BPCC-101

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan Dr. Anita Kant Prof. Swati Patra
Rtd. Professor Emeritus, Associate Professor, Vivekananda College Professor, Discipline of Psychology,
IGNOU, Maidangarhi, Delhi. (University of Delhi), Vivek Vihar, Delhi. IGNOU, Maidangarhi, Delhi.

Prof. Karuna Nidhi, Dr. Ashima Nehra Dr. Monika Misra

Professor and Head Assistant Professor Asst. Professor, Discipline of Psychology,
Department of Psychology, Dept. of Neuro Psychology, IGNOU, Maidangarhi, Delhi.
University of Madras Chepauk, AIIMS, Delhi
Chennai Dr. Smita Gupta
Dr. S. P. K. Jena Professor Suhas Shetgovekar Asst. Professor, Discipline of Psychology,
Associate Professor Professor, Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Maidangarhi, Delhi.
Dept. of Psychology, IGNOU, Maidangarhi, Delhi.
University of Delhi, Delhi.

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Block Name Unit Writer
Block 1 Introduction to psychology

Unit 1 Origin of Psychology Prof. Amulya Khurana, School of Humanities and Social Sciences,
IIT Delhi (Adapted from BPC 001, Block 1)
Unit 2 Nature and Scope of Psychology Prof. Amulya Khurana, School of Humanities and Social Sciences,
IIT Delhi (Adapted from BPC 001, Block 1)

Block 2 Perception
Unit 3 Unit 1 Perception: Meaning, Laws, Dr Arti Singh, Consultant
Perceptual Constancies and Factors SOSS, IGNOU
Affecting Perception.
Unit 4 Perception: Types and Errors of Dr Arti Singh, Consultant
Perception SOSS,IGNOU
Block 3 Thinking and language
Unit 5 Thinking and Language Dr Arti Singh, Consultant, SOSS, IGNOU
Block 4 Learning and Memory
Unit 6 Learning
Unit 7 Memory Dr Arti Singh, Consultant, SOSS, IGNOU
Block 5 Motivation and Emotion
Unit 8 Motivation Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar
Unit 9 Emotion SOSS, IGNOU

Brief Guide to Practicum on BPCC-101 Adapted from BPCL-007 and

General Psychology BPCL-008

COURSE COORDINATOR: Dr. Smita Gupta, Discipline of Psychology SOSS, IGNOU

GENERAL EDITOR’S: Dr. Smita Gupta and Dr. Arti Singh, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU
EDITOR (CONTENT FORMAT AND LANGUAGE:
Print Production
Mr. Manjit Singh
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
June, 2019
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN:
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeography or any other means, without permission
in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be
obtained from the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or visit our website: http://www.ignou.ac.in
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by Director, School of Social
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Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi
Printed at :
 Course Contents
Page
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 5
Unit 1 Origin of Psychology 7
Unit 2 Nature and Scope of Psychology 18

BLOCK 2 PERCEPTION 31
Unit 1 Perception: Meaning, Laws, Perceptual Constancies
and Factors Affecting Perception. 33
Unit 2 Perception: Types and Errors of Perception 50

BLOCK 3 THINKING AND LANGUAGE 65

Unit 1 Thinking and Language 67

BLOCK 4 LEARNING AND MEMORY 83

Unit 1 Learning 85
Unit 2 Memory 104

BLOCK 5 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 119

Unit 1 Motivation 121
Unit 2 Emotion 133

Brief Guide to Practicum on BPCC-101 General Psychology 149

COURSE INTRODUCTION
The Course of Introduction to Psychology is one of the courses of First Semester
of BA (Honours) Psychology. The attempt of this course is to explain you the
meaning and concept of psychology. It also explains the human behavior and
their cognitive processes; biological processes and affective processes that make
them behave differently.

The first block of this course is Introduction to psychology which discusses the
origin of the field of psychology and the emergence of psychology as an
independent Discipline in the world including India. The second block of this
course is- Perception which explains the steps and process of perception. It also
explains how our perception is influenced by other factors.

The third block of this course is- Thinking and language which deals with the
process of thinking and concept of creativity. The fourth block of this course is-
Learning and Memory which will deal with the definition, process, stages and
theories of learning and memory. In the last block of Motivation and Emotion,
you will be introduced with the concept and theories related to motivation and
emotion.
 Nature and Scope of
Psychology

Block 2
Perception

31
Perception
BLOCK 2 PERCEPTION

Introduction
This block comprises of two units. The first unit deals with the concept of
perception, the laws of perception, perceptual constancies and also the factors
affecting perception. In this unit, all relevant topics related to perception will be
dealt. The unit starts with an explanation to the process of perception followed
by an introduction on sensation. Further, the role of attention in perception will
also be explained to you. The various perceptual constancies (size, shape, colour,
distance) followed by various factors affecting the perceptual process will also
be discussed. With reference to the Gestalt philosophy, the different principles
of organising stimuli will also be explained to you.

The second unit deals with the other aspects of perception that is, the different
types and errors of perception. In this unit, the various types of perception will
be introduced to you. The factors responsible for depth, distance, movement,
and size perception will also be discussed. Lastly, the different types of errors
involved in the process of perception will be explained to you. Further, the various
forms of illusions such as Muller-lyre illusion, Ponzo illusion, Ebbinghaus illusion,
Ames room illusion, and moon illusion will be discussed accordingly.

32
 Perception: Meaning, Laws,
UNIT 3 PERCEPTION: MEANING , LAWS, Perceptual Constancies and
Factors Affecting Perception
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES AND
FACTORS AFFECTING
PERCEPTION*

Content
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Perception: Way to Understand the World
3.2.1 Stages of Perception
3.2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Perception
3.3 Sensation
3.3.1 Process of Sensation
3.4 Role of Attention in Perception
3.5 Laws of Organization: Gestalt Principles
3.5.1 Law of Proximity
3.5.2 Law of Similarity
3.5.3 Law of Good Continuation
3.5.4 Law of Closure
3.5.5 Law of Common Region/Common Fate
3.5.6 Law of Good Form/ Pragnaz
3.6 Perceptual Constancy
3.6.1 Size Constancy
3.6.2 Shape Constancy
3.6.3 Colour or Brightness Constancy
3.7 Factors Affecting Perception
3.7.1 Effect of Motivation or Need
3.7.2 Effect of Expectation
3.7.3 Effect of Emotions
3.7.4 Effect of Stimulus Characteristics
3.7.5 Effect of Experiences
3.7.6 Effect of Culture
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 Unit End Questions
3.10 Glossary
3.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
3.12 References and Suggested Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION
I pondered deeply, then, over the adventures of the jungle. And after some
work with a colored pencil I succeeded in making my first drawing. My
Drawing Number One. It looked like this:

* Dr Arti Singh, SOSS, IGNOU

33
Perception

I showed my masterpiece to the grown-ups, and asked them whether the

drawing frightened them.
But they answered: “Frighten? Why should any one be frightened by a hat?”
My drawing was not a picture of a hat. It was a picture of a boa constrictor
digesting an elephant. But since the grown-ups were not able to understand
it, I made another drawing: I drew the inside of a boa constrictor, so that the
grown-ups could see it clearly. They always need to have things explained.
My Drawing Number Two looked like this:

The above excerpt is from the book, “The Little Prince” (1943), by Antoine de
Saint Exupery. As illustrated above, it is not necessary that our understanding of
a stimulus will be shared by others also. The world around us is complicated and
so is the process of knowing it. The psychological process responsible for our
interpretation of the world is known as perception. In this unit, those
psychological processes which we use to understand our world will be discussed.
Specifically, this unit will discuss the process of perception, sensation, role of
attention in the perceptual process, and factors affecting perception.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
Explain the process of perception;
Have an understanding of the factors affecting perception;
Describe the concept of sensation;
Explain the types of perceptual consistencies;
Outline the basic principles of organization using Gestalt theory; and
Understand the basis of perceptual illusion.

3.2 PERCEPTION: WAY TO UNDERSTAND THE

WORLD
Perception is a set of process, which helps us in understanding the world around
us. Every second we encounter numerous stimuli. Take a look around the room
34 in which you are sitting right now. What can you see? Walls, the colour of the
walls, fan, light, the sound of the fan, books kept in the racks and many more Perception: Meaning, Laws,
Perceptual Constancies and
things. Your awareness about all those stimuli is the result of a higher mental Factors Affecting Perception
process called “perception”. Perception helps us in interpreting our world and
thus helps us in making an appropriate decision, from what dress to wear to how
to cross the road. Therefore, perception is a process of selecting, organising and
interpreting the sensory information based on previous experiences, other’s
experiences, need or expectation.

Now, close your eyes and try to visualize your kitchen. What do you remember
about the kitchen of your house? Not everything. Right? Why is it so that you are
not able to visualise your kitchen with 100 per cent accuracy? Since, our brain is
not capable of attending every single detail of the world; it selectively attends
only some stimuli. Let us take another example. How do you cross a busy road?
You selectively pay attention to some stimuli (traffic signal, the speed of the
vehicle or people on the road) and then cross the road. While crossing the road,
you have very less awareness about the buildings or number of trees around the
road. Why? Because it is not necessary for the action, you need to perform at
that time, i.e., while crossing the road safely. The act of crossing a road safely
can be explained using the process of perception. First, you select the stimuli
(traffic signal, moving vehicles, and people) you need to pay attention to and
block other stimuli (parked vehicles, trees, conversation with your fellow
pedestrian etc.). In this way, your brain tries to focus on the task. Then, your
brain organises the scene, and lastly, it figures out when it will be appropriate to
cross the road safely. Any mistake during these steps can cause an accident. So
broadly speaking, the process of perception involves three steps when it
encounters stimuli viz. (i) selection, (ii) organization and, (iii) interpretation.
These stages of the process of perception have been discussed in detail in the
following section.

3.2.1 Stages of Perception

This section will explain in details the stages involved in perception as well as
the factors affecting these stages.
Stage I: Selection
The first stage of perception is “selection”. Since our brain has limited capacity,
therefore, it cannot attend to all stimuli. We unconsciously or consciously select
some stimuli and ignore others. The selected stimulus becomes the “attended
stimulus”. Now, look at the following two figures. What do you see?

Fig. 3.1: Rabbit or Duck? Fig.3.2: Vase or Human Faces?

Source: (Figure 3.1) http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Rabbit-DuckIllusion.html
Fig. 3.2: https://pxhere.com/en/photo/1283860 35
Perception Your interpretation of these two figures depends on your organisation of the
information, and organisation of the information, in turn, depends on your
attention. Take for example, the second figure. Some people give more attention
to the white portion and thus see two human faces, while some focus their attention
on black part and perceive it as a vase. These differences in answer suggest that
individual differences also occur in the process of perception.

Stage II: Organization

In this stage, stimuli are arranged mentally in a meaningful pattern. This process
occurs unconsciously. Many principles have been proposed to explain the process
of organisation. Section 2.4 discusses the Gestalt principles of organisation. It
will help you understand how humans naturally organize stimuli to make a
meaningful pattern and thus interpretation.

Stage III: Interpretation

In this last stage, meaning is assigned to the organized stimuli. Interpretation of
the stimuli is based on one’s experiences, expectations, needs, beliefs and other
factors. Thus, this stage is subjective in nature and the same stimuli can be
interpreted differently by different individuals.

Fig. 3.3: Process of Perception

3.2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Perception

Two separate theoretical approaches have been proposed by psychologists to
explain the process of perception. One is known as “Top-down processing
approach” and, other is known as “Bottom-up processing approach”.

Table 3.1: Theoretical approaches to perception

Bottom-up processing Top-down processing

Process of perception is direct. Process of perception is indirect.

Perception is a data driven process i.e., Perception is an experience driven

stimuli carries sufficient information process i.e., stimuli don’t have
to be interpreted meaningfully and we sufficient information to be interpreted
don’t need to rely on our experiences. meaningfully and therefore, we need
to rely on our experiences.
J. J. Gibson was one of the strongest Richard Gregory was the strongest
advocate of this view. advocate of this view.

36
 Perception: Meaning, Laws,
3.3 SENSATION Perceptual Constancies and
Factors Affecting Perception
A closely related term to perception is “sensation”. Sensation is the first contact
we establish with our physical environment. “It focuses on describing the
relationship between various forms of sensory stimulation (including
electromagnetic, sound waves, pressure) and how these inputs are registered by
our sense organs (the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin)” (Baron, 2001, pp. 85).
Therefore, the sensation can be understood as the process of gathering information
about the environment using our senses and then transmitting it to the brain for
further process, i.e., perception. The process of perception, which occurs
unconsciously, will interpret this sensory information to make a sense of our
world.

3.3.1 Process of Sensation

The process of sensation consists of three steps. The first step is reception – the
process of receiving information in the form of light, heat or other physical energy
by our sense organ using specialised sensory receptors cells. The next step is
known as transduction – the process of converting received physical energy into
electric impulse or energy which refers to the language which can be interpreted
by our brain and nervous system. In the last step, with the help of nerve fibres
these converted electric impulse travels to our nervous system for interpretation.

Fig. 3.4: Process of sensation

Retrieved from https://www.tes.com

3.4 ROLE OF ATTENTION IN PERCEPTION

The dish antenna we use in our home receives all available signals from the
satellite but the tuner of the television-set selects signal according to our wishes.
Similarly, our senses can register numerous stimuli at a given time but attentional
processes help us in selecting relevant stimuli responsible for perception.
Following are some important functions of attention in context of perception:

Selective attention: The most important function of attention is selectivity.

It refers to a process by which attention is focused on stimulus of ongoing
interest, while ignoring other irrelevant stimuli. Selective attention acts as
a filter.
37
Perception Sustained attention: It is the ability to attend to a stimulus for a longer
period of time without being distracted. Job of looking at a radar screen
requires sustained attention. Our attentional process helps us in doing this
kind of monotonous jobs.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ-I)

· State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’
· 1) Interpretation of the stimuli is based on one’s experiences,
expectations, needs, beliefs and other factors. ........................
· 2) The Bottom up processing approach says that the process of perception
is indirect..........................
· 3) Broadly speaking, the process of perception involves two steps.
............
· 4) Our senses can register numerous stimuli at a given time. ................
· 5) In the stage of organization the stimuli are arranged mentally in a
meaningful pattern...............

3.5 LAWS OF ORGANIZATION: GESTALT

PRINCIPLES
In the early 20th century, three German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang
Köhler and Kurt Koffka proposed new principles for explaining perception called
as Gestalt principle. According to these psychologists, the process of perception
does not involve perceiving an array of stimuli as an object but it involves our
tendency to seek a form or pattern in it. The literal meaning of the word Gestalt
is form or configuration. The basic premise of Gestalt psychology is that ‘whole
is different from the sum of its part’. Based on this basic premise, Gestalt
psychologists proposed a number of principles or laws to explain the process of
perceptual organisation i.e., how we perceive smaller units of stimuli as a whole,
having a particular pattern. In the following section, let us discuss some important
Gestalt laws of perceptual organisation but before doing so, can you find thirteen
faces in the following picture?

Fig.3.5:The Forest Has Eyes by Bev Doolittle (1984)

Source: http://www.greenwichworkshop.com
38
 Figure-ground Relationship Perception: Meaning, Laws,
Perceptual Constancies and
Factors Affecting Perception

Fig.3.6: An example of figure-ground relationship

Source: https://www.tes.com
This principle states that we have a tendency to segregate our world in the form
of figure and ground. Figure is that part of stimuli which has our focus of the
visual field, whereas the ground is background. Figure has a definite shape and
is better remembered whereas; background is shapeless and has no limits. Now
look at the Figure 6, what do you see? Two people or two pieces of chess (two
queens and one bishop)? When you focus on people, chess pieces disappear in
the background and when you focus on the chess pieces, people become the
background.

3.5.1 Law of Proximity

Fig.3.7: The Gestalt principle of proximity

Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com

In order to perceive stimuli meaningful, stimuli which are closer to each other
are perceived by us belonging to one group. Due to this reason, people tend to
see following circles as cluster or group rather than individual circles. Our brain
tends to group large elements as one to make us interpret more easily.
39
Perception 3.5.2 Law of Similarity

Fig.3.8: The Gestalt Principle of Similarity

Source: https://www.verywellmind.com

This principle states that stimuli similar to each other are grouped together. For
instance, in the Figure 8, we tend to group circles based on its colours. In real life
also, we use this principle extensively. For example, during a cricket match, we
tend to group players based on the colour of their jersey.

3.5.3 Law of Continuity or Good Continuation

It refers to our tendency to perceive figures in continuation rather than in parts.
This principle is exhibited more in the perception of line. Figure 9 is generally
perceived by us as a line instead of separate circles.

Fig.3.9: The Gestalt Principle of Continuity

Source: http://art.nmu.edu

3.5.4 Law of Closure

Following its name, this law should
not be confused with the law of
proximity. This law states that we have
a tendency to perceive stimuli as
closed shapes even with some missing Fig.3.10: The Gestalt Principle of Closure
40 parts. Source: https://www.logodesignlove.com
3.5.5 Law of Common Region/Common Fate Perception: Meaning, Laws,
Perceptual Constancies and
Factors Affecting Perception

Fig.3.11: The Gestalt Principle of Common Fate

Source: http://cdn.zmescience.com

This principle states that stimuli moving in similar directions are perceived as
belonging to same group, as shown in Figure 3.11.

3.5.6 Law of Good Form/Pragnaz

Fig. 3.12: The Gestalt Principle of Pragnaz

Source: https://www.interaction-design.org

The word Prgnaz is a German in origin, meaning “good figure”. This principle is
also called as “law of good figure”. According to this principle, out of all possible
ways of grouping stimuli, we tend to group stimuli in the simplest and stable
shape. Thus, we can say that simpler forms are more perceived by us. For example,
instead of perceiving Figure 12, as consisting of five circles, we tend to perceive
it as a symbol of Olympics.

41
Perception
3.6 PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY
Perceptual constancy is a remarkable feet of our perceptual ability to perceive
familiar stimuli as constant (with reference to size, shape, colour and brightness),
irrespective of the change in the environment, location and characteristics of the
stimuli. There are basically three types of perceptual constancies; size, shape
and colour. In the following section each type of constancy will be discussed in
brief.

3.6.1 Size Constancy

Fig.3.13: An example of size constancy

Source: https://www.flickr.com

Our retinal image of the people standing in this picture is very small but all
thanks to the phenomenon of the size constancy, our brain perceive them as
people of normal size.

3.6.2 Shape Constancy

As the door swings towards us, its shape changes and so does our retinal image
of the door, but still we perceive the shape of the door as sames due to shape
constancy. See Figure 3.14.

Fig. 3.14: An example of shape constancy

Source: Atkinson & Hilgard (2009)
42
3.6.3 Colour or Brightness Constancy Perception: Meaning, Laws,
Perceptual Constancies and
Factors Affecting Perception

Fig. 3.15: An example of colour constancy

Source: https://www.flickr.com

It is our ability to perceive the colour and brightness of stimuli constant even
with the change in the wavelength of the light at our retina. For instance, in
Figure 15, we perceive the colour and brightness of the rose constant.

3.7 FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION

3.7.1 Effect of Motivation or Need
Motivation always plays a vital role in various psychological processes including
perception. You must have observed that when you feel hungry, the smell of the
food catches your attention more easily than when you are full. Many experimental
studies have also reported the same effect. In a classic experiment, Stanford
(1936) reported that hungry participants perceived ambiguous stimuli more as
food-related stimuli than non-hungry participants. Similarly, in a recent study,
Changizi and Hall (2001) demonstrated that your need for thirst could also affect
perception.

3.7.2 Effect of Expectation or Perceptual Expectancy

Perceptual expectancy is a person’s readiness or a predisposition to perceive
things in a particular way.

In a classic experiment, Bruner & Minturn (1955) illustrated the role of

expectation in our perception. In one condition he showed his participants, an
ambiguous figure of ‘13’ in the context of numbers like this;

Fig. 3.16

In the second condition he showed the same ambiguous figure of ‘13’ in the
context of alphabets like this;
43
Perception

Fig. 3.17:

In the first condition, participants perceived the ambiguous stimulus as 13 while

in the second it was perceived as B. The ambiguous stimulus in both conditions
was same but interpreted differently due to participants’ expectation.

In another classical study, Bugelski and Alampay (1961) used an ambiguous

picture of the ‘rat-man’, as shown in figure 18. This picture was presented in two
conditions. In one condition, participants were first exposed to animal picture
and then to the ambiguous ‘rat-man’ picture. Whereas, in another condition
participants were first exposed to neutral pictures followed by the picture of ‘rat-
man’. Experimental condition in which participants were exposed to animal
picture perceived more this ambiguous picture as a rat than in the later condition.

Fig. 3.18: Rat-man stimulus used in experiment

Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org

3.7.3 Effect of Emotions

What do you think can emotions affect your perceptual ability? Suppose, if you
are a fan of a particular IPL team and during a match, the umpire made a call
against your favourite team. Then it’s more likely that you will perceive that
umpire as partial. Why? Because you believe that your team is perfect and it
cannot make any mistake. This example shows that your emotion for your
favourite team is distorting your perception of the reality. Emotions do not hamper
your perception always. Many studies have demonstrated the relationship between
emotion and perception. An important point which needs to be mentioned here is
that emotion does not always hamper your perception. Sometimes it facilitates
also. Studies have suggested that when perception task is irrelevant to emotions
it hampers your performance. Whereas, when your perception task is relevant to
emotions, it facilitates the performance (Dodd, Vogt, Turkileri, & Notebaert, 2016;
Compton et al., 2003). However, in a recent study, it was reported that emotions
not only affect one’s perception but also influence the working memory (Hur,
Iordan, Dolcos & Berenbaum, 2017).
44
3.7.4 Effect of Stimulus Characteristic Perception: Meaning, Laws,
Perceptual Constancies and
Factors Affecting Perception
You may have noticed that the horns used by heavy trucks usually have high
frequency, high pitch and high volume. Why? Just to grab your attention. Studies
have shown that those stimuli which sound, taste, look or feel different, grabs
our attention more than other stimuli and thus affect our perception. According
to the evolutionary psychologist, this property has a survival purpose. It has
helped humans in identifying danger.

3.7.5 Effect of Experience

Fig. 3.19: A Flamingo shaped pen

Source: https://www.amazon.in

Prior experience plays an important role in the way we interpret stimuli; it shapes

your perception. For example, if you mistakenly perceive a rope as a snake in the
dark, then your previous experience is guiding your perceptual process. What do
you see in the above picture? A Flamingo shaped pen, right? Even though this is
not a typical pen, but you perceive it as a pen because of your previous exposure.

3.7.6 Effect of the Culture

Culture provides structure, guidelines, expectations, and rules to help people
understand and interpret behaviors. Ethnographic studies suggest there are cultural
differences in social understanding, interpretation, and response to behavior and
emotion. Cultural scripts dictate how positive and negative stimuli should be
interpreted. Now look at the following hand gesture and interpret it. What does it
mean?

Fig. 3.20: A hand gesture referring to perfect

Source: http://westsidetoastmasters.com

In India, the illustrated hand gesture refers to beautiful or perfect. But in

Mediterranean countries, it refers to sexual insult whereas, in Japan, this gesture
45
Perception relates to money. This example suggests that interpretation of a stimulus changes
with the change in the culture.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ-II)

Fill in the following blanks:

1) ..................... provides structure, guidelines, expectations, and rules to

help people understand and interpret behaviours.
2) ...................... plays an important role in the way we interpret stimuli.
3) ........................always plays a vital role in various psychological processes
including perception.
4) As the door swings towards us, it shape changes and so does .......................
image of the door.
5) The..................principle states that stimuli similar to each other are
grouped together.

3.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, all relevant topics related to perception were covered. The unit started
with an explanation to the process of perception followed by an introduction on
sensation. Further, the role of attention in perception was also explained. The
various perceptual constancies (size, shape, colour, distance) followed by various
factors affecting the perceptual process were discussed accordingly. In the context
of Gestalt philosophy, the different principles of organising stimuli were also
discussed at the end.

3.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What do you understand by perception? Define it and describe the stages of
the perceptual process.
2) Differentiate between perception and sensation
3) Describe the role of attention in perception.
4) What do you understand by perceptual constancy and describe any two
types of constancies?
5) What is Gestalt theory of perception? Describe any five Gestalt principles
of organization.
6) Explain perceptual expectancy and describe how it can affect one’s
perception.

3.10 GLOSSARY
Perception : It is a process of selecting, organising and interpreting
the sensory information based on previous
experiences, other’s experiences, need or expectation.
Sensation : The process of receiving information from the
environment using your five senses and sending it
46
 to brain for further interpretation, is known as Perception: Meaning, Laws,
Perceptual Constancies and
sensation. Factors Affecting Perception

Perceptual Constancy : It is our ability to perceive the shape, size and colour
of the stimuli as constant even though in reality the
stimuli change with reference to these characteristics.
Selective Attention : It refers to a process by which attention is focused
on stimulus of ongoing interest, while ignoring other
irrelevant stimuli. Selective attention acts as a filter.
Sustained Attention : It is the ability to attend to a stimulus for a longer
period of time without being distracted.
Gestalt Principle : The literal meaning of the word Gestalt is form or
configuration. This principle states that ‘whole is
different from the sum of its part’.
Law of Pregnaz : According to this principle, out of all possible ways
of grouping stimuli, we tend to group stimuli in the
simplest and stable shape. Thus, we can say that
simpler forms are more perceived by us.

3.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS (SAQ)
SAQ-I
1) True
2) False
3) False
4) True
5) True

SAQ-II
1) Culture
2) Prior experience
3) Motivation
4) our retinal
5) law of similarity

3.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Sanford, R. N. (1936). The effects of abstinence from food upon imaginal
processes: a preliminary experiment. The Journal of Psychology, 2(1), 129-136.

Atkinson, R. L., Atkinson, R. C., Smith, E. E., Bem, D. J., & Nolen Hoeksema,
S. (2009). Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology. Fort Wirth. Texas: Harcourt Brace
College Publishers.

47
Perception Changizi, M.A. & Hall, W. G. (2001). Thirst modulates a perception. Perception,
30(12), 1489-1497.

Mishra, G. & Baron, R. A. (2006). Psychology : Indian Subcontinent (5th Edition).

New Delhi, Pearson Publication

Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (2004). Introduction to

Psychology. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

Moore, B.C.J. (2003).  An Introduction to the Psychology of hearing. Academic

Press.

Gibson, J.J. (1979). The theory of information pickup and its consequences. In The
ecological approach to visual perception (pp. 238-263). Boston, MA:
Houghton Miflin Co.

Strawson, P. F. (1979). Perception and its objects. In Perception and Identity.

Palgrave, London.

Fish, W. (2010). Philosophy of Perception: A Contemporary Introduction.

Routledge.

Smith, A. D. (2004).  The Problem of Perception. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers

private Limited, New Delhi.

Reynolds, R. I. (1988). A Psychological Definition of Illusion. Philosophical

Psychology, 1(2), 217-223.

Foster, J. (2000). The Nature of Perception. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind

and Behaviour (11th edition). Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.

Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn and

Bacon.

References for Images

Rabbit or Duck? Retrieved March 20, 2018, from http://mathworld. wolfram.com/
Rabbit-DuckIllusion.html
Vase or Human Faces? Retrieved March 20, 2018, from https://pxhere.com/en/
photo/1283860
Process of sensation. Retrieved March 20, 2018, from https://www.tes.com/
lessons/TxQsIJJuBMquog/the-interactive-lecture
The Forest Has Eyes by Bev Doolittle (1984). Retrieved March 20, 2018, from
http://www.greenwichworkshop.com/details/default.asp?p=32&t=1
An example of figure-ground relationship. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from https:/
/www.tes.com/lessons/p5F2D5-riCAYMw/figure-ground-relationship
The Gestalt principle of proximity. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from https://
courses.lumenlearning.com/wsu-sandbox/chapter/gestalt-principles-of-
perception/
48
The Gestalt Principle of Similarity. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from https:// Perception: Meaning, Laws,
Perceptual Constancies and
www.verywellmind.com/gestalt-laws-of-perceptual-organization-2795835 Factors Affecting Perception

The Gestalt Principle of Continuity. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from http://
art.nmu.edu/groups/cognates/wiki/d42cf/Continuity.html
The Gestalt Principle of Closure. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from https://
www.logodesignlove.com/world-wildlife-fund
The Gestalt Principle of Common Fate. Retrieved March 24, 2018, from http://
cdn.zmescience.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/traffic.jpg
The Gestalt Principle of Pragnaz. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from https://
www.interaction-design.org/literature/article/the-laws-of-figure-ground-
praegnanz-closure-and-common-fate-gestalt-principles-3
An example of size constancy. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from https://
www.fl i ck r.co m / phot os /475 44453@N0 8/ 2404069 5344/ i n/ al bum -
72157661659836884/
An example of colour constancy. Retrieved March 29, 2018, from https://
www.fl i ck r.co m / phot os /475 44453@N0 8/ 2427276 2519/ i n/ al bum -
72157661659836884/
A Flamingo shaped pen. Retrieved March 29, 2018, from https://www.amazon.in
A hand gesture referring to perfect. Retrieved March 29, 2018, from http://
westsidetoastmasters.com/resources/book_of_body_language/chap5.html
Rat-man stimulus used in experiment. Retrieved March 29, 2018, from https://
www.simplypsychology.org/perceptual-set.html

49
Perception
UNIT 4 PERCEPTION: TYPES AND ERRORS
OF PERCEPTION*
Content
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Perception of Depth and Distance
4.2.1 Monocular Cues
4.2.1.1 Relative Size
4.2.1.2 Texture Gradient
4.2.1.3 Ariel Perspective
4.2.1.4 Linear Perspective
4.2.1.5 Interposition
4.2.1.6 Accommodation
4.2.2 Binocular Cues
4.2.2.1 Retinal Disparity
4.2.2.2 Convergence
4.3 Movement Perception
4.4 Size Perception
4.5 Errors in Perception
4.6 Types of Illusion
4.6.1 Muller-lyre Illusion
4.6.2 Ponzo Illusion
4.6.3 Ebbinghaus Illusion
4.6.4 The Ames Room Illusion
4.6.5 The Moon Illusion
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Unit End Questions
4.9 Glossary
4.10 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
4.11 Suggested Readings and References

4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we studied the meaning, nature, and laws of perception. In
this unit also we will continue with the topic of perception. Since, vision seems
an effortless process, we often take this process for granted. However, in reality,
the process of perceiving colour, shape, form, movement is not simple. In this
unit, we will make an attempt to solve the mystery of perceiving various types of
perception such as depth, distance, movement, and size. Further, we will see
how various types of illusions affect our process of perception.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
Describe the nature of depth and distance perception;

50 * Dr Arti Singh, SOSS,IGNOU

 Articulate the role of monocular and binocular cues on depth and distance Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
perception;
Explain the nature of movement and size perception;
Discuss the basis of perceptual illusion; and
Describe the different types of illusions.

4.2 PERCEPTION OF DEPTH AND DISTANCE

Depth perception refers to one’s visual ability to perceive the world in three
dimensions and thus enabling us to judge the distance of an object. Whereas, the
process by which we determine the distance of an object is known as distance
perception. Our brain uses both monocular and binocular cues to judge depth
and distance.

4.2.1 Monocular Cues

Fig. 4.1: A one-eyed minion

Source: https://wallpaperscraft.ru

These are those information or cues that our brain receives from one eye only.
These cues are weaker than binocular cues (information that our brain receives
from both eyes) in strength. Following are some of the common monocular cues:

4.2.1.1 Relative Size

Fig. 4.2: Hot air balloons flying in the air

Source: http://www.freestockphotos.biz
51
Perception This cue gives us information about the distance of an object based on its relative
size with a similar object. This cue works on both two-dimensional and three-
dimensional images. The basic premise is that if two objects are of the
approximately similar size, then the object which is closer is perceived as larger.

4.2.1.2 Texture Gradient

Fig. 4.3: Flower meadows

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org

This cue is based on our perception of the change in the gradient or degree of
texture. The texture of the objects which are nearer to our eyes are rough or
distinct, but as you move further away from it, the texture of the object will
become less distinct or smooth and thus suggesting the perception of more
distance. For example, if you look at your wall of the room from 30 feet, it seems
smoother, but if you look at the same wall from one foot, you can notice the
details on the wall. This change in the texture correlates with the distance.

4.2.1.3 Arial Perspective or Haze

Fig. 4.4: Near Salt Lake City by Albert Bierstadt

52 Source: https://psych.hanover.edu
Objects are perceived at a distance if there is a presence of haze in the environment. Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
Haze is the result of atmospheric dust particles, fog or water vapours. Sometimes
perception of distance based on haze can be deceptive. The same mountain can
be perceived as nearer or at distance depending on the presence of haze.

4.2.1.4 Linear Perspective

Fig. 4.5: An example of monocular cue-linear perspective

Source: http://acddpsych.blogspot.in

This cue is based on the convergence of straight lines at a point on the horizon.
An appropriate example of this cue could be the perception of convergence of
rail tracks at a distance. This cue suggests that closure the lines are; the greater
will be the distance.

4.2.1.5 Interposition/Occlusion

Fig. 4.6: An example of monocular cue-occlusion

Source: Retrieved from https://in.pinterest.com/pin/93731235972658147/

When two objects are overlapped, then the object which has been overlapped or
obscured will be perceived as farther away than the overlapping object.

4.2.1.6 Accommodation

Even though this cue occurs with both eyes, it is still considered as a monocular
cue. It is known as accommodation because the size of our lenses accommodates
themselves based on the distance. Our lenses become thicker when an object lies
closer to eyes while it becomes thinner when an object lies at a distance.
53
Perception 4.2.2 Binocular Cues

Fig. 4.7: A two-eyed minion

Source: http://amostpeculiarmademoiselle.blogspot.in/2013/12/a-minion-for-little-b.html

The cues that we receive from both eyes are known as binocular cues. These
cues are more powerful than monocular cues. The process of gaining binocular
cues to assess depth is known as stereopsis.

Following are two types of binocular cues:

4.2.2.1 Retinal Disparity

L= Left eye
R=Right eye
Fig. 4.8: Formation of different retinal image by left and right eyes
Source: http://artnet.nmu.edu

We humans have two eyes, separated by the distance of average 6.3 cm. Therefore,
the retinal image of the same object differs slightly from each other. The closer
an object is to eyes; greater will be the difference in its retinal image. Our brain
analyses the degree of disparity between these two separate retinal images and
produces a single image of the object to judge information on depth, height and
width.
54
4.2.2.2 Convergence Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception

Fig.4.9: Two convergence angles formed by our eyes.

Source: https://psychlopedia.wikispaces.com

Our eyes make an angle while focusing on an object, known as convergence

angle. Convergence angle for distant and near-by objects are different. When an
object is at a distance, our eyes make smaller convergence angle, but when an
object is closer to our eyes, our eyeballs rotate inwards and form large convergence
angle. This change in convergence gives a clue about distance and depth to the
perceiver.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ-I)

Fill in the blanks:

1) The retinal image of the same object ........................from each other.

2) The cues that we receive from both eyes are known as ....................................

3) Objects are perceived at ................................if there is a presence of haze

in the environment.

4) Depth perception refers to one’s ...................................ability to perceive

the world in three dimensions.

5) The texture of the objects which are nearer to our eyes are
.............................,but as you further move away from it, the texture of the
object will become...........................

4.3 MOVEMENT PERCEPTION

How do we know that if a car is coming towards us or moving away from us?
Movement perception is our ability to judge the direction and speed of a moving
object. Psychologists have tried to answer the questions on movement perception
using following four factors:

Retinal motion: When an object moves its image on retina also moves. This
motion of the retinal image is detected by special visual neurons which are
sensitive to change in motion and direction. In this way we perceive movement.
55
Perception Motion after-effect (MAE): If you fixate your gaze on a moving object for
some time (few seconds to minutes) and then move your gaze to a stationary
object. Then the stationary object will be perceived as moving in opposite direction
to the original moving object. This phenomenon is known as MAE and occurs
due to motion adaption.

Induced movement: When a smaller stationary body is surrounded by larger

moving body then smaller body is perceived to move in the direction opposite to
the larger body. Due to this phenomenon, we perceive moon as moving when it
is surrounded by slowly moving clouds.

Fig. 4.10: Moon behind clouds

Source: http://courses.washington.edu

Apparent movement/Stroboscopic motion: First given by Gestalt theorist

Wertheimer (1912). In this phenomenon, when stationary stimuli are presented
in succession, it is perceived in a motion. This phenomenon is used to explain
the movement perception in videos.

Stimulus lights

percept

(b)

(a)

Fig.4.11: The sequence of still frames in (a) shown at the appropriate intervals, results in
the percept shown in (b). The illusion of continuous motion resulting from
successively viewed still pictures is the basis of motion in movies, video, and
television.
Source: Atkinson and Hilgard (2009), pp. 163

4.4 SIZE PERCEPTION

In this section, we will discuss those mechanisms that are involved in judging
the size of the stimuli. Our ability to judge the size of the stimuli correctly even
with the change in the distance has been explained using three hypotheses: the
size-distance invariance hypothesis, familiar size hypothesis and the direct
56 perception hypothesis.
1) Size-distance invariance hypothesis (SDIH): The basic premise of this Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
hypothesis is that the perceived size of a stimulus is proportional to the
perceived distance (Kilpatrick and Ittelson, 1953). It further states that if
information about the distance is available then size of the stimuli is
interpreted based on retinal image. However, if the information about the
distance is not available then size of the stimuli is judged based on the
visual angle alone. The mathematical expression of this relationship is as
follows:

S‘/D‘=f(theta sign)
Where,
S‘=perceived size
D‘=perceived distance
Theta= visual angle
Here, before proceeding further, it is important to explain the term “visual angle”
first. It is the angle made by our eyes after looking at the object.

2) Familiar Size Theory/Cue: This cue is used to judge not only size but also
the distance and depth of the stimuli. We know the visual angle for a stimulus
decreases with the decrease in the distance. Our brain uses this information
(visual angle) along with our previous information of the size of the targeted
stimulus and determines its actual size, distance and depth. Thus, according
to this theory familiar size influences our size perception, which in turn
influences our distance perception (Ittelson, 1960). However, later two
psychologists (Gogel & Da Silva, 1987) proposed that the theory of familiar
size is valid in all conditions. When the condition of viewing is improvised
then we use egocentric reference distance to determine the size of the familiar
object.

3) Theory of Direct Perception: Gibson in 1979 proposed the theory of direct

perception. His ideas regarding size perception were summarised by Epstein
(1982) as: “(i) there is no perceptual representation of size correlated with
the retinal size of the object, (ii) perceived size and perceived distance are
independent functions of information in stimulation, and (iii) perceived
size and perceived distance are not causally linked, nor is the perception of
size mediated by operations combining information about retinal size and
perceived distance. The correlation between perceived size and perceived
distance is attributed to the correlation between the specific variables of
stimulation which governs these precepts in the particular situations” (p.78).

4.5 ERRORS IN PERCEPTION

As discussed in previous unit, perception is the process of analysing and
understanding a stimulus as it is. But it may not be always possible to perceive
the stimuli as they are. Knowingly or unknowingly, we mistake the stimulus and
perceive it wrongly.
It may be due to defect in our sense organs or defective functioning of the brain.
Many times the prejudices in the individual, time of perception, unfavourable
background, lack of clarity of stimulus, confusion, conflict in mind and such
other factors are responsible for errors in perception. There are two kinds of
errors: 57
Perception a) Illusion
Illusion is a false perception. Here, an individual perceives a stimulus
incorrectly. For example, in the dark, a rope is mistaken as a snake or vice
versa. The voice of an unknown person is mistaken as a friend’s voice. A
person standing at a distance who is not known may be perceived as a known
person.
Most of our illusions are visual and auditory. But illusions pertaining to
other senses are also possible.
b) Hallucination
Sometimes we come across instances where the individual perceives some
stimulus, even when it is not present. This phenomenon is known as
hallucination. The person may see an object, person, etc. or s/he may listen
to some voice though there are no objects and sounds in reality.
Hallucinations pertain to all the sensations that appear to people, but visual
and auditory hallucinations are more common. Usually individuals with
unsound mind, emotionally disturbed, alcoholics and those who are in
confused states may experience hallucinations. However, among abnormal
and intoxicated people, hallucinations are very common.
In addition to these errors, abnormalities in our sense perceptions may also
occur and known as anaesthesia (no sensation), hyperesthesia (excessive
sensitivity) and paraesthesia (distorted or wrongly localised sensation). In
these cases the tactile (skin) sensation is wrongly perceived.

4.6 TYPES OF ILLUSION

Is perception reality? Not always. The process of perception is not always
foolproof. Knowingly or unknowingly, we tend to make mistakes and misperceive
stimuli. When we ‘misinterpret’ the sensory information then it is known as an
illusion. It has also been defined as “a discrepancy between one’s awareness and
some stimulus” (Reynolds, 2008). Some typical examples of illusions include
perceiving tree branches as ghosts or perceive rope as a snake at night. In this
section, we will talk about some common forms of illusion.
Types of illusion:

4.6.1 Muller-lyre Illusion

Which of the following lines appear longest?

Line A Line B

Fig. 4.12: Muller-lyre illusion

58 Source: https://isle.hanover.edu
If your answer is line A, then you are wrong. And if your answer is line B, then Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
again you have given an incorrect answer, because both lines are of equal length.
The illusion you have just seen is a geometrical-optical illusion known as Muller-
Lyer illusion. In this illusion, two straight lines of the same length appeared to be
of different length. Lines with inward pointing arrow seem shorter than the
outward-pointing line.

4.6.2 Ponzo Illusion

It is also an optical illusion, in which two converging straight lines distort our
perception of the size of two identical lines drawn across it. The upper yellow
line appears to be longer than the lower yellow line, when in fact both are of the
same length. The incorrect judgment of the size of yellow lines happens because
we use liner perspective cue to judge its size.

Fig. 4.13: The ponzo illusion

Source: http://www.illusionsindex.org

4.6.3 Ebbinghaus Illusion

It is an optical illusion of relative size perception. Discovered by Hermann
Ebbinghaus but popularised by Edward B. Titchener, this illusion is also known
as Titchener circles. Now, answer this. Which of the following orange circle is
smaller?

Flower B

Flower A
Fig. 4.14: The Ebbinghaus illusion
Source: http://www.illusionsindex.org

59
Perception Irrespective of your answer, both orange circles are of the same size. This is
known as Ebbignhaus illusion. The perception of the size of orange circle depends
on the relative sizes of grey circles.
4.6.4 The Ames Room Illusion
Named after its creator, American ophthalmologist Adelbert Ames, Jr., this optical
illusion leads to the distortion of perception of relative size. To an observer, a
person standing in one corner of the room is perceived as significantly larger
than the person standing in another corner.

Fig. 4.15: The Ames room illusion

Source: http://conwaypsychology.webs.com

4.6.5 The Moon Illusion

Have you ever noticed that the size of the moon when it is coming over the
horizon? If yes, then you must have noticed that it looks bigger on the horizon
than when it comes overhead. However, in reality, there are no differences in the
size of the moon. Our perception of the moon having different sizes at horizon
and zenith is known as moon illusion. This illusion occurs because of our
perception of the sky as a flattened dome and thus forcing our brain to reduce the
size of the moon at zenith.

Fig. 4.16: The moon illusion

Source: http://www.skyandtelescope.com
60
 Perception: Types and
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II) Errors of Perception
State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) The process of perception is always foolproof. .........................
2) Some typical examples of illusions include perceiving tree branches as
ghosts or perceive rope as a snake at night ..................... .
3) Gibson in 1979 proposed the theory of Familiar Size.............
4) Sometimes we come across instances where the individual perceives some
stimulus, even when it is not present. .......................
5) When an object moves its image on retina also moves. ...................

4.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, the types of perception were introduced to you. Specifically, the
factors responsible for depth, distance, movement, and size perception were
discussed. Lastly, the different types of errors involved in the process of perception
were also discussed. To explain these errors in more detail, the various forms of
illusions such as Muller-lyre illusion, Ponzo illusion, Ebbinghaus illusion, Ames
room illusion, and moon illusion were discussed accordingly.

4.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Differentiate between monocular and binocular cues of perception.
2) Explain the factors responsible for movement perception.
3) Explain the size-distance invariance hypothesis, familiar size hypothesis
and the direct perception hypothesis with reference to the process of size
perception.
4) Is perception always correct? Support your view with some appropriate
examples of illusions.
5) Differentiate between illusion and hallucination.

4.9 GLOSSARY
Perception : It is a process of selecting, organising and
interpreting the sensory information.
Monocular Cues : Perceptual cues obtained from one eye only.
Binocular Cues : Perceptual cues obtained from both eyes.
Illusion : It is a process of perceptual distortion, leading to
misinterpretation of the stimulus.
Relative Size : This cue gives us information about the distance
of an object based on its relative size with a similar
object. The basic premise is that if two objects are
of the approximately similar size, then the object
which is perceived as larger is closer.
Linear Perspective : This cue is based on the convergence of straight
lines at a point on the horizon. This cue suggests 61
Perception that closure the lines are; the greater will be the
distance.
Convergence angle : Our eyes make an angle while focusing on an
object, known as convergence angle. Convergence
angle for distant and near-by objects are different.
Movement perception : It is our ability to judge the direction and speed of
a moving object.
Stroboscopic motion : In this phenomenon, when stationary stimuli are
or phenomenon presented in succession, it is perceived in a motion.
This phenomenon is used to explain the movement
perception in videos.

4.10 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS (SAQ)
SAQ-I
1) differs slightly
2) binocular cues
3) a distance
4) visual
5) rough or distinct; less distinct or smooth

SAQ-II
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True
5) True

4.11 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Sanford, R. N. (1936). The effects of abstinence from food upon imaginal
processes: a preliminary experiment. The Journal of Psychology, 2(1), 129-136.
Atkinson, R. L., Atkinson, R. C., Smith, E. E., Bem, D. J., & Nolen Hoeksema,
S. (2009). Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology. Fort Wirth. Texas: Harcourt
Brace College Publishers.
Changizi, M.A. & Hall, W. G. (2001). Thirst modulates a perception. Perception,
30(12), 1489-1497.
Mishra, G. & Baron, R. A. (2006). Psychology : Indian Subcontinent (5th Edition).
New Delhi, Pearson Publication
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (2004). Introduction to
Psychology. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

62
Moore, B.C.J. (2003).  An introduction to the psychology of hearing.  Academic Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
Press.
Gibson, J.J. (1979). The theory of information pickup and its consequences. In The
ecological approach to visual perception (pp. 238-263). Boston, MA:
Houghton Miflin Co.
Strawson, P. F. (1979). Perception and its objects. In Perception and Identity.
Palgrave, London.
Mather, G. (2006). Psychology of Motion Perception.
Rookes, P., & Willson, J. (2005). Perception: Theory, Development and
Organisation. Routledge.
Fish, W. (2010). Philosophy of Perception: A Contemporary Introduction.
Routledge.
Smith, A. D. (2004).  The Problem of Perception. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
private Limited, New Delhi.
Reynolds, R. I. (1988). A psychological definition of illusion. Philosophical
Psychology, 1(2), 217-223.
Foster, J. (2000). The Nature of Perception. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to
Mind and Behaviour (11th edition). Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn and
Bacon.
References for Images
A one-eyed minion. Retrieved May 5, 2018, from https://wallpaperscraft.ru/
download/minon_kostyum_ten_103711/1280x1024
Hot air balloons flying in the air. Retrieved May 5, 2018, from http://
www.freestockphotos.biz/stockphoto/5579
Flower meadows. Retrieved May 5, 2018, from https://commons. wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Flowers_meadows.jpg
Near Salt Lake City by Albert Bierstadt. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from https://
psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/art/aerial.html
An example of monocular cue-linear perspective. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from
http://acddpsych.blogspot.in/2014/11/monocular-cues.html
An example of monocular cue-occlusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from https://
in.pinterest.com/pin/93731235972658147/
A two-eyed minion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://amostpeculiarmademoi
selle.blogspot.in/2013/12/a-minion-for-little-b.html
Formation of different retinal image by left and right eyes. Retrieved May 6,
2018, from http://artnet.nmu.edu/foundations/doku.php?id=retinal_ disparity
Two convergence angles formed by our eyes. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from https:/
/psychlopedia.wikispaces.com/binocular+convergence
63
Perception Moon behind clouds. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://courses. washington.edu/
psy333/lecture_pdfs/Week8_Day1.pdf

Muller-lyre illusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from https://isle.hanover.edu/

Ch07DepthSize/Ch07MuellerLyer.html

The ponzo illusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://www.illusionsindex. org/

i/ponzo-illusion
The Ebbinghaus illusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://
www.illusionsindex.org/ir/ebbinghaus-illusion
The Ames room illusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://conwaypsy
chology.webs.com/apps/photos/photo?photoid=65795121
The moon illusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://www.skyandtele
scope.com/observing/moon-illusion-confusion11252015/

64