Ece 342: Transmission Lines: Course Outline

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ECE 342: TRANSMISSION LINES
Course Outline
Lumped circuit elements, Behavior of transmission lines at higher frequencies, TL equations, Sinusoidal
excitations of TLs, Incident and reflected waves, reflection coefficient.
Characteristic impedance, terminated TLs, Impedance transformation, quarter and half wavelength
lines, lossy lines.
The smith chart, derivation of the smith chart, typical smith chart computations, correction for
transmission loss.
Impedance matching, reactive matching networks, series and shunt matching, broadband matching
networks, the short transformer, the stub tuner, double stub tuner, quarter wavelength transformer,
Butterworth Tx, Tschebycheff Txs
Types of TLs, balanced and unbalanced lines.
References:
1. Microwave Engineering, David M. Pozar

2. Field and wave electromagnetics, David K. Cheng
3. Internet sources
4. Any book on microwaves, electromagnetics etc.
INTRODUCTION
A TL consists of two or more parallel conductors used to transmit electric energy and signals from one
point to another. These are used
(i) To transfer energy from one point to another

(ii) As circuit elements such as inductors and capacitors
(iii) As impedance matching devices
(iv) As stubs
(v) As measuring devices
(vi) In connection of a TV to an antenna eg coaxial cable
(vii) As microstrips used in PCBs to connect electronic elements like ICs
(viii) In computer networks eg twisted pair or coaxial cable
(ix) In telephony
(x) In power transmission
Types of TLs
ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

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The most common types of transmission lines include:
(a) Coaxial lines

Consists of an inner conductor and a coaxial outer conducting sheath separated by a dielectric
medium. These offer the advantage of minimizing the radiation losses.
Coaxial line
(b) Two wire parallel lines

Consists of a pair of parallel conducting wires separated by a uniform distance between them.
(c) Parallel plate/ planar lines/ strip lines

Consists of two parallel conducting plates separated by a dielectric slab of uniform thickness. At
microwave frequencies, they can be fabricated on a dielectric substrate using a printed circuit
board (PCB) and are reffered to as strip lines or planar lines.
(d) Microstrips
Used in PCBs where metallic strips connecting elements are deposited on a dielectric substrate
(e) Twisted pair lines

Consists of two insulated wires twiated together to form a flexible line.

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(f) Shielded pair lines

Consists of two parallel lines contained within a braided copper tubing that acts as an electric
shield.
Transmission lines have two ends that usually connects the load to the source. The source end is
also reffered to as the input end, generator end, transmitter end or sending end, while the load end
is sometimes called the output, receiving end or sink.
TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY
Difference between circuit theory and TL theory is the electrical size of the circuit.
Circuit theory and analysis assumes that the physical dimensions of the network are much smaller than
the electrical wavelength while in TLs, it may be a considerable fraction of the wavelength or many
wavelengths.
When the connecting wires are much shorter than the quarter wavelength, the time lag of the signal
between the SE and the RE is only a small part of the cycle and the system can be analysed using the
circuit theory.
However, TLs are used to transmit power between points which are separated by distances that are not
small compared with a quarter wavelength.
Lumped and Distributed model of a TL
In a two wire TL, the parallel wires acts like a long capacitor, C. The current carrying wires also have a
magnetic field around them, thus they exhibit some properties of inductance, L.
Since any dielectric is not a perfect insulator, a small leakage current flows between the two
conductors. In effect the dielectric acts as a resistor permitting current to pass between the two
conducting wires. This property is called conductance, G.

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Therefore, a TL has the properties of inductance, capacitance, resistance and conductance, just like in
the case of conventional circuits. In conventional circuits, these are lumped into single component or
device.
However, a TL is a distributed parameter network, where voltages and currents vary in magnitude and
phase over the length of the line. These parameters are not lumped, but are distributed along the entire
length of the TL.
L L L L L
R R R R R
SE G C G C G C G C G C RE
Distance, z
Figure: Distributed parameter model of a TL.
Where:
R = series resistance per unit length Ω/m
L = series inductance per unit length H/m
G = Shunt conductance per unit length S/m
C = shut capacitance per unit length F/m
The line is regarded as uniform, and therefore, R, L, G and C are constant throughout the entire length of
the line.
General TL equation.
These are equations that govern a general two conductor uniform TL.
A short piece of the line of length z can be modeled as a lumped element circuit as shown in the
figure.

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Applying KVL
i( z, t )
v( z, t )  Rz i ( z, t )  Lz  v( z  z, t )  0 [1]
t
v( z  z, t )  v( z, t ) i( z, t )
  R i( z, t )  L [2]
z t
V  z  for RL  R0
I z  for RL  R0
As the limit z
 3 4  2  4 0
I z  for RL  R0
V  z  for RL  R0
Fig. 3.1 Voltage and current standing waves on resistance-terminated lossless lines
, eqn. [2] becomes
v( z, t ) i( z, t )
  R i( z, t )  L [3]
z t
Applying KCL at node N,
v( z  z, t )
i ( z, t )  Gz v( z  z, t )  Cz  i ( z  z, t )  0 [4]
t
i( z  z, t )  i( z, t ) v( z  z, t )

  G v( z  z, t )  C [5]
z t
As the limit z  0 , eqn. [5] becomes
i( z, t ) v( z, t )
  G i( z, t )  C [6]
z t
Equations [3] and [6] are known as the general TL equations, or the telegraphers equations.
When v( z, t ) and i( z, t ) varies sinusoidally with time, such that they can be written as:

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v( z, t )  Re[V( z)e jt ] [7]
i( z, t )  Re[I( z)e jt ] [8]
Where:
V (z ) and I (z ) are complex amplitudes of the voltage and current along the line respectively.
Substituting eqn. [7] and 8] in eqn.[3] and [6]

 

z
 
V(z)e jt  R I(z)e jt  L
t
I(z)e jt  

 e jt V(z)   R I(z)e jt  jLI(z)e jt or
z
 R  jL I(z)
dV(z)
 [9]
dz
 

z
 
I(z)e jt  G V(z)e jt  C
t
V(z)e jt  

 e jt V(z)   R I(z)e jt  jLI(z)e jt
z
 G  jC V(z)
dI(z)
 [10]
dz
dI ( z )
Differentiating eqn. [9] wrt and substituting for in [10]
V z for open - circuited line
I z for short - circuited line
I z for open - circuited line
V z for short - circuited line

z
 3 4  2 4 0
Fig. 3.2 Voltage and current standing waves

on open- and short-circuited lossless lines
dz
d 2V ( z ) dI ( z )
 2
 ( R  jL)
dz d ( z)
d 2V ( z )
 ( R  jL)(G  jC )V ( z ) [11]
dz 2
dV ( z )
Differentiating eqn. [10] wrt z and substituting for in [9]
dz
d 2 I ( z) dV ( z )
 2
 (G  jC )
dz d ( z)
d 2 I ( z)
 ( R  jL)(G  jC ) I ( z ) [12]
dz 2

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Eqn. [11] and [12] can be written as
d 2V ( z )
  2V ( z )  0 [13]
dz 2
d 2 I ( z)
2
  2 I ( z)  0 [14]
dz
Where   ( R  jL)(G  jC ) =   j
 = called the propagation constant
 = called the attenuation constant (Neper/m)

 = called the phase constant (rad/m)
Eqn [13] and [14] have a general solution given by:
 z 
V ( z )  Vo e   Vo e  z [15]
 z 
I ( z )  I o e   I o e z [16]
Hint: Assume a solution of the form V ( z)  Ae mz
These represent the forward (incident) and reverse (reflected) travelling waves.
Substituting eqn [15] and [16] into eqn [9]
 R  jL I(z)
dV(z)

dz
 z 
d (Vo e   Vo e z )  z 
  ( R  jL) I o e   I o e z
dz
  z   z 
(Vo e   Vo e z )  I o e   I o e z [17]
R  jL
 ( R  jL)(G  jC )

R  jL R  jL
G  jC
= [18]
R  jL

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Therefore the current can be written as
 z 
V e V e z
I ( z)  o  o [19]
Zo Zo
Where
R  jL
Zo  [20]
G  jC
Called the characteristic impedance of the line. This relates the voltage and currents on the line as:
 
Vo Vo
Zo  
 
[21]
Io Io
For an infinitely long line
Zo To infinity
The exponent term corresponding to a reverse travelling wave given by e z must varnish and
 z
V e V ( z)
I ( z)  o . Anywhere along the line,  Z o remains constant. This is known as the
Zo I ( z)
characteristic impedance of the line and can also be defined as the input impedance of an infinitely long
line.
Letting     j the voltage along the line can be expressed as:
 z 
V ( z )  Vo e  e  jz  Vo e z e  jz [22]
The first term of eqn [22] represents a forward travelling wave with decreasing amplitude, while the
second term is a reverse travelling.

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Examples.
1. A transmission line has the following parameters. R=2Ω/m, L=8nH/m, G=0.5mS/m and
C=0.23pF/m at a frequency of 1 GHz. Calculate its characteristic impedance and propagation
constant. ( Z o  181.398.4 o  179.44  j 26.5;   0.051  j 0.273)
2. Calculate the attenuation constant, phase constant, characteristic impedance, velocity of
propagation and wavelength of a line having the following distributed parameters, R=10.4Ω/km,
C=0.00835µF/km, L=3.67mH/km and G=0.8µS/km at a frequency of 796Hz.
(  0.00785,   0.00287, Zo  711  14.14o ,   219.7km,  174874km / s)
SOLUTIONS FOR AN INFINITELY LONG LINE.
Consider an infinitely long line of characteristic impedance Z o
V  Vs
z
Zo
At the sending end, V  Vs
The voltage along the line is given by
 
V ( z )  Vo e z  Vo e z and at z  0 , it reduces to
 
V (0)  Vs  Vo  Vo

At the far end with z   , we expect no voltage, hence V ()  Vo e  0
 
The coefficients Vo  Vs and Vo  0
Therefore, V ( z )  Vs e z [23]
Vs e z
And corresponding current equation is I ( z )  [24]
Zo
For an infinitely long line, the backward (reflected) wave does not exist.
SOLUTIONS FOR AN CORRECTLY TERMINATED FINITE LINE

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V ( z)
At any point along the infinite line, Z o  and the line appears as a line of impedance
I ( z)
Z o wherever it is cut.
It follows that if a finite line of length L is terminated by an impedance equal to the characteristic
impedance of the line Z o , it behaves like an infinite line and there is no reflected wave at the end of the
line since all incident energy will be absorbed by this load impedance.
Such a line is referred to as a correctly terminated line, and the load matches the line. Eqn [23] and [24]
are applicable in the solutions of a correctly terminated finite line.
V  Vs
z
Zo
Z  Zo
V  Vs Z  Z o
Zo
Attenuation constant α
The voltage of the forward travelling wave can be expressed as

  z  j z   z
V ( z )  Vo e e Vo e (cos z  j sin  z )
=
The amplitude of the applied voltage is reduced by a finite factor of

e z
at any point z. This is known as
Nepers (Np). A current or voltage is said to have experienced an
attenuation and is measured in
attenuation of N Nepers when its magnitude changes by a factor e  N
As an example, if a voltage undergoes an attenuation of 1Np, then its magnitude is reduced by e 1 =

0.368.

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In decibels, 1Np=8.686dB
Example:
1. A current wave suffers a reduction in magnitude by a factor of 10when travelling over a particular
TL. What is the attenuation of the line in Nepers? (ans = 2.303)
2. Electric power at a certain frequency is transmitted from the source to the load by a 500m length
of a uniform TL, with no reflections at the load. The input voltage is 250V rms and the voltage at
the load is 220V rms. Calculate the attenuation of the line per unit length. (ans = 0.000256 Np/m)
Phase factor β, wavelength λ and phase velocity  p
 z  j z   x
The voltage along the line V ( z )  Vo e e consists of a voltage Vo e cos  z in phase with the

 x
input voltage and Vo e sin  z lagging behind by 90o. Therefore the voltage along the line lags the
2
applied voltage by an angle  z .  is referred to as the phase constant and is given by   .

At some distance  along the line (called the wavelength), given by   2 , these voltages are in
2
phase again. The wavelength of the line is given by   .


The phase velocity is given by  p 

SOLUTIONS FOR A SHORT CIRCUITED LINE.
Consider a TL of length L , and impedance Z o with the receiving end short circuited.
V  Vs Zo
z0 zL
Z in  ?
We desire to find the voltage, the current and the impedance along the line.
 

 z 
 z Vo e z Vo e z
Remember V ( z )  Vo e  Vo e and I ( z )  
Zo Zo

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 
At z  0,V (0)  Vs Therefore Vo  Vo  V s (i)

 L  L 
At z  L,V ( L)  0 Therefore Vo e  Vo e 0 (ii)
Exercise 1:
Solve the set of simultaneous eqn. (i) and (ii) and confirm the following
 Vs e L
Vo  L
e  e L
 Vs e L
Vo  
e L  e L

 z  z  sinh  ( L  z )
Substituting into V ( z )  Vo e  Vo e yields V ( z )  Vs [25]
sinh L
 
Vo e z Vo e z V cosh  ( L  z )
And into I ( z )   yields I ( z )  s [26]
Zo Zo Zo cosh L
V ( z)
And Z in ( z )   Z in ( z )  Z o tanh  ( L  z ) [27]
I ( z)
Eqns. [25], [26] and [27] gives the value of voltage, current and the impedance seen into the line, at any
point on the line.
The input impedance seen at the input terminals of the line is obtained by setting z  0 in eqn. [27] to
yield
Z in  Z o tanh L [28]
SOLUTIONS FOR AN OPEN CIRCUITED LINE.
Consider a TL of length L , and impedance Z o with the receiving end open circuited.
V  Vs
Zo
zL
Z in  ? z0

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 
  z   z V e z Vo e z
V ( z )  Vo e  Vo e and I ( z )  o 
Zo Zo
 
At z  0,V (0)  Vs Therefore Vo  Vo  V s (iii)
 
Vo e L Vo e L
At z  L, I ( L)  0 Therefore  0 (iv)
Zo Zo
Exercise 2:
Solve the set of simultaneous eqn. (iii) and (iv) and confirm the following
 Vs e L
Vo 
e L  e L
 Vs e L
Vo 
e L  e L
 z 
 z  cosh  ( L  z )
Substituting into V ( z )  Vo e  Vo e yields V ( z )  Vs [29]
cosh L
 
Vo e z Vo e z V sinh  ( L  z )
And into I ( z )   yields I ( z )  s [30]
Zo Zo Z o coshL
V ( z)
And Z in ( z )   Z in ( z )  Z o coth  ( L  z ) [31]
I ( z)
Eqns. [29], [30] and [31] gives the value of voltage, current and the impedance seen into the line, at any
point on the opened line.
The input impedance seen at the input terminals of the line is obtained by setting z  0 in eqn. [31] to
yield
Z in  Z o cothL [32]

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RECEIVING END TERMINATED WITH A LOAD IMPEDANCE Z L
Vs Zo ZL
z0
zL
 
  Vo e z Vo e z
V ( z )  Vo e z  Vo e z and I ( z )  
Zo Zo
 
At z  0,V (0)  Vs Therefore Vo  Vo  V s (v)
At z  L, The current and voltage obeys ohms law and
 
V ( L)  Vo e L  Vo e  L
(vi)
 
Vo e L Vo e L
I ( L)   (vii)
Zo Zo
 
V ( L) Zo (Vo e L  Vo e L )
ZL    
(viii)
I ( L) Vo e L  Vo e L
Grouping like terms
 
Z L Vo e L  Vo e L

Z o Vo  e L  Vo  e L
ZL    
(Vo e L  Vo e L )  Vo e L  Vo e L
Zo
Z L  L Z L  L  
Vo e  Vo e  Vo e L  Vo e L
Zo Zo
 Z L L  Z
Vo ( e  e L )  Vo ( L e L  e L )  0 (ix)
Zo Zo

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Solving the simultaneous equations (v) and (ix)
 
Vo  Vo  V s
 ZL  Z
Vo (  1)e L  Vo ( L  1)e L  0
Zo Zo
ZL  Z  Z Z
Multiplying (v) by (  1)e L yields Vo ( L  1)e L  Vo ( L  1)e L  Vs ( L  1)e L (x)
Zo Zo Zo Zo
 ZL Z Z
Subtracting (ix) from (x) leads to
Vo (  1)e L  ( L  1)e L  Vs ( L  1)e L and
Zo Zo Zo
ZL
Vs ( 1)e L
 Zo
Vo  (xi)
Z Z
( L  1)e L  ( L  1)e L
Zo Zo
In a similar manner
ZL
Vs ( 1)e L
 Zo
Vo 
Z Z (xii)
( L  1)e L  ( L  1)e L
Zo Zo
Replacing (xi) and (xii) into the voltage equation
ZL Z
Vs (  1)e L e z  Vs ( L  1)e L e z
  Zo Zo
V ( z )  Vo e z  Vo e z V ( z) 
yields Z Z
( L  1)e L  ( L  1)e L
Zo Zo
Multiply through by
Z o and group the like terms.
Z L e   ( L  z )  Z o e   ( L  z ) )  Z L e  ( L  z )  Z o e  ( L  z )
V ( z )  Vs
Z L e L  Z o e L  Z L e L  Z o e L
Z L (e   ( L  z )  e   ( L  z ) )  Z o (e   ( L  z )  e   ( L  z ) )
V ( z )  Vs
Z L (e L  e L )  Z o (e L  e L )

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Z L cosh ( L  z )  Z o sinh  ( L  z )
V ( z )  Vs
Z L coshL  Z o sinh L [33]
Task 3
Substitute to the current equation and confirm that
Vs Z L sinh  ( L  z )  Z o cosh ( L  z )
I ( z) 
Zo Z L cosh L  Z o sinh L [34]
Z L cosh  ( L  z )  Z o sinh  ( L  z )
V ( z) Z L cosh L  Z o sinh L
Z ( z )   Z
The input impedance in
I ( z)
o
Z L sinh  ( L  z )  Z o cosh  ( L  z )
Z L cosh L  Z o sinh L
Z L cosh  ( L  z )  Z o sinh  ( L  z )
Z in ( z )  Z o
Z L sinh  ( L  z )  Z o cosh  ( L  z ) [35]
Z L cosh L  Z o sinh L)

z  0, Z in  Z o
Setting Z L sinh L  Z o cosh L) [36]; which gives the input impedance. Equation
[36] is a general case, since replacing the load impedance with

,0, Z
o gives rise to the previous
solutions for open cct, short cct and correctly terminated lines, respectively.
SOLUTIONS FOR HIGH FREQUENCIES
When the frequency of the input signal Vs is high such that ωL>>R, and ωC>>G, the line parameters can
be approximated as
    j  j LC with   0; and   LC
L
Zo 
C
These approximations can be used to explain satisfactorily many of the uses of TL, but for some
applications, a better approximation of α is necessary. This is approximated as
  ( R  jL)(G  jC )
R G
 jLjC (1  )(1  )
jL jC

17
R G
  j LC (1  )(1  )
jL jC
R G
The terms (1  ) and (1  ) can be approximated using the binomial expansion
jL jC
n(n  1) 2
(1  x) n  1  nx  x  ...
2!
1 1
R 2 R 1 1 1 R 2 R
(1  )  1  ( )( )( )( )  ...  1  and
jL 2 jL 2 2 2 jL 2 jL
1 1
G 2 G 1 1 1 G 2 G
(1  )  1  ( )( )( )( )  ...  1 
jC 2 jC 2 2 2 jC 2 jC
R G R G RG
Therefore (1  )(1  )  1  
2 jL 2 jC 2 jL 2 jC 4 2 LC
R G
Thus   j LC (1   )
2 jL 2 jC
And because G is small compared to R, this can be approximated as
R R C R
  j LC (1  );    and    LC
2 jL 2 L 2Z o
DISTORTIONLESS LINES
If the primary line constants are such that LG=RC
R G
 jL(1  ) jC (1  )
jL jC
R G
  j LC (1  )(1  )
jL jC
R G R
Since  , then   j LC (1  )
L C jL
R
  j LC  LC
L

18
We note that the attenuation constant α, is not a function of frequency ω. Therefore, all frequencies are
attenuated by the same amount. The line does not suffer any attenuation distortion. Furthermore, there
  1
is no phase distortion as the velocity  p  phase velocity  p   = constant for all
  LC
frequencies.
This relationship LG=RC is known as distortionless condition and is difficult to achieve in a practical line
owing to the small value of G. However, loading coils have been used in some cases to try achieving this
condition
LOSSLESS LINE
If in a line is such that R=G=0, then   0  j LC . The attenuation α=0 and β=  LC
while Zo  L . The general solutions for the voltage and current reduce to
C
  1  
V ( z )  Vo e  jz  Vo e  jz and I ( z )  (Vo e  jz  Vo e  jz ) . This condition is referred to as
Zo
Lossless condition, since there is no attenuation on the input signal.
REFLECTION COEFFICIENT AND THE VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO
Consider a transmission line with the load impedance Z=Z L
Vs Zo ZL
z0
zL
The voltage and the current along the line is given by
 
  Vo e z Vo e z
V ( z )  Vo e z  Vo e z and I ( z )  
Zo Zo
 
  L   L Vo e L Vo e L
At z  L, V ( L)  Vo e  Vo e I ( L )   ) and the ratio of the voltage and
, Zo Zo
 
V ( L) Zo (Vo e L  Vo e L )
current equals the load impedance Z L    
. Expanding this equation and
I ( L) Vo e L  Vo e L
grouping the like terms

19
   
Z LVo e L  Z LVo e L  Z oVo e L  Z oVo e  L
 
Vo e L ( Z L  Z o )  Vo e L ( Z L  Z o )

Vo e L Z L  Zo

 . This gives the ratio of the reflected wave, to that of the incident(forward) wave at
Vo e L
Z L  Zo
the end of the line.This is known as the voltage reflection coefficient, usually denoted by ρ, or  .
Z L  Zo
   e j
Z L  Zo
1 
For a lossless line, the quantity is referred to as the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). This
1 
term arises because there are fixed points on the line where the voltages of the forward and backward
travelling waves add instantaneously, and where they subtract, forming maximas (nodes) and minimas
(anti nodes). A composite wave, called the standing wave will therefore exist.
V max
VSWR  , the ratio of the maximum voltage amplitude to the minimum voltage amplitude.
V min
Quarter and Half wavelength lines
Using the approximations for low loss lines, where   j , since α=0;
 2 
For quarter wavelength lines, L    
4 4 2
Z L cosh L  Z o sinh L
Replacing in Replacing in Z in ( z )  Z o
Z L sinh L  Z o cosh L
 
 Z o sinh j )
Z L cosh j 2
2 2 Zo
Z in  Z o ; Zin 
  ZL
Z L sinh j  Z o cosh j )
2 2
When the line is open circuited, the input impedance as seen at the terminals is like an open circuit and
vice versa when it is short circuited. The quarter wavelength line transforms the load impedance to
2
Z
Zin  o
ZL
That is, its inverse multiplied by the square of the square of its characteristic impedance. It is reffered to
as a quarter wave transformer.

20
Thus a short circuited λ/4 line behaves like an open circuit while an open circuited λ/4 line behaves like
short circuit. This is true when the length of the line is an odd multiple of λ/4.
In a similar manner, the input impedance of a half wavelength line is given by Zin  Z L . A λ/2 transfers
the load impedance to the input terminals without change, and this is true for all multiples of λ/2 lines.
This further shows that a transmission line can be extended or reduced by a length equal to half its
wavelength (or its multiples) without altering the input impedance of the line.
Use of Transmission lines as circuit elements.
At ultrahigh frequencies (frequencies from 300 MHz to 3 GHz), transmission lines can be used as circuit
elements. At these frequencies, ordinary lumped circuit elements are difficult to make.
Open and short circuited lines
Assuming a lossless line, with   j , and Z o  Ro , the input impedance of an open circuited line is
given as Zin=ZocothγL. This reduces to Zin=-jZocotβL and is also purely reactive. It can either be capacitive
or inductive depending on the value of  2   . Similarly, the input impedance of a short circuited
line is Zin=jZotanβL.
Quarter and half wavelength lines.
Quarter and half wavelengths lines can be used as tuned (resonant) in place of LC circuits. The input
impedance of an open circuited quarter wavelength line is zero. If the input signal frequency is slightly
reduced, the electrical length decreases and the input impedance of the line becomes capacitive. If
increased, it becomes inductive. It therefore acts like a series resonant circuit. A short circuit quarter
wavelength line acts like a parallel tuned circuit.
λ/4 line f  fo f  fo f  fo Type of LC circuit

Open circuit Zin=capacitive Zin=0 Zin=inductive Series LC
Short circuit Zin=inductive Zin=  Zin=capacitive Parallel LC
In half wavelength lines, if the signal of slightly lower frequency is used in an open circuited line, the
electrical length of the line decreases below the half wavelength and the input impedance is inductive. If
the frequency is increased, it becomes capacitive. Therefore, it acts like a parallel tuned circuit. Similarly,
a shorted half wavelength line behaves like a series tuned circuit.
λ/2 line f  fo f  fo f  fo Type of LC circuit

Open circuit Zin=inductive Zin=  Zin=capacitive Parallel LC
Short circuit Zin=capacitive Zin=0 Zin=inductive Series LC

21
Tutorial
1. A cable of length 20km has the following distributed parameters per loop per kilometre at a
frequency of 1kHz. R=90Ω, L=0.01H, C=0.062μF and G=1.5S. The cable is terminated with its
characteristic impedance and is supplied at the input with a power of 6mW. Calculate its
characteristic impedance, propagation constant, magnitude of the current at the receiving end, the
power received, wavelength and the velocity of propagation.
( Z o  536  43o ,   0.128  j 0.137, I  0.31mA, P  0.037mW ,   4.6km, v  46000km / s)
2. A long transmission line has a characteristic impedance Zo and is terminated with an impedance
ZL. Derive an expression for the input impedance in terms of Z L, ZO and ZOC, where ZOC is the
input impedance when ZL is removed. At a certain frequency, Zo= 750 o  , ZL= 10045o 
and ZOC= 100  45o  . If the rms voltage applied to the line is 100V, calculate the power input
Z L Z OC  Z O
2
to the line ( Zin  )
Z OC  Z L
3. A coaxial cable has the following distributed parameters per loop per kilometre at a frequency of
4MHz. R=110Ω, L=0.255mH, C=0.07μF and G=0.003S. Find the characteristic impedance and
the attenuation constant.
The cable is to be used with intermediate repeaters in a telephone system. If the attenuation at
4MHz is not to exceed 50dB, calculate the maximum repeater spacing.
( Z o  536  43o ,   0.803Np, D  7km
4. A 20km length of telephone line with primary constants R=32.6Ω, L=2.64mH, C=4.9nF and G=0
per loop per kilometre at a frequency of 1592Hz is connected to another telephone line of
characteristic impedance 600  30o  . If the second line is matched at its far end and the first
line has an input of 3V rms at the same frequency, calculate the power entering the matched line
(1.42mW)
5. The constants of a transmission line per loop per km are R=10Ω, L=0.005H, C=0.2μF and G=0.
Determine the characteristic impedance, attenuation constant and the phase constant if the
frequency is 800MHz
6. A transmission line of length 5m is tested at a frequency of 20MHz. When the far end of the line
is short circuited, the impedance measured at the SE is 4.61Ω. When the RE os open circuited,
the line impedance is 1390Ω. Calculate the characteristic impedance, attenuation constant,
velocity of propagation and the relative permittivity of the dielectric. (Z o  80,   0.01532)
7. A TL is 15m long and is terminated with a characteristic impedance of 6000 o  . The SE
4
voltage is 5V at an angular frequency of 10 rads/s. The resulting voltage at the RE is
0.77  80o V . Calculate the primary line constants R, L, G and C per kilometre
R  75, L  5.58mH , G  208.3S , C  13.8nF )
8. A loss free line of length l l is terminated with a resistance equal to half its characteristic
impedance. Show that the magnitude of the input impedance to the line is
1/ 2
1  4 tan 2 ( l ) 
Zin= Z o  
 4  tan ( l ) 
2

22
9.
Prove that for any transmission line, the SE voltage is given by
IR
Vs  1
Z T  Z o tanh L ZT , I R
(1  tanh L)
2 2
where are terminating impedance of the line and
current at the receiving end respectively.
10. At a particular frequency, a cable has Zo=600Ω and is half wavelength long. When it is
terminated by its characteristic impedance, it has a transmission loss of 3dB. Calculate its SE
impedance when the line is short circuited (200Ω)
11. Two transmission lines of characteristic impedances Zo1 and Zo2 are joined together and a
resistance RL is placed across the junction. A wave of voltage Vi propagates towards the junction
from the Zo1 side of the resistance. Find the expression for the reflection coefficient at the
RL // Z o 2  Z o1
junction. (   )
RL // Z o 2  Z o1
12. A twin feeder TL has a characteristic impedance Zo=300+j0Ω and velocity of propagation
= 2.5 108 m / s . A 31.25m length of this line is used to connect a load of 100+j0Ω to a 1MHz
generator which has an open circuit voltage of 10V and an internal impedance of 300+j0Ω.
Attenuation on the TL can be neglected. Calculate the SE voltage and current and the power
delivered to the TL. If the load is changed to 300+j300Ω, find the power now delivered to the TL
(Vs  5.626.5o , P1  6..5mW , P2  83.3mW )
13. A load impedance of 20+j52Ω terminates a 80Ω lossless line. A second impedance of 40+j32Ω is
placed across the line at a distance of 1.592λ from the termination where λ is the wavelength. The
incident power is 100mW. Calculate the power delivered to the load(10.5mW)
14. A loss free line of length l of characteristic impedance Zo is terminated with a resistance
Z L  Z o e j . Show that the magnitude of the input impedance to the line is
1/ 2
1  sin(2l ) sin( ) 
Zin= Z o  
1  sin(2l ) sin( ) 
15. Determine the input impedance of the TL shown below. (Assume that the line is lossless)
Zo  60 Zo  70
 
3 6
16. A 300km long line has the following distributed parameters: R=10.4Ω/Km, L=3.67mH/Km,
C=8.35nF/Km and G=0.8μS/Km. Calculate the attenuation constant, phase constant,
characteristic impedance, wavelength and velocity of propagation at a frequency of 796Hz. This
line is terminated by its characteristic impedance. A 2V generator of internal impedance 600Ω is
connected to the sending end. Calculate the voltage and current at the receiving end.

23
(α=0.00785Np/km,β=0.0287rad/km,
Zo  711 14.14o , v  173300km / s,   219km,
V ( L)  0.1036  499.3o V , I ( L)  0.0001458  485o )
17. A distortionless TL with a characteristic impedance of 50Ω suffers an attenuation of 0.01dB/m.
If its capacitance per unit length is 0.1nF/m, Find the resistance, inductance and capacitance of
the line. Also determine the velocity of the wave propagation and the percentage of decrease in
the amplitude if the wave travels for 5km. (R= 57.510-3  m ,L= 2.5 107 H m ,G=
V2
2.3105 S m ,C= v  2 108 m/s  0.318%
V1
THE SMITH CHART.
Transmission line problems involve evaluation of complex exponential and hyperbolic functions, and
this is tedious, inconvenient and time consuming. Smith charts are graphical aids to solving
transmission line problems, such as the calculation of input impedances, reflection coefficient, SWR,
impedance matching networks etc.
Knowing the terminating impedance at the end of the line, it is easier to calculate the input
impedance of the line
Derivation.
Consider a TL of length L, terminated by a load impedance Z L. The sending end voltage Vs is supplied
from a generator with internal impedance, Zg.
Zg Is
Vs ZL
z d
The solutions for the uniform TL is
 
V ( z)  Vo e z  Vo e z
1  z 
I ( z)  Vo e  Vo e z .
Zo
At the receiving end, we express these quantities interms of the receiving end quantities.

24
 
V ( L)  I R Z L  Vo e L  Vo e L
1  L 
I ( L)  Vo e  Vo e L
Zo
Solving for Vo ,  Vo  interms of the receiving end quantities,
 
I R Z L  Vo e L  Vo e L (i)
 
I R Z o  Vo e L  Vo e L (ii)
 Z L  Z o L  Z  Z o L
Adding yields Vo  I R e while subtracting yields Vo  I R L e
2 2
Z L  Z o L z Z  Z o L z Z  Z o  (( L  z ) Z  Z o  ( L  z )

V ( z)  I R e e  IR L e e  IR L e  IR L e
2 2 2 2
Z L  Z o L z Z  Z o L z Z  Z o  ( L  z ) Z  Z o  ( L  z )

I ( z)  I R e e  IR L e e  IR L e  IR L e
2Z o 2Z o 2Z o 2Z o
We also observe that d  L  z and
Z o  Z L d Z  Z L d
V ( z)  I R e  IR o e
2 2
V  Z L  Z 0  2d
The voltage reflection coefficient    e
V  ZL  Zo
Z L  Z0
 is generally complex, and at the receiving end, d=0 and   . At any point along the line,
Z L  Zo
Z L  Z 0 2d Z L  Z 0 2d 2 jd
 e  e e
Z L  Zo Z L  Zo
As we move from the RE to the SE (as d decreases), this quantity shrinks by e2d because of
shrinkage in the reflected wave and an increase in the forward travelling wave. Similarly, the angle
decreases (shifts in the lagging direction) by an amount 2βd rads or 360 degrees in every half
wavelength. This is because the forward and reverse travelling waves come in phase again after this
distance

25
The impedance at any point on the line is given by the ratio of the voltage to current

Vo
  1 
V ( z) V  Vo Z Vo 
Z  Zo o 
or  
, where Vo  is the complex reflection coefficient and
I ( z) Vo  Vo Zo Vo Vo
1 
Vo
Z
is the normalized impedance.
Zo
Denoting the complex reflection coefficient by k and the normalized impedance by z ,
1 k
z and
1 k
z 1
k
z 1
The relationship between these two quantities forms the basis of the smith chart.
Let k  u  jv and z  r  j x
1  k (1  u)  jv
z  r  jx   , multiply the denominator by its conjugate
1  k (1  u)  jv
{(1  u )  jv}{(1  u )  jv} 1  u 2  v 2  2 jv

z  r  jx  
{(1  u )  jv}{(1  u )  jv} (1  u ) 2  v 2
1 u2  v2 2v
r ; x
(1  u )  v
2 2
(1  u) 2  v 2
Simplifying r{(1  2u  u 2  v 2 }  1  u 2  v 2 ; r  2u r  u 2 r  v 2  1  u 2  v 2
(r  1)  2u r  u 2 (r  1)  v 2 (r  1)  0 ;  2u r  u 2  v 2  1  r
1 r 1 r 1 r
2 2 2
 r   r   2u r 1 r  r 
     
1  r  1  r  u  v  1  r  1  r  1  r 
2 2
1  r 
Add   on both sides to complete the square    
2
 
u  r   v2  1

 1  r  1 r   2
r 1
Which are plots of loci of constant resistance on the k plane, with centres and radii ( ,0)
1 r , 1 r

26
2v 2v 1
x (1  u) 2 x  v 2 x  2v (1  u ) 2  v 2  0
In a similar manner, (1  u)  v ;
2 2
; x add x
2
2
 1 1 1 1
(1  u ) 2   v    2 (1, )radius
 x x , circle centre x x
Exercises.
1. Plot the Smith chart

Example
r radius centre
0 1 0,0
½ 2/3 1/3,0
1 1/2 ½,0
2 1/3 2/3,0
infinity 0 1,0
x radius centre
0 infinity 1,0
1/2 2 1,2
1 1 1,1
2 1/2 1,1/2
infinity 0 1,0
-1/2 2 1,-2
-1 1 1,-1
-2 1/2 1,-1/2
2. Location of complex impedances/admittances

3. Location of the open and short circuits
4. Getting impedance/admittance conjugates
5. Getting admittance from impedance and vice versa (reciprocal of complex numbers)
 Normalise
 Locate,
 Constant VSWR line with centre 1+j0
 Line thro 1+j0
 Read value
 Denormalise
Hint. Diagramettically opposite
6. Get VSWR
 Normalise
 Locate
 Draw circle with centre 1+j0
 Intersection of the RHS and horizontal resistances
 Read value

27
 Alternatively, extrapolate to the outer radially scaled parameters.

7. Reflection coefficient
 Normalise
 Redial distance from 1+j0
 Normalise this distance with the chart radius
 Read angle on outer scale (lower part are negative angles)
 Alternatively, extrapolate to the outer radially scaled parameters.
8. Short or open circuited lossless lines
 Locate
 Move distance equal to wavelength clockwise
 Read outer circle
 Denormalise
9. Input impedance of a line terminated with load impedance ZL
 Normalise
 Constant VSWR circle
 Draw line from 1+j0
 Move clockwise number of wavelengths
 Join to 1+j0Read the intersection
 Denormalize
10. Locating maxima and minima of the standing waves
 Maxima – point of highest resistance (RHS)
 Minima – point of the minimum resistance (LHS)
 Rotate from normalised impedance to this point
11. Getting the terminating load given the input impedance
 Get normalised Zin
 Draw VSWR circle
 Move clockwise number of wavelengths
 Read intersection point
 Denormalise
12. Line losses:
Because of line losses, VSWR does not remain the constant. Instead we draw a spiral
VSWRinstead of a circle moving inwards and clockwise from the load towards the
generator. The value is given in some charts in dB.
Alternatively, we need to draw another SWR circle. However, it is usually not important
to consider the effects of attenuation loses, since they are usually imperceptible on the
chart
BRING TO CLASS: CALCULATOR, COMPASS, RULER, PROTRACTOR

28
standing waves for open- and short-circuited lines

29
IMPEDANCE MATCHING
In impedance matching, an impedance matching network is usually placed between the load
impedance and the transmission line. The matching network is ideally lossless to avoid loss of
power, and is designed so that the impedance seen looking into the matching network equals the
characteristic impedance of the line Zo.
The reflections are eliminated from the left of this network, though there are reflections to the
right between it and the load.
Impedance matching is important because it offers the following:
(i) Maximum power is delivered when the load is matched to the line
(ii) Impedance matching in sensitive receiver components improves the signal to noise ratio
SNR
(iii) Impedance matching reduces the amplitude and phase errors
(iv) Standing waves as a result of reflections can cause large voltage build up, which can
cause insulation breakdown of the line
As long as the load impedance ZL has a non zero real part, a matching network can always be
found. Factors that are important in the selection of a particular matching network include:
complexity, bandwidth, implementation and adjustability.
MATCHING
LOAD
NETWORK
(i) Matching with lumped elements (L networks)

This is the simplest type of matching network. Which uses two reactive elements to match an
arbitrary load. There are two possible configurations: depending whether the normalized load
impedance lies inside the 1+jx circle or outside it.

30
jX
jB ZL
Normalized impedance lies inside 1+jx circle
jX
jB ZL
Normalized impedance lies outside 1+jx circle
If the frequency is low, actual lumped elements like inductors and capacitors are used.
jX is the series reactance and jB the shunt susceptance.
Considering the first circuit, for matching, the load and lumped elements impedances must
equal the characteristic impedance of the line.
1
Zo  jX  when on rearranging and separating real and imaginary parts
1
jB 
RL  jX L
B( XRL  XZo)  RL  Zo
X (1  BXL)  BZoRL  X L solving for X in the first eqn and substituting into the second eqn
X L  RL R  X L  ZoRL
2 2
Zo L
B
RL  X L
2 2
1 X L Zo Zo
X  
B RL BR L
Two solutions are possible for B and X. Positive X implies and inductor, negative X implies a
capacitor, while positive B implies a capacitor and negative B implies an inductor.
1 1
For the second circuit,  jB 
Zo RL  j ( X  X L )

31
BZo( X  X L )  Zo  RL
( X  X L )  BZoRL
X   RL (Zo  RL )  X L
( Zo  RL )
RL
B
Zo
(ii) Single stub tuning

A stub is an open or short circuited piece of a transmission line. This can be connected either in
series or in parallel with the feed transmission line at a certain distance from the load.
Parallel stub
Series stub
The stubs can be open or short circuited.
A short circuited stub is usually used in preference to an open circuited stub because an infinite
terminating impedance is more difficult to realize than a zero terminating impedance because of
the effects of radiation from an open end and coupling effects with neighboring objects.
The length of the stub l and the distance to the load, d need to be determined such that the
parallel combination of the stub and the load equals the line characteristic impedance.
Here, the parallel short circuit stub is explained: CLASS EXERCISE
ZL R jX
 Normalise the load impedance Z    Z  1  j0
Zo Zo Zo For a matched condition

32
 Locate the point on the chart

 Get the normalised admittance Y . This point is diametrically opposite. It is convenient to
work with admittance because of the parallel networks
 Draw a constant VSWR circle. Moving around the VSWR circle shows how the
normalised input admittance changes periodically along the line. There exists a point
along the line where the line admittance is 1  jb . This point is the point where the
VSWR circle intersects with r  1 circle. And there are two infinite numbers of such
positions along the line, depending on how many times you go around the VSWR circle.
However, all these points coincide with two admittance points 1+jb and 1-jb
 Draw a circle with r=1 (when r=1, the conductance g=1) to intersect the VSWR circle at
points 1+jb and 1-jb (explained above)
 This is the point at which the admittance of the line is 1  jb and you can pick on either
point nearer to the load. Suppose there was a load of susceptance (admittance with the
real part equal to zero) equal to  jb connected to the line in parallel at this point.
Clearly, as we deal with admittance in parallel, we just add them. Therefore the input
admittance will become unity if we can get this susceptance.
 .The location of the stubs will be at distance d, given by the distance between position of
the normalised admittance and the points 1  jb .
 The stub must contribute  jb susceptance. Remember, a short or open circuit TL always
has a complex input impedance. Move around the outer circle of 0±jb. Starting with the
short circuit point to the point ±jb. Note that the short circuit point of an admittance is
point of open circuit impedance – the extreme right. The distance from this point to point
±jb gives the length of the stub required. This is true if the stub is of the same
construction as the line.
d
B
yi yB yL
R0 yS ZL
B R0
 If it was desired to use an open circuited stub, then start from the open circuit
admittance point
Example: Use a smith chart to match a load of 100+j60Ω to a 50Ω TL (d=0.204λ, l=0.118λ)
(iii) Double stub tuning

33
Use of 1 stub requires that both the length of the stub and its position to be variable. The use of
two stubs of variable lengths with their positions fixed is simpler. Usually these stubs are fixed at
points separated by distances equal to λ/8 or 3λ/8. Unlike the single stub tuner, a double stub
tuner cannot match all loads to the line.
CLASS EXERCISE:
It is also possible to use three stubs to match the line to the load.
(iv) Quarter wave transformer.

Quarter wave transformers are used to match a load to the line. If the bandwidth is narrow, a
single transformer suffices. The quarter wave tx can only be used to match resistive loads only
to a real impedance line and a complex load can be transformed into a real load impedance by
use of an appropriate length of the line between the load and the transformer.
Transformer section ZL

4
As earlier explained, a quarter wave transformer transforms the load impedance to

2
Zo
Zin  .
ZL
Therefore Zo  Z 1 Z L
Example
 Design a single section quarter wave matching tx to match a load of 10Ω to a 50Ω
line (22.36Ω)
 A 20Ω load impedance is reuired to be matched to a signal generator with 50Ω
output impedance. The load is located 2 meters from the generator which is
operating at 1.44MHz. Design a quarter wavelength TX section that uses the
coaxial line with a phase velocity of 2X108 m/s (31.6Ω, 7 quarter wavelength
long = 2.45m)

34
(v) Multiple quarter wave impedance transformers

Instead of a simple quarter wave tx, if multiple quarter wave tx are used, the bandwidth ban be
increased. With increasing number of sections, the discontinuities or impedance steps between
sections become less and less and in the limit, an infinitely long smooth tapered TL with no
reflection over an infinite bandwidth is approached.
Zo Z1 Z2 Z3 ZL
Zs1 Zs2 Zs3
  
4 4 4
These impedance steps can be
 Constant ratio (equal steps)

 percentage change at each step is held constant
 The steps are held proportional in accordance with the binomial distribution
Constant ratios
ZL Z 3 Zs3 Z 2 Zs 2 Z1
Here     
Z 3 Zs3 Z 2 Zs 2 Z1 Zs1
Example: Design a broadband circuit using two stages of transformation to match a 600Ω load
to a 50Ω transmission line
ZL Z 2 Zs 2 Z1
  
Z 2 Zs 2 Z1 Zs1
ZL=600Ω and Zo=Zs1=50Ω and Z1=93Ω, Z2=322Ω
Binomial arrangement
This is the most frequently used, since it gives a reflection coefficient that is zero at a certain
frequency and increases slowly and monotonically on either side of this frequency. In this case
the logarithm of the impedance ratios at the steps are related as the coefficients of the binomial
series (1:2:1) for 2 sections (1:3:3:1) for 3 sections, (1:4:6:4:1), (1:5:10:10:5:1) etc
The binomial approach results in a maximally flat pass band characteristics
Example

35
Determine the characteristic impedances Z1, Z2 and Z3 for the multiple 3 section binomial
multiple quarter wave Tx for matching a 500Ω load to a 50Ω line
Zo Z1 Z2 Z3 ZL
Z1 Z Z 500
3 ln  ln 2  ln 3  3 ln
50 Z1 Z2 Z3
Z1 Z 3  500  50  Z 2
2
Z 2 1581
3
 Z1  Z
   2  Z 1  66.7
 50  Z1
2
Z
Z 3  2  Z 3  374.8
Z1
If the total reflection coefficient ρ is allowed to vary between 0 and a certain maximum ρm in an
oscillatory way to give an equirriple characteristic, the bandwidth is considerably increased. This
is obtained by making ρ behave like a chebyshev polynomial
(vi) Tapered transmission lines.

A tapered TL has characteristic impedance that changes continuously in a smooth way from the
impedance of one line to that of the second line.
Consider a tapered TL of length L required to match a line of normalized impedance to a purely

resistive load of resistance RL
The normalized impedance of the taper is a function of the distance z along the taper
An approximation to the taper consisting of a number of sections of length dz for which the
impedance changes by an amount dZ from one section to the next

36
Load
RL
Load
RL
Tapered line and its approximation
A step change dZ in impedance at point z produces a reflection coefficient d given by

Z  Z  Z Z Z
    as the limit z  0 , we have an exact differential
z  z  z 2 z  z 2 z
equation, where:
d ln Z
d  dz . The contribution to the input reflection coefficient of this stepat the
2dz
taper is
d ln Z
d i  dze  j 2 z , if Z is a known function, then ρ, z can be determined.
2dz
READ:
Exponential taper, Triangular taper, Klopfenstein taper (ReferenceMicrowave eng. David Pozar)
TUTORIAL ON SMITH CHART AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING

1. At a point on a TL, the line impedance is 75+j75Ω and the characteristic impedance
Zo=75Ω. Use the smith chart find the line admittance at this point. (6.67-j6.67mS)
2. A generator is connected to a load with a TL of characteristic impedance Zo=50Ω. At
a particular reference point on the line, the impedance is 120+j60Ω. Determine the
line impedance at 0.18λ from the load further from the reference point. (24-j30.25Ω)
3. The VSWR on a 50Ω TL is 3 and the first voltage minimum occurs at 5cm from the
load. The wavelength λ=40cm. What is the load impedance? (30-j40Ω)
4. A short circuited lossless line presents a normalised reactance of j1.8Ω at its input.
Determine the length in terms of λ.

37
5. A 50Ω TL is terminated with ZL=40+j30Ω. Use the smith chart to find the VSWR
and the impedance at 0.2λ from the load and the shortest distance from the load in
terms of λ at which the impedance is purely resistive. What is the value of this
resistance? (2.05, 62-j38Ω, 0.125λ, 102.5+j0Ω)
6. A TL is 0.3λ long with characteristic impedance Zo=75Ω. Terminated by
ZL=37.5+j52.5 Ω. Use the smith chart to find
(i) VSWR (0.315)
(ii) Input impedance (31.5-j41.2Ω)
(iii)If the TL loss is 1.15dB, determine the new input impedance?
7. A 50Ω TL is terminated with a load impedance of ZL=15-j20Ω. Use the smith chart to
find
(i) The reflection coefficient ( 0.63227 o )
(ii) VSWR (4)
(iii)Position of the first voltage minimum from the load (0.068λ)
(iv) The impedance of the line at distance 0.05λ from the load (13-j4.5Ω)
8. A low loss line of length 1000m is carrying a signal 1MHz and the velocity of
propagation is 240X106 m/s and its characteristic impedance Zo=500Ω. An amplifier
with an input impedance of 1000+j750Ω terminates the line. Use the smith chart to
determine the impedance at the sending end of the line. (275-j415)
9. Determine a single stub tuner to match a load of 80-j40 to a TL of characteristic
impedance Zo=50Ω. (0.142λ at a distance of 0.105 from the load)
10. The first two voltage minimums on a TL occur at 1.25m and 2.77m from the load.
The VSWR on the line is 2.1 . Find the length of a matching stub and the nearest
position of the stub to the load (0.352λ. 0.007λ)
11. Use the smith chart to obtain the position and length of a short circuited stub to match
a load of 25-j50Ω to a 50Ω line (0.064λ, 0.091λ)
12. A 100Ω TL is terminated with a load of 800+j100Ω. Use the smith chart to calculate
the VSWR, reflection coefficient, Position of the first voltage minimum and
maximum, percentage of the incident power reflected, the position and the length of a
short circuited stub, so that the line is matched to a characteristic impedance of 100Ω.
(2.95, 0.494, 10.5cm, 3cm, 7.98cm from load end, 3.84cm long)
13. A load of 100+j100Ω is to be matched to an open wire TL of characteristic
impedance Zo=500Ω using a short circuited stub and a quarter wave section
transformer inserted between the line and the load. Calculate the impedance of the
quarter wavelength section and the length of the stub required. Assume that the stub
and the quarter wavelength section have the same characteristic impedance, and that
the stub is at the load end of the quarter wavelength line and the lines are loss free at a
frequency of 100MHz. (316Ω, 1.23m)
14. It is desired to connect a TL of characteristic impedance Zo=75Ω to a load of
Z=150+j0Ω. Using a quarter wavelength line, determine the characteristic impedance
of the transformer for perfect matching (106Ω)
15. Findthe characteristic impedances Z1, Z2 and Z3 of the multiple quarter wavelength
transformers to match a 400Ω load to a 100Ω line. (118.9Ω, 200Ω, 336.4Ω)
16. Findthe characteristic impedances Z1, Z ,Z3 Z4 and Z5 of a five section multiple
quarter wavelength transformers to match a 1000Ω load to a 100Ω line. (107.46Ω,
154Ω, 316Ω, 648Ω, 930Ω)

38
17. A quarter wavelength transformer is required to match a line of characteristic

impedance 100Ω to a load of 400+j0Ω at a frequency of 300MHz. Calculate the
impedance of the quarter wave section line. (200Ω)
18. Find the VSWR of this transformer (in above question) at a frequency of f=200MHz.
(2.08)
19. To increase the bandwidth of the transformer, two transformers are used instead.
What should be the impedance of these transformers? (141.4Ω, 282.8Ω)
20. A slotted line of Zo=50Ω is used to measure a load impedance. The VSWR is 2.4 and
the adjacent minimums are 16m apart. While the distance between the load and
minimum nearest to it is 10cm. Use the smith chart to determine the load impedance.
(70+j50Ω)
21. Use the smith chart to find the values of reflection coefficient, VSWR, position of the
first voltage maximum in terms of λ, for a load of 20+j30Ω terminating an impedance
of 50Ω (0.55, 3.5, 0.145λ) Repeat for load impedance =90+j60Ω (0.47, 2.8, 0.046λ)
and a load impedance of 60-j80Ω (0.59, 3.8, 0.435λ)
22. Determine the value of the reflection coefficient, VSWR and input impedance for the
line below
Zo  50
Zo  50
  3m 100  j 60 100  j 60
68m 11m
23. A short circuit lossless TL presents a normalised input admittance of j2Ω at its input.
Find its length in terms of its wavelength (0.426λ)
24. A 50Ω lossless TL is 2m long and the wavelength on the line is 3cm. with a given
load, the VSWR is 2.5 and the first voltage minimum occurs at 50cm in front of the
termination. Find the input impedance of the line and the load impedance (20Ω, 53-
j50Ω)
25. A lossless TL has a characteristic impedance of 50Ω and is terminated to a load of
20+j50Ω. Use the smith chart to determine the reflection coefficient, VSWR,
impedance at a distance 0.3λ from the load. Find the shortest distance from the load
to a point on the line where the impedance is purely resistive and the value of this
resistance. ( 0.6283o , 4.3, 14-j20Ω, 0.115λ, 212Ω)
26. Experiments carried out on a 300MHz feeder of characteristic impedance 50Ω with
an unknown termination showed a VSWR of 2.5. A voltage minimum occurred at a
distance of 0.22 of a wavelength nearer the load than was the case when the line was
terminated in a short circuit. With the aid of a smith chart, determine the load
impedance and the position on the line of the first voltage minimum (10.5+j40Ω)
Find the minimum distance from the load at which a short circuited stub line can be
connected in parallel with the feeder to give the correct termination. Calculate the
minimum required length of the stub, if it is of the same construction as the feeder

39
(19cm, 12.8cm). With the above setting of the stub, use the chart to estimate the
VSWR on the feeder if the load impedance is changed to 100+j25Ω (1.13)
27. Input impedance measurements on a loss free TL gave the following results
(i) +j106Ω when the line is short circuited
(ii) –j23.6 when the line is open circuited
(iii)25-j70Ω when the normal load is connected
Use the chart to find the normal load impedance
28. A 50Ω slotted line with a standing wave detector is used to measure the impedance of
a load which is connected to the slotted line by an unknown length of 50Ω loss free
coaxial cable. With the load in position, the VSWR was measured to be 2.2 and the
adjacent voltage minimaoccur at the detectorscale reading of 24.73cm and 87.23cm
(scale readings increase in the direction of the load. When the load was replaced by a
short circuit, the voltage minima moved to 9.1cm and 71.6cm. Use the smith chart to
determine the load impedance (37.5+j33.5)
29. A loss free TL of length 3λ/8 at a given frequency and Zo=50+j0Ω has a load
impedance of 100+j100Ω connected at one end. Another loss free line of length
0.574λ at the same frequency and Zo=150Ω is connected to the other end. A pure
capacitor of reactance 250/7Ω is connected across the junction . Use the smith chart
to find the input impedance of the system (75+j60Ω)
TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
The electrical properties of a transmission line at a given frequency are completely characterized
by its four distributed parameters R,L,G and C.
We derive the parameters for different types of transmission lines
COAXIAL LINE.
The geometry of a coaxial cable is shown below, where a- radius of the inner conductor and b is the
radius of outer conductor

40
The line uses the dorminant TEM mode but higher modes (wave guide modes) which exhibit cut off are
also possible.
Let
V = voltage between the two conductors
 q,q = charge on the inner and outer conductors
q
D  E 
2r
b b
q q ln b  q ln a

V  Edr 
a
 2r dr 
a
2
q 2
C  F/m
V ln( b / a)
I
B  H  T
2r
I
  BA  dr Wb Where A = Area, φ = flux
2r
   ln( b / a)
b
L
I
  2r dr 
a
2
H/m
Example:
(a) Determine the characteristic impedance of a coaxial line

41
 ln( b / a)
L 2 
Zo    ln( b / a) Ω
C 2 4 2 
ln( b / a)
Noting that
   o  R and  o  4  107 H/m,  R  1
   o  R ,  o  8.854  10 12 F/m
60 138
Zo  ln( b / a)  log 10 (b / a) Ω
R R
(b) A coaxial line of inner diameter of 0.29cm and sheath diameter of 1cm. Calculate its
characteristic impedance of the cable if the relative dielectric permittivity is 2.3 (50Ω)
(c) A coaxial cable is required with a characteristic impedance of 25Ω. The cable is to be
constructed from an outer conductor having a mean inner diameter of 1 cm and dielectric
spacing material with dielectric constant of 4. What radius must the inner conductor have,
in order to give the desired characteristic impedance? (0.43cm)
Two wire Transmission line
Consider a 2 wire TL, with the two conductors separated by a distance d
+q -q
The electric charge density at any point is given by
q q
D  and the potential difference between the two points
2r 2 (d  r )
d a d a
1 q q
V 
a
Edr 
 
a

2r 2 (d  r )
dr
q(2 ln( d  a)  2 ln a q ln( d  a) / a

V 
2 
q 
C 
V ln( d  a) / a

42
I I
B  H   T
2r 2 (d  r )
d a
I 1 1 I

2 
a

r (d  r )
dr 

ln( d  a) / a
 
L   ln( d  a) / a H/m
I 
Example
A parallel wire transmission line with a uniform spacing of 10cm and a specified characteristic
impedance of 600Ω. Calculate the diameter of the wire take  R   R  1 (0.12cm)
Parallel plate Transmission line
The line is assumed to be of uniform thickness with d=separation and w=width
The electric and magnetic fields for a forward travelling wave are given as:
E  a y E y  a y E o e  j z
Eo e  jz
H  a x H x  a x

dE y
  E   jH   jH x
dz
dH x
  H  jE   jE y
dz
d d
d
dz 0E y dy  j H x dy
0

43
d d
dV

Since V   E y dy , then 
0
dz 0

 j H x dy  jJ s d where J s is the current density at the top
plate.
dV d d
  jJ s w  j I , I is the current
dz w w
dV
  jLI
dz
d
L H
w

44
w w
d
dz 0 
H x dx  j E y dx
0
dI w
  jE y w  jE y V  jCV
dz d
w
C 
d

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1

ECE 342: TRANSMISSION LINES

Types of TLs, balanced and unbalanced lines.

1. Microwave Engineering, David M. Pozar

(i) To transfer energy from one point to another

ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

The most common types of transmission lines include:

(a) Coaxial lines

(b) Two wire parallel lines

(c) Parallel plate/ planar lines/ strip lines

(e) Twisted pair lines

ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

(f) Shielded pair lines

TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

Lumped and Distributed model of a TL

ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

Figure: Distributed parameter model of a TL.

R = series resistance per unit length Ω/m

L = series inductance per unit length H/m

G = Shunt conductance per unit length S/m

C = shut capacitance per unit length F/m

ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

Applying KCL at node N,

i( z  z, t )  i( z, t ) v( z  z, t )

As the limit z  0 , eqn. [5] becomes

ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

v( z, t )  Re[V( z)e jt ] [7]

i( z, t )  Re[I( z)e jt ] [8]

Substituting eqn. [7] and 8] in eqn.[3] and [6]

I z for short - circuited line

I z for open - circuited line

V z for short - circuited line

Fig. 3.2 Voltage and current standing waves

ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

Eqn. [11] and [12] can be written as

Where   ( R  jL)(G  jC ) =   j

 = called the propagation constant

 = called the attenuation constant (Neper/m)

Eqn [13] and [14] have a general solution given by:

Hint: Assume a solution of the form V ( z)  Ae mz

Substituting eqn [15] and [16] into eqn [9]

ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

Therefore the current can be written as

For an infinitely long line

Letting     j the voltage along the line can be expressed as:

ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

SOLUTIONS FOR AN INFINITELY LONG LINE.

Consider an infinitely long line of characteristic impedance Z o

At the sending end, V  Vs

The voltage along the line is given by

Therefore, V ( z )  Vs e z [23]

SOLUTIONS FOR AN CORRECTLY TERMINATED FINITE LINE

ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

The voltage of the forward travelling wave can be expressed as

The amplitude of the applied voltage is reduced by a finite factor of

As an example, if a voltage undergoes an attenuation of 1Np, then its magnitude is reduced by e 1 =

ECE 342: Transmission Lines, Mr. Chemweno

Phase factor β, wavelength λ and phase velocity  p

SOLUTIONS FOR A SHORT CIRCUITED LINE.