay.
After struggling with his defiant behavior, Claire resorted to physical punishment. She later witnessed her younger
daughter, Anna, imitating this behavior with her teddy bear, leading Claire to realize the need for a different approach to
discipline. This example underscores the power of observational learning in shaping behavior, whether positively or
negatively.
Social Learning Theory

Like Tolman, whose experiments suggested a cognitive component to learning, psychologist Albert Bandura introduced a
different perspective with his social learning theory. This approach acknowledges the role of cognitive processes in
learning, arguing that pure behaviorism cannot explain how learning occurs without external reinforcement. Bandura
believed that internal mental states also play a crucial role and that observational learning is more complex than simple
imitation.

Observational learning can occur in several ways (Lefrançois, 2012):

Learning a new response: For instance, after observing a coworker reprimanded for tardiness, you might begin leaving
home earlier to avoid being late.
Deciding whether to imitate the model: For example, when learning to surf, you may emulate your father’s successful
technique but avoid touching a hot stove after watching him get burned.
Learning a general rule: You can apply principles learned from one situation to other contexts.
Models of Observational Learning
Bandura identified three types of models

Live Model Verbal Instructional Symbolic Model

Demonstrates behavior in person, Model Includes fictional characters or
such as a coach showing proper Explains behavior without real people in media who exhibit
technique. performing it, like a coach behaviors, such as those seen in
describing how to kick a soccer books, movies, or online content.
ball correctly.
The Famous Bobo Doll

Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura's research on modeling focused on children’s imitation of adults' aggressive behaviors,
particularly through the Bobo doll experiment. In this study, children observed a teacher behaving
aggressively towards a doll. The children's responses varied based on whether the teacher faced
punishment or not. If the teacher was punished, the children were less likely to imitate her aggressive
behavior. However, if the teacher was praised or ignored, they were more likely to replicate her
actions, demonstrating the powerful influence of modeling in shaping behavior.

If the model was reinforced for their behavior, you are more likely to replicate it (known as vicarious
reinforcement). Conversely, if the model was punished, you are less inclined to imitate (known as
vicarious punishment).
Does Violent Media Cause Aggression?

The question of whether watching violent media or playing violent video games causes aggression
has been explored extensively. Albert Bandura's early studies indicated that television violence can
increase aggression in children, a finding that has been supported by more recent research. For
instance, studies conducted by Craig Anderson and colleagues suggest a causal relationship
between hours of exposure to violent media and subsequent aggressive thoughts and behaviors.

However, some researchers, such as Christopher Ferguson, argue that while a connection between
violent media exposure and aggression may exist, previous studies have often failed to consider
other significant risk factors, including mental health issues and family dynamics. Thus, while
violent media may contribute to aggressive behavior, it is essential to understand the broader
context of individual and environmental factors that also play a crucial role in aggression.
 I often feel like a zookeeper
when I teach—there attention
swings from one topic to
another.