I. Introduction To Wave Propagation: July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 1

I.
Introduction to Wave
Propagation
• Waves on transmission lines
• Plane waves in one dimension
• Reflection and transmission at junctions
• Spatial variations for harmonic time
dependence
• Impedance transformations in space
• Effect of material conductivity
July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 1
Waves on Transmission Lines
• Equivalent circuits using distributed C and L

• Characteristic wave solutions
• Power flow

Examples of Transmission Lines
Two-Wire Line
I(z,t) + (Twisted Pair)
V(z,t) - z
I(z,t) +
Coaxial Line
V(z,t) -
Conductors
Dielectric
Strip Line
Properties of Transmission Lines (TL’s)
• Two wires having a uniform cross-section in one

(z) dimension
• Electrical quantities consist of voltage V(z,t) and
current I(z,t) that are functions of distance z along
the line and time t
• Lines are characterized by distributed capacitance
C and inductance L between the wires
– C and L depend on the shape and size of the conductors
and the material between them

Capacitance of a Small Length of Line
Open circuit
I(t) + E
V(t) -
l
The two wires act as a capacitor. Voltage applied to the wires
induces a charge on the wires, whose time derivative is the current.
Since the total charge, and hence the current, is proportional to
the length l of the wires. Let the constant of proportionality be
C Farads/meter. Then
dV (t)
I(t)  Cl
dt
Inductance of a Small Length of Line
B Short circuit
I(t) +
V(t) -
l
The wire acts as a one - turn coil. Current applied to the wires induces
a magnetic field throught the loop, whose time derivative generates the
voltage. The amount of magnetic flux (magnetic field  area), and hence
the voltage, is proportional to the length l of the wires. Let the constant
of proportality be L Henrys/meter. Then
dI(t)
V(t)  Ll
dt
C and L for an Air Filled Coaxial Line
2o o
C L ln b a
ln b a 2
a
109
b Permittivity of vacuum :  o  Farads/m
36
Permeability of vacuum : o  4  107 Henrys/m
Suppose that a  0.5 mm and b  2 mm. Then

2 o  ln 4
C  40.1 pF/m and L o  0.277 H/m
ln 4 2
Note that
1 1 L ln b a o ln 4
  3 10 8 m/s and   377  83.2 
LC o o C 2  o 2
C and L for Parallel Plate Line
w
h
w h
C  L 
h w
Note that for air between the plates   o and   o so that
1 1 L h o h
  3 10 8 m/s   377 
LC o o C w o w

Two-Port Equivalent Circuit of Length Dz
I(z,t) +
V(z,t)
-
z z+Dz z
I(z,t) + + I(z +Dz,t)

V(z,t) LDz C Dz V(z+Dz,t)
- -
Kirchhoff circuit equations
I(z,t) V (z  Dz,t)
V(z,t)  LDz  V (z  Dz,t) I(z,t)  CDz  I(z  Dz,t)
t t
or
V(z  Dz,t)  V (z,t) I(z,t) I(z  Dz,t)  I(z,t) V (z  Dz,t)
 L  C
Dz t Dz t
Transmission Line Equations
Taking the limit as Dz  0 gives the Transmission Line Equations
V (z,t) I(z,t) I(z,t) V (z,t)
 L  C
z t z t
These are coupled, first order, partial differential equations whose solutions
are in terms of functions F(t - z/v) and G(t  z /v) that are determined by
the sources. The solutions for voltage and current are of the form
1
V(z,t)  F(t - z/v) + G(t  z /v) I(z,t)  F (t - z/v) - G(t  z /v)
Z
Direct substitution into the TL Equations, and using the chain rule gives
1 1
 F'(t - z/v) - G'(t  z /v)  L F '(t - z/v) - G'(t  z /v)
v Z
1
 F'(t - z/v) + G'(t  z /v)  CF'(t - z/v) + G'(t  z /v)
vZ
where the prime (' ) indicates differentiation with respect to the total variable
inside the parentheses of F or G.
Conditions for Existence of TL Solution
For the two equations to be satisfied
1 L 1
 and C
v Z vZ
1 LC
Multiplying both sides of the two equations gives 2
 or
vZ Z
1
v m/s
LC
vZ L
Dividing both sides of the two equations gives  or
v ZC
L
Z 
C
v and Z are interpreted as the wave velocity and wave impedance.

F(t-z/v) Is a Wave Traveling in +z Direction
Assume that G(t  z /v)  0
Then the voltage and current are
t=0 V(z,0)=F[(-1/v)(z)]
V(z,t)  F(t  z /v)  F (1 v)(z  vt)

a z
1 1
I(z,t)  F(t  z /v)  F (1 v)(z  vt)
Z Z -a
F(t  z /v) represents a wave disturbance

V(z,t)=F[(-1/v)(z-vt)]
traveling in the positive z direction with t>0
velocity v. a+vt z
-a+vt
Note that the current in the conductor at
positive potential flows in the direction of vt
wave propagation.
G(t+z/v) Is a Wave Traveling in -z Direction
Assume that F(t  z /v)  0
Then the voltage and current are V(z,0)=G[(1/v)(z)]
t=0
V(z,t)  G(t  z /v)  G(1 v)(z  vt) a 2a z
1 1
I(z,t)  G(t  z /v)  G (1 v)(z  vt)
Z Z
G(t  z /v) represents a wave disturbance V(z,t)=G[(1/v)(z+vt)]

traveling in the negative z direction with t>0
velocity v. 2a-vt z
-vt
Because of the minus sign in I(z,t), the
physical current in the conductor at positive a-vt
potential flows in the direction of wave propagation.
Example of Source Excitation
Excitation at one end of a semi - infinite length of transmission line.
Source has open circuit voltage VS (t) and internal resistance RS .
Radiation condition requires that excited waves travel away from source.
Terminal conditions at z  0 :
VS (t)  RS I(0,t)  V (0,t)

RS I(0,t)
1
 RS F(t)  F (t) VS(t) +
Z V(0,t) ∞
Z z
or F(t)  VS (t)
Z  RS
0
VS (t)  RS I(0,t)  V(0,t) I(0,t) RS

1 + VS(t)
 RS G(t)  G(t) ∞ V(0,t)
Z
Z
or G(t)  VS (t)
Z  RS 0 z
Receive Voltage Further Along Line
Voltage observed on a high impedance scope at a distance l from source.
Z
V(l,t)  F (t  l v)  VS (t  l v) Scope
Z  RS RS
Delayed version of the source voltage VS(t) + V(l,t) ∞
with the semi - infinite line acting as a
z
load resisor for the source. 0 l
Z
V(l,t)  Gt  ( l v)  V (t  l v) Scope
Z  RS S RS
Delayed version of the source voltage + VS(t)
∞ V(-l,t)
with the semi - infinite line acting as a
load resisor for the source.
-l 0 z
Power Carried by Waves
Instantaneous power P(z,t) carried past plane P(z,t)
perpendicular to z. I(z,t)
V(z,t)
P(z,t)  V (z,t)I(z,t)
1 z
 F(t  z v)  G(t  z v) F(t  z v)  G(t  z v)
Z
1
 F 2 (t  z v)  G 2 (t  z v)
Z
The two waves carry power independently in the direction of wave

propagation
For each wave, a transmission line extending to z   acts as a resistor
of value Z, even though the wires were assumed to have no resistance.

Summary of Solutions for TL’s
• Solutions for V and I consists of the sum of the

voltages and current of two waves propagating in
±z directions
• For either wave, the physical current flows in the
direction of propagation in the positive wire
• Semi-infinite segment of TL appears at its
terminals as a resistance of value Z (even though
the wires are assumed to have no resistance)
• The waves carry power independently in the
direction of wave propagation
Plane Waves in One Dimension
• Electric and magnetic fields in terms of voltage

and current
• Maxwell’s equations for 1-D propagation
• Plane wave solutions
• Power and polarization

Electric Field and Voltage for Parallel Plates
w
x h
Ex(z,t) +
V(z,t)
z
-
y
The electric field goes from the positive plate to the negative plate. If
w >> h, the electric field outside of the plates is very small. Between
the plates it is nearly constant over the cross - section with value
1
E x (z,t)   V (z,t) Volts/m or V (z,t)  hE x (z,t).
h
w
Recall that C   .
h
Magnetic Field and Current for Parallel Plates
w
x I(z,t) h
z
y Hy(z,t) or By(z,t)
The magnetic field links the currents in the plates. If w >> h, the magnetic
field outside of the plates is very small. Between the plates it is nearly
constant over the cross - section, as if in a solenoid, with value
1  
 I(z,t)  I(z,t) Amps/m or I(z,t)  wH y (z,t).
1 1
Hy (z,t)  By (z,t) 
   w  w
h
Recall that L   .
w
Maxwell’s Equations in 1-D
Inserting the foregoing expressions for V(z,t), C, I(z,t) and L into the
Transmission Line equations
 h   w 
hE x (z,t)    wHy (z,t) wHy (z,t)    hE x (z,t)
z  w t z  h t
or
   
E x (z,t)   Hy (z,t) Hy (z,t)   E x (z,t)
z t z t
These are the two Maxwell equations for linearly polarized wave propagating in
1- D. They are independent of ( h,w) and refer to the fields.
We may think of the plates as being taken to ( x,y)   so they need not be
considered.
The field are in the form of a plane wave, which covers all space and is a simple
approximation for fields in a limited region of space, such as a laser beam.

Plane Waves: Solutions to Maxwell Equations
Maxwell' s equations are formally equivalent to the Transmission Line Equations
The solution is therefore in terms of two wave traveling in opposite directions
along z .
1
E x (z,t)  F (t  z /v)  G(t  z /v) H y (z,t)  F(t  z /v)  G(t  z /v)

1 o
In air v  c  3 108 m/s is the speed of light and   377 
o o o
is the wave impedance.
For waves in simple dielectric medium, o is multiplied by the relative dielectric
constant  r .
For normal media r  1, but it can be a function of frequency. As and example,
in water at radio frequencies (below 20 GHz) r  81, but at optical
frequencies r  1.78.
Power Density Carried by Plane Waves
Total instantaneous power carried in parallel plate line
P(z,t)  V (z,t)I(z,t)  hE x (z,t)wHy (z,t)
 hwE x (z,t)H y (z,t) watts E
Power density crossing any plane perpendicular Direction of
to z is
propagation
p(z,t)  P(z,t) hw  E x (z,t)H y (z,t) watt/m 2
H
1


F 2
(t  z /v)  G 2 (t  z /v)
Direction of H y is such that turning a right hand screw in the

direction from E x to Hy advances the screw in the direction of
propagation
Polarization
The physical properties of a plane wave are independent of the
coordinate system.
For a plane wave traveing in one direction :

Electric field vector E must be perpedicular to the direction of
propagation.
Magnetic field vector H must be perpedicular to E and to the
direction of propagation.
The vector cross product p  E  H watt/m 2 is in the direction
of propagation.
The ratio E H is the wave impedance  .
Examples of Polarization
Linear polaization of E along x Linear polaization of E along y
E  a x cos (t  z /v) E  a y sin  (t  z /v)
1 1
H  a y cos (t  z /v) H  ax sin  (t  z /v)
 
E
x z
x z ax = unit vector along x E
H ay = unit vector along y
y H
y
Circular polarization
E  a x cos (t  z /v)  a y sin  (t  z /v)
1
H

a y cos (t  z /v)  ax sin  (t  z /v)

Summary of Plane Waves
• Plane waves are polarized with fields E and H

perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
propagation
• Wave velocity is the speed of light in the medium
• ExH watts/m2 is the power density carried by a
plane wave

Reflection and Transmission at
Junctions
• Junctions between different propagation media

• Reflection and transmission coefficients for 1-D
propagation
• Conservation of power, reciprocity
• Multiple reflection/transmission

Junctions Between Two Regions
Terminal condtions for the
Junction of two TL' s I(0-,t) I(0+,t)
V(0 ,t)  V (0 ,t) TL 1 V(0-,t) + V(0+,t) TL 2
I(0 ,t)  I(0 ,t)
0 z
Boundary conditions at the
x
interface of two media
E x (0,t)  E x (0 ,t) Ex(0-,t) Ex(0+,t)
Hy (0,t)  Hy (0 ,t)
Hy(0-,t) Hy(0+,t) z
Plane wave propagation and
Medium 1 Medium 2
boundary conditions are analogus
to junctioning of two TL' s
Reflection and Transmission
Incident wave x
ExIn(z,t)=F1(t-z/v1)
HyIn(z,t) Transmitted wave
z
Reflected wave
v1 and 1 v2 and 2
A source creates an incident wave whose electric field is given by the known
function F1 (t - z/v1 ). Using the boundary conditions we solve for the unknown
functions G1 (t + z/v 1 ) and F2 (t - z/v 2 ) for the electric fields of the reflected
and transmitted waves : E x (0,t)  F1 (t) + G1 (t)  F2 (t)  E x (0 ,t)
1 1
Hy (0 ,t)  F1 (t) - G1 (t)   F2 (t)  H y (0 ,t)
1 2
Reflection and Transmission Coefficients
Solution of the boundary condition equations for G1 (t) and F2 (t) in terms of F1 (t)
G1 (t)  F1 (t) F2 (t)  F1 (t)
The reflection coefficient  and transmission coefficient  are given by :
 2  1 2 2
   1  
 2  1  2  1
Examples :
I. Suppose medium 1 is air so that 1    o  o  377 and medium 2 has
relative dielectric constant r  4 so that 2  o ro  0.5. Then going
0.5   1 1 2
from air - to - dielectric ad    and ad  1 
0.5   3 3 3

Reflection and Transmission, cont.
II. Now suppose the wave is incident from the dielectric onto air so that medium 1
is the dielectric 1  0.5  and medium 2 is air 2  . Then going from
  0.5 1 1 4
dielectic - to - air, da    and ad  1 
  0.5 3 3 3
Note that :
1. da  ad
2. Since T is the ratio of fields, not power, it can be greater than 1.

Reflected and Transmitted Power
Instantaneous power carried by the incident wave p In (z,t), the reflected wave
pRe (z,t), and the transmitted wave pTr (z,t)
1
pIn (z,t)  E xIn (z,t)H yIn (z,t)  F12 (t  z v1 )
1
1
pRe (z,t)  E xRe (z,t)HyRe (z,t)  G12 (t  z v1 )
1
1
pTr(z,t)  E xTr(z,t)H Tr
y (z,t)  F22 (t  z v1 )
2
1 2
Just on either side of the interface p In (0,t)  F1 (t) as well as
Z1
1 1 1 1
pRe (0,t)  G12 (t)   2 F12 (t) and pTr (0 ,t)  F22 (t)   2 F1 2 (t)
1 1 2 2

Conservation of Power and Reciprocity
Conservation of power requires that p In (0,t)  p Re(0 ,t)  pTr(0 ,t) so that
1 1 1 1
F1 (t)   F1 (t)   1   
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F1 (t) or
1 1 2 2
This relation is easily shown to be satisfied from the expressions for , .
For waves going from medium 2 to medium 1, the reflection coefficient 12 is
the negative of 21 going from medium 1 to medium 2. Thus for either
Re 
p (0 ,t) pTr (0 ,t)
   
2 2
case the ratios In  and In  1 are the same.
p (0 ,t) p (0 ,t)
Therefore the same fraction of the incident power is reflected from and
transmitted through the interface for waves incident from either medium.
This result is an example of a very general wave property called reciprocity.

Termination of a Transmission Line
Terminal condtions
V(0,t)  RL I(0,t)
I(0 -,t)
RL
F(t)  G(t)  F(t)  G(t)
Z TL V(0-,t) + RL
Solving for G(t) in terms of F (t),
G(t)  F(t) where the reflection 0 z
R Z
coefficient is   L
RL  Z
Special cases :
1. Matched termination, RL  Z and   0. Simulates a semi - infinite TL
2. Open circuit, RL   and   1. Total reflection with V (0,t)  2F (t).
3. Short circuit, RL  0 and   1. Total reflection with V (0,t)  0.

Reflections at Multiple Interfaces
Incident wave x
ExIn(z,t)=F1(t-z/v1)
Transmitted
HyIn (z,t) waves
Reflected waves 0 l z
Multiple
internal
reflections
v1 and 1 v2 and 2 v3 and 3
Multiple internal reflections occur within the finite thickness layer. These
internal waves generate multiple reflected waves in medium 1 and multiple
transmitted waves in medium 3.
Scattering Diagram for a Layer
1
l z

2l/v2  

   
   4l/v2   

      
   
  
t    
Space - time diagram indicates the relative amplitudes of the electric field of
the individual components of the multiply reflected waves. In adding fields,
account must be taken of the relative delay between the different components.
Summary of Reflection and Transmission
• The planar interface between two media is analogous to the

junction of two transmission lines
• At a single interface (junction) the equation T = 1 +  is a
statement of the continuity of electric field (voltage)
• The ratio of reflected to incident power = 
• Power is conserved so that the ratio of transmitted to incident
power = 1 - 
• The reciprocity condition implies that reflected and transmitted
power are the same for incidence from either medium
• At multiple interfaces, delayed multiple interactions complicate
the description of the reflected and transmitted fields for
arbitrary time dependence
Spatial Variations for Harmonic
Time Dependence
• Traveling and standing wave representations of
the z dependence
• Period average power
• Impedance transformations to account for layered
materials
• Frequency dependence of reflection from a layer

Harmonic Time Dependence at z = 0
Suppose that the voltage and current (or E x and H y fields) have harmonic time
dependence exp( jt) at z  0. Then
V(0,t)  V (0)e jt  F(t)  G(t)
1
F(t)  G(t)
I(0,t)  I(0)e jt 
Z
where V (0) and I(0) are the complex voltage and current at z  0.
The functions F(t) and G(t) can satisfy these equations only if they too have
harmonic time dependence. Hence
F(t)  V e jt and G(t) = V e jt
where V   12 V (0)  ZI(0) and V   1
2 V (0)  Z I(0) are the complex
voltage amplitudes of the waves traveling in the  z directions.

Traveling Wave Representation
At other locations z 0
V(z,t)  F(t  z v)  G(t  z v)  V  exp j  (t  z v)  V  exp  j (t  z v)
 V e  jz v  V e  jz v e jt  V (z)e jt
I(z,t) 
1
F(t  z v)  G(t  z v)  1 V  exp  j (t  z v)  V  exp j  (t  z v)
Z Z
 V e  V e  j z v e jt  I(z)e jt
1   j z v
Z
Here V (z) is the phasor voltage and I(z) is the phasor current, which give the
spatial variation for the implied time dependence exp( jt).
Define the wave number (propagation constant) k   v m1 . Then
I(z)  V e jkz  V e  jkz 

1
V (z)  V e  jkz  V e  jkz and
Z
is the traveling wave representation of phasor voltage and current.
Standing Wave Representation
Substituting the expressions for V  and V  in terms of V (0) and I(0),

and rearranging terms gives the standing wave representation of the phasor
voltage and current :
V(z)  12 V (0)e jkz  e  jkz  12 Z I(0)e  jkz  e  jkz  V (0)cos kz  jZI(0)sin kz
1 1
I(z)  2
V (0)e  jkz  e  jkz  12 I(0)e  jkz  e  jkz  I(0)cos kz  j V (0)sin kz
Z Z
The wavenumber is k   v 2f v  2  where  is the

wavelength   v f  2 k
For plane waves in a dielectric medium k   

Variation of the Voltage Magnitude

For V  0 we have a pure traveling For I(0)  0 we have a pure standing
  jkz
wave V (z)  V e . The magnitude wave V (z)  V(0)cos kz. Its magnitude
  jkz 
V (z)  V e =V is independent V (z)  V (0) coskz is periodic with
of z. period  k   2.
V (z) V (z)
|V+| V (0)
z
0  z

Standing Wave Before a Conductor
Incident wave x
Plane wave incident on a perfectly
ExIn(z) Perfect conduticng plate and the equivalent
HyIn(z) conductor circuit of a shorted TL
E x (0)  0 and H y (0)  I SC
0 z
ExRe(z) The standing wave field is
Reflected wave E x (z)  12 ISC e  jkz  e  jkz 

  jI SC sin kz
ISC Two waves of equal amplitude and
traveling in opposite directions create
, v short
a standing wave.
0 z
Standing Wave Before a Conductor, cont.
Plot of the magnitude of the standing wave field
E x (z)  ISC sin kz
ISC
-z
Since k   v  2f v  2  the nodes (zeros) of the field are

separated by a distance k Dz   or Dz   k   2

Period Averaged Power
For harmonic time dependence on a TL, the time average over one period
of the instantaneous power is  
P(z)  12 Re V (z)I (z) watts 
Using the traveling wave representation
1
2
   jkz

  jkz 1
P(z)  Re V e  V e  V e  V e  
Z
  jkz   jkz   1
 2Z
V V

2

2
 
Note that the average power is the algebraic sum of the power carried by
the incident and reflected waves, and it is independent of z.
For harmonic plane waves 1
2  
p(z)  Re E x (z)H (z) watts/m 2
y 
p(z)  E 
1 2 2
In terms of traveling waves In
E Re
2 x x

Reflection From a Load Impedance
For a complex load impedance Z L
I(0)
V(0)  V   V   ZL I(0)  L V   V 
Z
Z V(0) + ZL
Solving for V  in terms of V  gives
V   V  where the complex 0 z
reflection coefficient  is
Z Z
 L V+
ZL  Z
Reflected power V- ZL
1 2 1 2
P Re  V  V    P In
2
2Z 2Z 0 z

Summary of Spatial Variation for Harmonic
Time Dependence
• Field variation can be represented by two traveling waves
or two standing waves
• The magnitude of the field for a pure traveling wave is
independent of z
• The magnitude of the field for a pure standing wave is
periodic in z with period 
• The period average power is the algebraic sum of the
powers carried by the traveling waves
• The period average power is independent of z no matter if
the wave is standing or traveling
• The fraction of the incident power carried by a reflected
wave is ||
Impedance Transformations
in Space
• Impedance variation in space

• Using impedance for material layers
• Frequency dependence of reflection from a brick
wall
• Quarter wave matching layer

Defining Impedance Along a TL
At z  0 the ratio of voltage to current I(0)

can have some value V (0) I(0)  ZL ZIN V(0) + ZL
Using the formulas for V (z) and I(z)
we can compute their ratio at z  l. -l 0 z
Defining this ratio as ZIN (l) we have
V (l) V (0)cos(-kl)  jZI(0)sin( kl)
ZIN (l)  
I(l) I(0)cos(-kl)  j 1 V (0)sin(-kl)
Z
Dividing numerator and denominator by I(0) and rearranging gives
Z cos(kl)  jZsin( kl) Z  jZ tan(kl)
ZIN (l)  Z L Z L
Z cos(kl)  jZL sin(kl) Z  jZL tan(kl)

Properties of the Impedance Transform
The impedance formula
ZL cos(kl)  jZsin( kl) Z  jZ tan(kl)
ZIN (l)  Z Z L
Z cos(kl)  jZL sin(kl) Z  jZL tan(kl)
shows that a length TL (or region of space) transforms an impedance
to a different value.
Some properties of the transformation :
1. For a matched load ZL  Z, the imput impedace is matched ZIN  Z
2. The impedance repeats ZIN (l)  ZIN (l  Dl) for k Dl   or
Dl   k   2
3. For quarter wave displacement l   4, kl   2 and impedance
inverts ZIN ( 4)  Z 2 ZL
4. If ZL  0, then ZIN (l)  jZtan( kl)
Using Transform for Layered Media
Incident wave x
ExIn(z) ExTR(z)
Transmitted
HyIn (z) wave
0 l z
ExRe(z)
Reflected wave
v1 , 1 v2 , 2 v3 , 3
Z= 2
ZIN(l) ZL =  3
Circuit Solution for Reflection Coefficient
Medium 3 acts as a load on the layer to the left. A semi - infinite TL (medium)
at its terminals (accessible surface) acts as a resistor so that ZL   3 .
Impedance of the finite segment of TL is Z   2 . Wavenumber of this
segment is k 2   v 2    r2 oo  ko  r2
where ko    oo is the wavenumber of free space.
Input impedance at left surface of the layer is then
3 cos(k2 l)  j 2 sin( k 2 l)
ZIN (l)   2
2 cos(k2 l)  j 3 sin(k 2 l)
Reflection coefficient for the wave incident from medium 1 is
ZIN (l)  1  2 3  1 cos(k 2 l)  j( 22  13 )sin( k 2 l)
 
ZIN (l)  1 2  3  1 cos(k 2 l)  j( 22  1 3 )sin( k2 l)

Example 1: Reflection at a Brick Wall
Medium 1 and medium 3 are air
o
1   3   o 
w
o
Ex
IN Medium 2 is brick with  r2  4
o
IN
H y
k2  2k o and  2   12  o
 r2 o
Reflection coefficient for the wave incident from air is
2 3  1 cos(k2 w)  j(22  1 3 )sin( k2 w)

 2  3  1 cos(k2 w)  j(22  13 )sin( k 2 w)
j 14 o2   2o sin( 2k o w) j 43 sin( 2ko w)
 2 
2o cos(2ko w)  j 4 o  o sin( 2k o w) 2cos(2k o w)  j 54 sin( 2ko w)
1 2 2

Example 1: Reflection at a Brick Wall, cont.
4f
Let the wall thickness be w  30 cm so that 2k o w  8 0.3  4 fGH z
3 10
9sin 2 (4fGH z)
p  
Re in 2
Then p
64 cos2 (4fGH z)  25sin 2 (4fGH z)
||

0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 fGHz

Since there is no conductivity in the brick wall, the fraction of the incident
1 
2
power transmitted through the wall is

Example 2: Quarter Wave Layers
Incident wave x
ExIn(z) ExTR(z)
Transmitted
HyIn (z) wave
0 z
ExRe(z)
Reflected wave
v1 , 1 v2 , 2 v3 , 3
l=k2)=
cos(k 2 l)  cos(k 2 2 4)  cos( /2)  0 and sin (k2 l)  sin(  /2)  1

so that ZIN (  2 /4)   22 / 3
Example 2: Quarter Wave Layers, cont.
 22  13
For this value of ZIN we have  2
 2  1 3
If we choose the layer material such that 22  1 3 , then   0 and no
reflection takes place.
Suppose that medium 1 is air and medium 3 is glass with relative
dielectric constant g
o o o
For no reflection : 22   1 3  or r2   g
 r2 o o  g o
v2 1 vo
Note that the layer thickness is l   2 /4   
4 f 4 f r 2o o 4 f r 2
o
or l  where  o is the wavelength in air.
4 4 g
Summary of Impedance Transformation
• The impedance repeats every half wavelength in

space, and is inverted every quarter wavelength
• Impedances can be cascaded to find the impedance
seen by an incident wave
• Reflection from a layer has periodic frequency
dependence with minima (or maxima) separated
by Df = v2/(2w)
• Quarter wave layers can be used impedance
matching to eliminate reflections

Effect of Material Conductivity
• Equivalent circuit for accounting for conductivity

• Conductivity of some common dielectrics
• Effect of conductivity on wave propagation

G, C, L for Parallel Plate Line
w
h
If the material between the plate conducts electricity, there will be a

conductance G mho/m in addition to the capacitance C farads/m
and inductance L henry/m.
The conductivity of a material is give by the parameter  mho/m
Expressions for the circuit quantities are :
w w h
G C  L 
h h w
Equivalent Circuit for Harmonic Waves
+
I(z) V(z)
-
z z+Dz z
I(z) + + I(z +Dz)

V(z) jLDz j C Dz G
V(z+Dz)
In the limit as Dz  0 the Kirchhoff circuit equations for the phasor

voltage and current give the TL equations for harmonic time dependence
dV (z) dI(z)
  jL I(z)   G  jC V (z)
dz dz
Harmonic Fields and Maxwell’s Equations
w
x I(z) + h
V(z)
z Ex(z)
y Hy(z)
If w >> h, the fields between the plates are nearly constant over the cross - section,
so that the phasor circuit quantities are V (z)  hE x (z) and I(z)  wH y (z).
Substituting these exprsssions in the TL equations for harmonic time dependence,
along with the expressions for G, C, L gives Maxwell' s equations
dE x (z) dH y (z)
  j H y (z)    j   E x (z)
dz dz

Maxwell’s Equations With Medium Loss
With minor manipulation, Maxwell' s equations for 1 - D propagation of

harmonic waves in a medium with conduction loss can be written
dE x (z) dH y (z)
  j H y (z) and   j
ˆ E x (z)
dz dz
The complex equivalent dielectric constant 
ˆ is given by
ˆ  ro  j    o  r  j   o 

ˆ   o r  j"
Let "   o . Then 
In other matierials atomic processes lead to a complex dielectric of the
form o  r  j". These processes have a different frequency
dependence for ", but have the same effect on a hamonic wave

Constants for Some Common Materials
When conductivity exists, use complex dielectric constant given by
 = o(r - j") where " = o and o  10-9/36
Material* r mho/m) " at 1 GHz

Lime stone wall 7.5 0.03 0.54
Dry marble 8.8 0.22
Brick wall 4 0.02 0.36
Cement 4-6 0.3
Concrete wall 6.5 0.08 1.2
Clear glass 4-6 0.005 - 0.1
Metalized glass 5.0 2.5 45
Lake water 81 0.013 0.23
Sea Water 81 3.3 59
Dry soil 2.5 -- --
Earth 7 - 30 0.001 - 0.03 0.02 - 0.54
* Common materials are not well defined mixtures and often contain water.
Incorporating Material Loss Into Waves
Using the equivalent complex dielectric constant, Maxwell' s equations
have the same form as when no loss (conductivity) is present.
The solutions therefore have the same mathematical form with 
replaced by  ˆ.
For example, the traveling wave solutions in a material are
H y (z)  V e jkz  V e  jkz 

1
E x (z)  V e  jkz  V e  jkz and

ˆ    o r  j" and  

 
Here k    

ˆ  o r  j"
are complex quantities.

Wave Number and Impedance
The complex wavenumber k will have real and imaginary parts

k    j    o r  j"
If " is less than about  r 10, we may use the approximations
"
    or and     or
2r
  1 j " 

Similarly, for " small,  
 o r  j"  or  2r 

Effect of Loss on Traveling Waves
For a wave traveling in the positive z direction
E x (z)  V e  jkz  V  exp j(  j)z  V  exp(- jz)exp(z)
The presence of loss (conductivity) results in a finite value of the
attenuation constant  . The attenuation (decay) length is 1 .
The magnitude of the field depends on z as given by
E x (z)  V  exp(z)
|V+|
|V+| e
z
Attenuation in dB
For a traveling wave, the attenuation in units of deci - Bells is found from
E x (z)  V  exp(z) 
Attn 20log 10   20log 10   
E x (0)   V 
 20 z log10 e  8.67z
Thus the attenuation rate of the wave in a medium is 8.67 dB/m

Effect of Loss on Traveling Waves, cont.
The instantaneous field of the wave has both sinusoidal variation over a
wavelength   2  and the decay over the attenuation length 1  .
For real amplitude V , the spatial variation is given by
Re E x (z)e jt  V  Reexp j(t  z)exp(z) 
or
V cos( t - z)exp( z)
V+
V+e z


Loss Damps Out Reflection in Media
Traveling wave
amplitude
Incident wave Reflecting

boundary
Reflected wave
z
IN  Re
E (z)  V exp(z)
x E (z)  V  exp(z)
x

Effect of Damping on the || for a Wall
||


0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 fGHz

With absorption in the brick wall, the interference minima are
reduced and the reflection coefficient approaches that of the
B   o
first air - brick interface or    1 3
B  o
The fraction of the incident power transmitted through the
 1 
2
wall is
Summary of Material Loss
• Conductivity is represented in Maxwell’s equations

by a complex equivalent dielectric constant
• The wavenumber k = j and wave impedance
 then have imaginary parts
• The attenuation length = 1/
• Loss in a medium damps out reflections within a
medium

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I.

• Equivalent circuits using distributed C and L

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 2

• Two wires having a uniform cross-section in one

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 4

Suppose that a  0.5 mm and b  2 mm. Then

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 8

I(z,t) + + I(z +Dz,t)

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 11

V(z,t)  F(t  z /v)  F (1 v)(z  vt)

F(t  z /v) represents a wave disturbance

G(t  z /v) represents a wave disturbance V(z,t)=G[(1/v)(z+vt)]

VS (t)  RS I(0,t)  V (0,t)

VS (t)  RS I(0,t)  V(0,t) I(0,t) RS

The two waves carry power independently in the direction of wave

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 16

• Solutions for V and I consists of the sum of the

• Electric and magnetic fields in terms of voltage

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 18

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 21

Direction of H y is such that turning a right hand screw in the

For a plane wave traveing in one direction :

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 25

• Plane waves are polarized with fields E and H

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 26

• Junctions between different propagation media

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 27

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 30

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 31

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 32

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 33

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 34

   4l/v2   

• The planar interface between two media is analogous to the

July, 2003 © 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 38

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I(z)  V e jkz  V e  jkz 

Substituting the expressions for V  and V  in terms of V (0) and I(0),

The wavenumber is k   v 2f v  2  where  is the

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Reflected wave E x (z)  12 ISC e  jkz  e  jkz 

Since k   v  2f v  2  the nodes (zeros) of the field are

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• Impedance variation in space

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At z  0 the ratio of voltage to current I(0)

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0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 fGHz

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cos(k 2 l)  cos(k 2 2 4)  cos( /2)  0 and sin (k2 l)  sin(  /2)  1

• The impedance repeats every half wavelength in

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• Equivalent circuit for accounting for conductivity

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