Energies

energies
Article
Natural Fractures Characterization and
In Situ Stresses Inference in a Carbonate
Reservoir—An Integrated Approach
Ali Shafiei 1, * ID
, Maurice B. Dusseault 2 , Ehsan Kosari 3 and Morteza N. Taleghani 4
1 Department of Petroleum Engineering, School of Mining and Geosciences, Nazarbayev University,
Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
2 Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada;
mauriced@uwaterloo.ca
3 Research Institute for Earth Sciences, Geological Survey of Iran, P.O. Box 13185-1494 Tehran, Iran;
kosari.e@alumni.ut.ac.ir
4 National Iranian Offshore Oil Company (IOOC), P.O. Box 13185-1494 Tehran, Iran; morteza.put@gmail.com
* Correspondence: ali.shafiei@nu.edu.kz or geomekker@gmail.com; Tel.: +7-(717)269-4992
Received: 9 December 2017; Accepted: 25 January 2018; Published: 1 February 2018
Abstract: In this paper, we characterized the natural fracture systems and inferred the state of in situ
stress field through an integrated study in a very complex and heterogeneous fractured carbonate
heavy oil reservoir. Relative magnitudes and orientations of the in-situ principal stresses in a naturally
fractured carbonate heavy oil field were estimated with a combination of available data (World Stress
Map, geological and geotectonic evidence, outcrop studies) and techniques (core analysis, borehole
image logs and Side View Seismic Location). The estimates made here using various tools and data
including routine core analysis and image logs are confirmatory to estimates made by the World Stress
Map and geotectonic facts. NE-SW and NW-SE found to be the dominant orientations for maximum
and minimum horizontal stresses in the study area. In addition, three dominant orientations were
identified for vertical and sub-vertical fractures atop the crestal region of the anticlinal structure.
Image logs found useful in recognition and delineation of natural fractures. The results implemented
in a real field development and proved practical in optimal well placement, drilling and production
practices. Such integrated studies can be instrumental in any E&P projects and related projects such
as geological CO2 sequestration site characterization.
Keywords: naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs; fracture characterization; in situ stress geological
inference; geomechanics; image logs; outcrop studies; seismic methods
1. Introduction
Carbonate reservoirs are usually naturally fractured (diagenetically or tectonically pre-fractured
or pre-sheared rock masses) and are known as Naturally Fractured Carbonate Reservoirs (NFCRs).
NFCRs are responsible for over 1/3 of the current global conventional oil production; dominantly in
the prolific Persian Gulf Basin. About 1/2 of the global proven conventional petroleum reserves are
found in NFCRs. Over 1/5 of the heavy oil, extra heavy oil and bitumen endowment of the world
is also found in NFCRs. These later resources are located mainly in the Middle East, Russia and
Canada [1,2]. These numbers reinforce the value of understanding geological and geomechanical
characteristics of this type of reservoir.
By definition, NFCRs are reservoirs characterized with their systematic natural fractures systems
(e.g., planar discontinuities) generated via natural processes (e.g., tectonic forces, lithification processes
such as diagenesis) forming a consistent and connected network in the reservoir [3]. The interconnected
Energies 2018, 11, 312; doi:10.3390/en11020312 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 312 2 of 26
fracture system serves as the major flow paths, very high permeability-low storage capacity and the
rock matrix serves as major source of the petroleum; low permeability and high storage capacity).
Fluid flow in NFCRs and the interaction between the matrix and the fractures flow is controlled
by the fracture system characteristics (azimuth, dip, spacing, aperture, persistence and continuity,
filling materials, water saturation and transmissivity), geomechanical parameters (magnitude and
direction of principal stresses, rock stiffness, anisotropy) and intact rock petrophysical properties
(matrix porosity, permeability, saturation, wettability). Large-scale flow is almost exclusively through
the interconnected fracture network [4–6]. As depletion occurs, small volume changes take place
(the compressibility effect) and the in-situ stress state is perturbed; the resulting effective stress changes
lead to fracture aperture changes and thus to alteration of the fracture transmissivity. This is a strongly
coupled stress-flow process that can lead to large changes in rock mass permeability and thus large
changes in injection or depletion rate [4–6].
The data and information on nature and characteristics of natural fracture systems can be utilized
in optimal and efficient well construction practices. Open fractures can lead to drilling problems such
as lost circulation during overbalanced drilling and cementing operations. In worst-case scenario,
this can even lead to loss of wells. In addition, the drilling fluids lost in the formations and cement
from cementing operations can block the near wellbore open fractures and this adversely affect the
production rate. The transmissivity of natural fractures can be severely impaired far beyond the
perforation depth and then require additional stimulation (hydraulic fracturing, acidizing) [7,8]. Using
underbalanced drilling (UBD) methods [9] along with less formation damaging drilling and cementing
fluids may reduce lost circulation and its consequent damages. Nevertheless, so often the driller is
bound to very limited options. During drilling in mature and depleted NFCRs especially in presence
of low permeability shales or higher pressure zones, the drillers must administer and sustain a proper
mud weight to reinforce the shale or to block a blowout from the higher pressure zone. Mathematical
modeling of steam flooding in naturally fractured carbonate formations containing heavy oil [10,11]
showed the importance of natural fractures in the case of steam flooding. During steam flooding, due
to their higher thermal conductivity, fractures can help to conduct heat more rapidly into the reservoir
and thus help mobilize the heavy oil from the matrix into the fracture network. This demonstrates the
practical value of investigation of the state of fracturing in a NFCR [11,12]. Natural fractures also play
a major role in all thermal and non-thermal geomechanics of NFCRs and control convective mass and
heat transfer in the media during operations such as steam processes, geothermal energy development,
groundwater development and leaching of minerals.
Capability of systematic investigation and characterization of natural fractures system is
considered as a fundamental dimension in optimal development of NFCRs. Natural fracture systems
are studied and categorized with descriptive, genetic and geometric methods, generating data of
a qualitative to quantitative nature. Knowing fracture types enhances the engineer’s ability to simulate
fluid flow through fracture networks because fracture type governs the way fluids move in a given
NFCR [13]. Such studies can be conducted at the core scale (centimeters), log scale (centimeters), grid
simulation scale (meters), or reservoir scale (tens to hundreds of meters).
Sedimentary basin in situ stresses delineation (magnitude and direction as functions of depth and
location) has extremely broad engineering applications in NFCR development, the most important
being [14–29]:
• Understanding the structural fabric of the sedimentary basins and rock densification,
• Evaluation of stress and pressure controlled hydrocarbon migration episodes in exploration
activities (paleo-stresses),
• Calculation of mud-weight windows for safe drilling (blow-out prevention),
• Determination of optimum drilling trajectories to reduce borehole instability in shales,
• Evaluation of horizontal well placement in reservoirs with horizontal permeability anisotropy
arising from stressed natural fracture fabric,
• Casing shoe depth choice in mildly and strongly over-pressured regimes,
Energies 2018, 11, 312 3 of 26
• Casing design including casing-rock interaction potential during production leading to shear
or parting,
• Design of cementing operations to avoid drilling fluids losses (in both natural and induced
fractures),
• Well completion design to manage or exclude sand,
• Design of hydraulic fracture installations,
• Assessment of compaction potential and magnitude,
• Evaluation of potential fault reactivation,
• Thermal stress calculations in thermal EOR or cold water flooding,
• Microseismic monitoring data interpretation,
• Interpretation of acoustical wave velocity and quality changes in 4-D seismic surveys or
tomographic surveys,
• Design and evaluation of liquid and solid deep well waste disposal,
• Site characterization for geological CO2 storage
• Autopsies and post-analysis of unexpected problems in drilling and production
In this article, natural fractures are characterized in a heavy oil field in SW Iran using different
geological, geomechanical and geophysical data. Different seismic techniques and data were integrated
and implemented for the purpose of fracture characterization (i.e., genesis, properties, orientation,
fracturing variance with depth and fracturing intensity). a field investigation and survey of surface
and subsurface fractures was carried out and the dominant fracture systems were delineated. Finally,
a combination of geological, geomechanical and log data was used to infer relative magnitude and
orientation of the in situ stresses and the pore pressure in the study area. Such studies can be
instrumental for optimal field development, well placement, hydraulic fracture design and reservoir
simulation practice in this class of complex and heterogeneous reservoir.
2. Kuh-e-Mond Heavy Oil Field

Kuh-e-Mond (Figure 1) is located along the coast of the Persian Gulf, new the Bushehr port and is
recognized as the largest heavy oil field in Iran and. The structural trap is a colossus anticline with
a prominent NW-SE trend in harmony with the famous Zagros orogenic belt. The field was discovered
first back in 1931 when exploring natural gas resources in the region. The systematic exploration and
multifaceted full field investigation of the field and considering various development plans began
in mid-1980s. The geographical location and depth of exploration wells drilled in the field over the
past three decades is presented in Figure 2. The anticline is somewhat symmetrical. It is 90 km long
and 16 km wide. The estimated heavy oil resource base is about 6 billion barrels (OOIP) which has
occurred in three different reservoirs. The depth of the HO occurrences ranges from 680 to 1200 m.
The viscosity of the HO also varied from 550 to 1120 cP in situ (up to 2500 cP). The HO has some
mobility under reservoir conditions. Several structural elements such as cut the axial plane of the
anticline. This has caused displacement of some layers around the center and plunging zones of the
anticline [30,31]. The study area has gone through two different tectonic events (i.e., orogenic episodes)
which their interaction has shaped up the current complex fracture systems and in situ stresses in
the region. General tectonic setting of the Zagros and the Kuh-e-Mond is presented in Figure 3 [32].
Lithostratigraphic column of the Coastal Fars, the study area, is also shown in Figure 4. At the right
side of the column where the Sarvak, Jahrum and Asmari formations can be identified [33,34].
shale interbeds. The formation is divided into three major units in the study area based on variations
in lithology: The upper Sarvak is a pure limestone with minor argillaceous zones. Shale and marls
are notable in the middle Sarvak. The lower Sarvak mostly consists of marly limestone and some
shale intercalations [31]. Heavy mud losses were reported during the drilling operation, which are
an indication to intensely fractured nature of the formation in the study area. Well locations and
depth of formations in the study area are presented in Figure 2 along the cross section X-X which his
Energies 2018, 11, 312 4 of 26
parallel to the axis of the Kuh-e-Mond anticlinal structure.
Energies 2018, 11,Figure

x FOR PEER
Figure 1.REVIEW
1. Kuh-e-Mond
Kuh-e-Mondfield
field in SWof
in SW ofIran
Iranalong
along
thethe coast
coast of Persian
of Persian Gulf. Gulf. 5 of 25
FigureFigure 2. Geological
2. Geological cross
cross section
section alongthe
along theline
line X-X
X-X(See
(SeeFigure
Figure 1).1).
TheThe
X-XX-X
line line
is also
is parallel with with
also parallel
the axis of the Kuh-e-Mond anticlinal structure. The location of wells especially wells MD-1
the axis of the Kuh-e-Mond anticlinal structure. The location of wells especially wells MD-1 to MD-8 is to MD-8
is presented
presented here. Drilling
here. Drilling of MD-8of MD-8
which which is last
is the the last appraisal
appraisal well
well drilledininthe
drilled thefield
field is
is benefited
benefited from
from the studies reported in this paper over the past decade. In addition, the cores and the image logs
the studies reported in this paper over the past decade. In addition, the cores and the image logs all
all belong to MD-8.
belong to MD-8.
Figure 2. Geological cross section along the line X-X (See Figure 1). The X-X line is also parallel with
the axis of the Kuh-e-Mond anticlinal structure. The location of wells especially wells MD-1 to MD-8
is presented here. Drilling of MD-8 which is the last appraisal well drilled in the field is benefited
from the
Energies studies
2018, 11, 312reported in this paper over the past decade. In addition, the cores and the image 5logs
of 26
all belong to MD-8.
Figure 3. A3.general
Figure structural
A general map
structural mapofofthe
themain
main tectonic unitsofofthe
tectonic units theZagros
Zagros Mountains
Mountains from
from [32].[32].
Occurrence of heavy oil is reported in 2 different highly fractured formations: Jahrum formation
which is Eocene in geological age and Sarvak, a Cretaceous in age formation (Figure 2). The structural
trap structure was created during the main phase of Zagros folding episode in the late Miocene and
Pliocene. This is characterized by presence of the lower Miocene successions with relatively constant
thickness in the region [30,31]. Based on petrophysical evaluations, parts of the Jahrum has excellent
porosity (φ = 0.24 to 0.31) and low water saturation (Sw ~ 0.2). The strata mainly consist of intensely
fractured light-brown dolomite with vuggy and fracture porosity: a dual or triple porosity system).
The lower Jahrum is mostly limestone with an estimated 3 billion barrels of heavy oil originally in
place [30,31]. The Sarvak reservoir is mostly composed of intensely fractured limestone with some
shale interbeds. The formation is divided into three major units in the study area based on variations
in lithology: The upper Sarvak is a pure limestone with minor argillaceous zones. Shale and marls
are notable in the middle Sarvak. The lower Sarvak mostly consists of marly limestone and some
shale intercalations [31]. Heavy mud losses were reported during the drilling operation, which are
an indication to intensely fractured nature of the formation in the study area. Well locations and depth
of formations in the study area are presented in Figure 2 along the cross section X-X which his parallel
to the axis of the Kuh-e-Mond anticlinal structure.
Energies 2018, 11, 312 6 of 26
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25
Figure 4. Lithostratigraphic column of the Coastal Fars (Right side of the column where the Sarvak,
Figure 4. Lithostratigraphic column of the Coastal Fars (Right side of the column where the Sarvak,
Jahrum and Asmari formations can be identified) region where the Kuh-e-Mond heavy oil field is
Jahrum and Asmari formations can be identified) region where the Kuh-e-Mond heavy oil field is
located (From [33] after [34]).
located (From [33] after [34]).
Energies 2018, 11, 312 7 of 26
3. Fracture Characterization
3. Fracture Characterization
3.1. Field Geological and Core Studies
3.1. Field Geological and Core Studies
Inclusive field survey of fractures both at the surface and subsurface was conducted during the
courseInclusive field survey
of this study Surfaceof fracture
fracturesdelineations
both at the surface
implyand thatsubsurface was conducted
crestal normal faults areduring the
recognized
course of this study Surface fracture delineations imply that crestal normal faults
along the axis of the anticlinal structure. These structural elements also tend to be more persistent at are recognized along
thecrestal
the axis ofzones
the anticlinal
along the structure.
anticlinalThese structural
structure. elements three
As expected, also tend to be more
dominant persistent
structural at the
orientations
ofcrestal
verticalzones along the anticlinal structure. As expected, three dominant structural orientations of
and subvertical fracture systems were identified and delineated atop the crestal zones, in
vertical and subvertical fracture systems were identified and delineated atop the crestal zones, in north,
north, northeast and east orientations. Two major fracture systems including one shear conjugated
northeast and east orientations. Two major fracture systems including one shear conjugated and one
and one set a tensile fracture were identified during the surface fracture investigations.
set a tensile fracture were identified during the surface fracture investigations.
The technical reader should note that throughout this manuscript various terms such as natural
The technical reader should note that throughout this manuscript various terms such as natural
fracture, fracture, fracturing, fracturing intensity and fracture orientation are used to describe the
fracture, fracture, fracturing, fracturing intensity and fracture orientation are used to describe the
process of genesis and formation and characterization of natural fractures in the studied NFCR.
process of genesis and formation and characterization of natural fractures in the studied NFCR.
Fracture here is a “natural fracture” and in this manuscript, there is no discussion of any hydraulically
Fracture here is a “natural fracture” and in this manuscript, there is no discussion of any hydraulically
induced fractures or hydraulic fracturing related fractures or processes.
induced fractures or hydraulic fracturing related fractures or processes.
The origin of majority of the shear fractures in the study area is compressional tectonic events in
The origin of majority of the shear fractures in the study area is compressional tectonic events
the Zagros
in the Zagros orogeny belt, belt,
orogeny evidently. ShearShear
evidently. fractures ate typically
fractures tight (e.g.,
ate typically tightlow k).low
(e.g., However, tectonics
k). However,
episodes
tectonicshave greatly
episodes opened
have greatlythem.
openedThis them.
is because
Thisaiscompressional stress regime
because a compressional can change
stress regime can to an
extensional tectonic regime followed by uplift, bending, folding and further
change to an extensional tectonic regime followed by uplift, bending, folding and further fracturing fracturing (i.e., new sets).
This
(i.e.,scenario,
new sets). can leadscenario,
This to an areacanoflead
intensely fractured
to an area rock mass
of intensely characterized
fractured rock mass by characterized
high permeability by
open
high permeability open fractures. Obviously, presence of open fractures improves athe
fractures. Obviously, presence of open fractures improves the fluid flow in given
fluidreservoir.
flow in
At the same
a given time, At
reservoir. it can causetime,
the same issues withcause
it can cap issues
rock integrity
with capbecause of damages
rock integrity becausetoofreservoir
damagesseal. to
The latter is very crucial when assessing a given NFCR for oil production technologies,
reservoir seal. The latter is very crucial when assessing a given NFCR for oil production technologies, which require
continuous
which require injection of steam
continuous usingof
injection either
steamvertical wells vertical
using either or long wells
horizontal
or long wells.
horizontal wells.
Results from comprehensive field investigations suggest that
Results from comprehensive field investigations suggest that the studied reservoirs the studied reservoirsare arehighly
highly
fractures.
fractured.This Thisalso
alsoinclude
includeHO HO bearing
bearing zones
zonesin both Jahrum
in both Jahrum andandSarvak
Sarvakformation
formation is the study
is the area.
study
At the core
area. At thelevel,
coretensional fractures,
level, tensional characterized
fractures, by theirby
characterized rectangular pattern,pattern,
their rectangular were easy wereto easy
identify.
to
Such fractures,
identify. are normally
Such fractures, open and
are normally filled
open andwith
filledHOwith(Figure 5—See5—See
HO (Figure the photos in theinright
the photos side).
the right
Shear
side).fractures were alsowere
Shear fractures easyalso
to identify
easy toatidentify
core scale. Thisscale.
at core type ofThis
systematic
type of fractures
systematic atefractures
characterizedate
by slickensidesbyonslickensides
characterized the fractures’ surface.
on the Randomly
fractures’ surface. generated
Randomly fracture
generated sets, also known
fracture sets, alsoasknown
second
as second
order orderwe
fractures, fractures, weto
also easy also easy to distinguish
distinguish in sore of inthesome
coresofstudied.
the cores studied.
Figure
Figure5.5.Sub-vertical
Sub-verticalfractures
fractures and
and vugs some infilled
infilled with
withheavy
heavyoil
oilinincore
coresamples
samplestaken
takenfrom
fromthe
the
Kuh-e-Mond
Kuh-e-Mondheavy
heavyoil
oil field.
field.
Energies 2018, 11, 312 8 of 26
3.2. Seismic Surveys
3.2. Seismic Surveys
Side View Seismic Location Survey
Side View Seismic Location Survey
The Side View Seismic Location method (SVSL—Figure 6) was introduced and implemented in
The Side
Russia (~1990) View Seismicopen
to investigate Location method
fractures via(SVSL—Figure
seismic wave6)scatter
was introduced and implemented
[35]. In SVSL technique, in
when
Russia (~1990) to investigate open fractures via seismic wave scatter [35]. In SVSL technique,
the length of elastic waves is significantly higher than the characteristic length of the heterogeneity when the
of thelength of elastic
formation thenwaves is significantly
the waves are partlyhigher than the to
converted characteristic length ofwaves
scattered seismic the heterogeneity of the
through reflections.
Zonesformation then the waves are partly converted to scattered seismic waves through reflections. Zones
with a high concentration of scattered seismic waves represent more densely fractured zones
with a high concentration of scattered seismic waves represent more densely fractured zones and have
and have a higher acoustic impedance.
a higher acoustic impedance.
Figure
Figure 6. Side
6. Side View
View SeismicLocation
Seismic Location technique
technique (SVSL)
(SVSL)(From [35]).
(From [35]).
The SVSL approach

The SVSL approachis founded
is founded ononidentifying
identifyingback-scattered waves(SW)
back-scattered waves (SW) and
and determining
determining theirtheir
loci—the SW generation loci. The most intense SW’s are generated by
loci—the SW generation loci. The most intense SW’s are generated by fully open fractures with fully open fractures with
maximum
maximum reflectivity
reflectivity contrast
contrast and and the
the back-scattered energy
back-scattered energy depends
dependsononthe density
the or intensity
density of of
or intensity
fracturing in the zone (labeled 1st Fresnel zone in the figure because of the analogy to
fracturing in the zone (labeled 1st Fresnel zone in the figure because of the analogy to a Fresnel mirror a Fresnel mirror
or lens). Therefore, from the 3-D distribution of back-scattered energy one can estimate the spatial
or lens). Therefore, from the 3-D distribution of back-scattered energy one can estimate the spatial
fracturing intensity. The energy of SW’s is less by a factor of 10 to 100 than the energy of reflected
fracturing intensity. The energy of SW’s is less by a factor of 10 to 100 than the energy of reflected P-
P-waves which are used to characterize the structure of the layered sedimentary series, so to identify
waves which are used to characterize the structure of the layered sedimentary series, so to identify
low-energy SW’s it is necessary to apply special-designed field observation and data-processing
low-energy
systemsSW’s
baseditonisSVSL
necessary to apply
principles. special-designed
The reader is encouraged field observation
to check and data-processing
out the EAGE’s Earthdoc for
systems
more based
papersononSVSL principles. The reader is encouraged to check out the EAGE’s Earthdoc for
the technique.
more papers on themany
As usual, technique.
factors enter into the interpretation including mechanical properties, fracture
As
voidusual,
space,many
degreefactors
of partialenter intofilling,
fracture the interpretation
overburden seismicincluding mechanical
properties properties,
(especially fracture
high frequency
attenuation behavior) and stresses. Brittle rocks (dense, low-porosity) more readily
void space, degree of partial fracture filling, overburden seismic properties (especially high frequency form intensely
fractured
attenuation zones, whereas
behavior) more ductile
and stresses. Brittlerocks
rockssuch as higher
(dense, porosity shales
low-porosity) morerarely form
readily intensely
form intensely
fractured zones and in salt rocks fractures generally do not exist. Fractures in
fractured zones, whereas more ductile rocks such as higher porosity shales rarely form intensely carbonates are far more
pronounced than in sandstones, except for very low porosity sandstones that have been tectonically
fractured zones and in salt rocks fractures generally do not exist. Fractures in carbonates are far more
deformed. Zones with open fractures can be identified on vertical and horizontal sections of a SVSL
pronounced than in sandstones, except for very low porosity sandstones that have been tectonically
deformed. Zones with open fractures can be identified on vertical and horizontal sections of a SVSL
survey as anomalies with different signs [35]. Effects of overburden load can also be identified in the
form of a predominant subvertical fracture array and growth in fracturing intensity with depth, as
well. In carbonates, their high solubility leads to porosity loss during diagenesis. Stylolites form in
Energies 2018, 11, 312 9 of 26
survey as anomalies with different signs [35]. Effects of overburden load can also be identified in
the form of a predominant subvertical fracture array and growth in fracturing intensity with depth,
as well. In carbonates, their high solubility leads to porosity loss during diagenesis. Stylolites form
in the direction normal to the vertical stress because of the loads that do not allow fractures to open.
In horizontal directions, fractures form because of the diminution of the lateral stress as intense
diagenesis takes place through dissolution and precipitation, diminishing the porosity. Earth stresses
are one of the major controlling agents of the natural fracture fabric; a random distribution of fractures
in a homogeneous geomedium will develop if the stresses in the horizontal direction are exactly the
same; but, if diagenesis took place in an anisotropic stress field; the fractures are strongly oriented
(not randomly distributed) with far more fractures forming normal to the minimum horizontal stress
direction. Certain types of fractures are associated with particular tectonic structures, which makes
their identification feasible using the SVSL technique combined with tectonic history models of the
sedimentary basin.
The study area was investigated utilizing the SVSL technique. Study of distribution of open
fractures in Sarvak leaded to identification of a transversely oriented zone with minimum number
of open fractures in the NW part of anticlinal structure. This zone divides the reservoir layers in the
field to two separate and isolated blocks (i.e., no hydraulic communication). an abnormally intensely
fractured zone was identified in the SE zone. The zone was determined as a potential sweet spot to be
considered for development and further production technology appraisal. Analysis of open fractures
using the SVSL indicated that distribution of open fracture is linked to systematic fractures and in
lesser extent to randomly distributed fractures in the study area.
Results from a SVSL survey are presented in Figure 7a–c. In Figure 7a, the sections are averaged
over horizontal planes of the source cube and Figure 7b presents sections averaged over the lateral
surfaces. Figure 7c presents the difference of these two matrices a–b. Such subtraction allows
elimination of the effects of lithological, gravity and vertical dilation factors on the resulting distribution
of fracturing intensity. In fact, the accuracy of accounting for these factors depends on the accuracy of
structural maps of the target horizons and the lithofacies’ persistence (lateral lithofacies changes) in
the stratigraphic complexes throughout the study area.
Comparison of source (a) and resulting (c) sections shows that distribution of the fractures has
changed only insignificantly, an indication that the tectonic factors are dominant, leading to an irregular
distribution of fractures within the vertical section of the study area. Varying fracturing intensity and
locations are the major reasons behind a random distribution of fractures in the study area. However,
major systems of fractures caused by the tectonic deformation are pronounced against this random
background. Analyzing the averaged vertical cross-sections (Figure 7a,b) shows that a major fracture
system was formed during formation of the anticlinal fold. This system of fractures is characterized by
a V-shaped complex of linear zones orthogonal to the fold flanks and a local anomaly in the fold arch.
The local fracturing intensity anomalies confined to the arch of inherited folds form a line tracing
the displacement of the arch of the series of strata. The fracturing intensity varies depending on the
lithology. These local anomalies can be positive or negative. In the first case, a decompaction is present
in the arch, whereas in the second case rocks in the arch are compacted. The latter can be attributed
to diagenetic “welding” of fractures that is characteristic of shallow carbonate series. In addition
to the fracturing system described above, another major system is identified here and is shown in
(Figure 7c). This system is characterized by the presence of a series of linear zones with a common
north-east dipping direction. Dip angles of different zones are somewhat different and grow with
depth, suggesting these zones belong to a radial fracturing system formed by a deep local stress center.
Thus, based on analysis of the distribution of fracturing intensity averaged over the cross-sections,
two major fracturing systems interfering with each other were identified in the study area.
Energies 2018, 11, 312 10 of 26
Figure 7.
Figure The SVSL
7. The SVSL results
results for
for the
the study
study area.
area. (a)
(a) The
The seismic
seismic sections
sections are
are averaged
averaged over
over horizontal
horizontal
planes of the source cube; (b) The seismic sections are averaged over lateral surfaces;
planes of the source cube; (b) The seismic sections are averaged over lateral surfaces; (c) presents (c) presentsa
a difference of these two matrices: a–b. Distribution of the fractures has changed
difference of these two matrices: a–b. Distribution of the fractures has changed insignificantly, an insignificantly,
an indication
indication of fact
of the the fact
that that the tectonic
the tectonic factorsfactors (highly
(highly variousvarious fracturing
fracturing intensity
intensity and fractured
and fractured zones
zones locations) are the major reason behind random distribution of fractures. a major
locations) are the major reason behind random distribution of fractures. A major fracture system was fracture system
was formed
formed during
during formation
formation of theof the anticlinal
anticlinal fold which
fold which is characterized
is characterized by a V-shaped
by a V-shaped complexcomplex of
of linear
linear zones orthogonal to the fold flanks and a local anomaly
zones orthogonal to the fold flanks and a local anomaly in the fold arch. in the fold arch.
Energies 2018, 11, 312 11 of 26
(a)
(b)
42
43 Figure 8. Variation of the mean value (a) and relative variance (b) of fracturing intensity within
44 horizontal (1) and lateral slices (2) in the study area.
45
46 The analysis of vertical and horizontal variations of fracturing intensity and geological
interpretation of fracture distribution features indicates that the distribution of open fractures in
the study area depends on factors such as tectonic deformation, lithology, depth and rock mass dilation
characteristics. However, in the Kuh-e-Mond compressional feature, tectonic factors are the major
47 2.1.controls
Subsection
on the fracturing, as would be expected.
48 2.1.1. Subsubsection
49 Bulleted lists look like this:
50 • First bullet
Energies 2018, 11, 312 12 of 26
Based on additional processing of SVSL data aimed at identification of tectonic factors and
elimination of other factors, a major center for tectonic strain which formed the major system of
fracturing in the Kuh-e-Mond was identified. This center is located under the anticlinal structure,
generating a system of fractures during formation of the anticlinal fold in the layered media owing
to the upward movement of the underlying strata. This system of fracturing is clearly shown in the
generalized vertical cross-line section (Figure 7c).
An abnormal zone of low fracturing intensity (a compacted zone) was also recognized in the NW
of the study area. The zone separates the central and NW parts of the oil field. Fracture distribution
analysis in the Sarvak reservoir indicates that the general structure is formed by three major centers
of strain identified from the analysis of generalized horizontal and vertical variations of fracturing
intensity in the study area. From the point of view of open fractures’ distribution in the Sarvak, the SE
section of the reservoir with the largest number of abnormally high open fractured zones is the most
promising region for reservoir development. a zone characterized by minimum open fractures and
therefore low permeability expectations is identified in the north-west part of the study area and
is considered as the least promising region. Recommendations were made based on this study to
select optimum locations for well drilling. Based on interpretation of SVSL results, it is concluded
that the resulting spatial distribution of fractures at the depth interval of +350 m down to −6000 m in
the Kuh-e-Mond field will be valuable in developing a drilling program and implementing proper
development options for heavy oil production.
As mentioned earlier, factors such as differential rock strength, dilatancy factor, overburden and
earth in situ stresses control the generation and distribution of open fractures in the geomedium. The
impact of each factor can be semi-quantitatively distinguished based on the unique distribution of
open fractures generated. Evaluation of effects of a particular factor on genesis of open fractures is
also possible through excluding or accounting for the effects of other factors in the analysis—a filtering
process that can be statistically optimized as required as more data from drilling become available.
The source 3-D distribution of fracturing intensity from SVSL data was used to calculate the
mean values and variance of fracturing intensity within horizontal and lateral slices. Diagrams of
mean values and variance of fracturing intensity show the depth variation of the average fracturing
intensity over the study area, indicating the effects of gravity, lithology and vertical dilatancy factors.
The horizontal and lateral dilatancy affects the fracturing intensity variance, which is manifested in
a relative variation of fracturing intensity within horizontal (diagram 1) and curvilinear (diagram 2)
surfaces. The range of relative variation of mean fracturing intensity with depth in the entire depth
interval makes up ~10% for horizontal slices and ~8% for lateral slices. The fracturing variance changes
from 12% to 30% and such differences in variation of the mean value with depth and of fracturing
intensity variance within a horizontal plane (in lateral direction) suggest that effect of dilatancy on
fracturing intensity variation is higher in the horizontal plane than in vertical direction.
Results from the SVSL survey, Figure 8a,b, suggest that the general trend of depth variation
of the mean fracturing intensity averaged within the horizontal and lateral planes are about the
same. In general, the mean values and variance increase with depth. However, some anomalies were
observed which are associated with the non-uniformity of the averaging surfaces. In addition, there
is a clear trend of increase of subvertical fractures and therefore increase of the dilatancy effect with
depth and the formation of compacted and decompacted zones. a zone with the highest fracturing
intensity is located in the depth interval of 2.4–4.2 km (for horizontal slices or graph 1 in Figure 7a)
or 1.7–4 km (for lateral slices or graph 2 in Figure 8a). Ductile strata with lower fracturing intensities
are located below and above this depth interval. Hence, this finding implies subdividing the studied
section based on the geomechanical properties or some measure of “strength” of the rock units:
• The upper part of the section (up to ~0 m) is intensely fractured (from 0 to 800 m);
• Below is a zone with a minimum fracturing intensity (800–1200 m);
• Next, to a depth of ~4000 m, is an intensely fractured zone
• And, in the deepest interval, fracturing intensity decreases sharply
Energies 2018, 11, 312 13 of 26
The mean value and relative variance of fracturing intensity within the horizontal and lateral
slices (Figure 8a,b) also suggests a co-phased variation of these two parameters. This can be interpreted
as a more ductile layered structure compared with its underlying strata. The fracturing variance
increases with decrease in the mean value of fracturing intensity starting at the depth of ~4000 m
(Figure 8a,b). This anti-phased variation of the mean fracturing intensity and variance indicates that
this depth interval consists of more dense rocks with a blocky structure.
From the point of view of development of this heavy oil NFCR, Kuh-e-Mond, one should note
that identifying so-called “open fracture” zones is not the only goal where potential “sweet spots”
must be selected for development and production. Such sweet spots and the heavy oil trapped in
the fractures only accounts for less than 2% of the original oil in place and it is insignificant in terms
of oil production. The goal here is to have a better understanding of the fracture systems and their
spatial distribution for an overall optimum field development. In this scenario, fracture systems serve
as a conduit to drain and transfer the heavy oil from the rock matrix, where over 98% of the original
oil in place is located, into the production well. Some points for drilling productive deposits of the
Sarvak Formation were proposed as top-priority actions that might help achieve high oil flow rates.
As shown in Figure 7, placements of wells are presented in the structural slice located 175 m below the
top of the Sarvak Formation. As far as the south-west part of the studied area, linear fractured zones
are common and oriented across the strike of the dip and it is recommended to drill those strata with
horizontal wells along the strike of the south-west slope of the structure.
The SVSL technique proved useful in characterizing fracture opening in the study area. However,
this method reaches its maximum utility only when implemented in parallel with other direct
techniques of reservoir characterization (core analysis, borehole wall geophysical surveys, well test
data and surface expressions). a vertical well (MD-8) was drilled into a highly fractured zone identified
using the results from this study. Cold production tests using progressive cavity pumps in the well
reached a daily production of 1000 m3 /d, an exceptionally promising rate for a heavy oil well. However,
previous field experience shows that such high initial productions will drop drastically as the fracture
network is drained, with no further notable cumulative oil production; thereafter; consideration of
thermal stimulation methods would be necessary.
3.3. FMI and UBI Image Logs

Image logs are resistivity or acoustic devices that measure certain physical properties of the rock
on the borehole wall or near the well that can be displayed as images to be interpreted visually or
with computer-aided analysis. Formation Micro Imager logs (FMI) provide a resistivity image of the
borehole wall in water-based mud drilling with a resolution on the order of millimeters. Introduced by
Schlumberger in 1991 [36], they are now applied widely to study borehole geological features such as
fractures, bedding plane orientation and shape, borehole breakouts and washouts and drilling-induced
axial extensional fractures.
The Ultrasonic Borehole Imager or UBI was introduced by Schlumberger in 1993 [36] and works
independent of mud type. In a manner similar to the FMI log, the UBI imager can be used to
analyze fractures and the stress regime and conduct borehole stability studies in any type of rock.
an amplitude image is used for interpretation of geological features including bedding patterns
(planar, non-planar, lenticular), stylolites or dissolution seams, natural fractures (open and closed),
drilling induced fractures and fine sedimentary structures such as flaser bedding and burrow casts.
The radial UBI image gives a precise borehole geometry view, which can be used to understand
wellbore stability issues.
Borehole image logs, FMI and UBI, were used to identify and characterize natural fractures in the
boreholes. In addition, the data were used for structural dip evaluation in the Sarvak I interval. FMI
and UBI image logs from well MD-8 drilled close to the crest of the Kuh-e-Mond anticline were used.
Summary plots of the features identified and picked out from FMI and UBI images in the Well MD-8
are presented at depth 1200 m–1300 m in Figure 9.
Energies 2018, 11, 312 14 of 26
Figure 9. Summary plot of the features identified and picked out from FMI and UBI images in the
Figure 9. Summary plot of the features identified and picked out from FMI and UBI images in the Well
Well MD-8 at depth 1200 m–1300 m.
MD-8 at depth 1200 m–1300 m.
Resistive fractures on the FMI image are indicated by magenta arrows (Figure 10). Minor open
fractures on the UBI image are shown with cyan arrows, below. In some cases, one feature appears
Energies 2018, 11, 312 15 of 26
Resistive fractures on the FMI image are indicated by magenta arrows (Figure 10). Minor open
fractures on the UBI image are shown with cyan arrows, below. In some cases, one feature appears on
both images but open on the UBI image and closed on the FMI image. This may indicate that the open
on both images but open on the UBI image and closed on the FMI image. This may indicate that the
fractures are filled with oil-based mud, which is detected by the FMI tool as resistive fractures.
open fractures are filled with oil-based mud, which is detected by the FMI tool as resistive fractures.
Figure 10. Resistive fractures on the FMI image and minor open fractures on a UBI image.
Figure 10. Resistive fractures on the FMI image and minor open fractures on a UBI image.
Two highly fractured zones in the Sarvak I interval are shown in Figure 11. Blue arrows indicate
major open fractures picked from the UBI. On the FMI image, some resistive fractures can be seen
(magenta arrows), some of which coincide with open fractures visible on the UBI but filled with
Energies 2018, 11, 312 16 of 26
Two highly fractured zones in the Sarvak I interval are shown in Figure 11. Blue arrows indicate
major open fractures picked from the UBI. On the FMI image, some resistive fractures can be seen
Energies 2018,
(magenta 11, x FOR
arrows), PEER of
some REVIEW 16 ofwith
which coincide with open fractures visible on the UBI but filled 25
resistive mud. There also are red arrows to indicate two UBI high amplitude minor fractures in the
resistive mud. There also are red arrows to indicate two UBI high amplitude minor fractures in the
upper image. These minor fractures are interpreted as filled or healed.
upper image. These minor fractures are interpreted as filled or healed.
Figure 11. Two highly fractured zones in Sarvak I interval on UBI logs.
Figure 11. Two highly fractured zones in Sarvak I interval on UBI logs.
Based on the observations and interpretation of the images from 1194.2 to 1310 m (Well MD-8),
the highlights of the study are summarized (Figure 12). The structural dip in the logged interval
(Sarvak I), based on 52 UBI bedding dips and 123 FMI bedding dips, is 5° towards S84W. This
structural dip is consistent throughout the logged interval with no evidence of any major structural
Energies 2018, 11, 312 17 of 26
Based on the observations and interpretation of the images from 1194.2 to 1310 m (Well MD-8),
the highlights of the study are summarized (Figure 12). The structural dip in the logged interval
(Sarvak I), based on 52 UBI bedding dips and 123 FMI bedding dips, is 5◦ towards S84W. This structural
dip is consistent throughout the logged interval with no evidence of any major structural boundary
such as a major
boundary such as fault or angular
a major fault unconformity. Fracturing is
or angular unconformity. observed is
Fracturing at observed
a numberatofaplaces.
number FMIof
images also show fractures in a number of places. Both dip and dip direction of the
places. FMI images also show fractures in a number of places. Both dip and dip direction of the UBI UBI major open
fractures show high variation. ◦ –90◦ with dominant
major open fractures show highHowever,
variation.the dip magnitude
However, varies between
the dip magnitude 45between
varies 45°–90° with
values of 83 ◦ –88◦ . The same condition is true for the dip direction that has a dominant direction
dominant values of 83°–88°. The same condition is true for the dip direction that has a dominant
towards N67W,
direction towards varying
N67W,almost
varyingin all directions.
almost in all UBI minor open
directions. fractures
UBI minor dipfractures
open mainly towards the
dip mainly
SW, NW and NE with dip varying from 45 ◦ –90◦ with a dominant 84◦ dip. For FMI resistive fractures,
towards the SW, NW and NE with dip varying from 45°–90° with a dominant 84° dip. For FMI
the dip ranges
resistive between
fractures, 38◦ –90
the dip
◦ toward mainly the SW with a similar dominant dip. Some minor dip
ranges between 38°–90° toward mainly the SW with a similar dominant
directions towards NW, NE and
dip. Some minor dip directions towards SE are also
NW, significant.
NE and SE are also significant.
Figure 12. Statistical plots of FMI and UBI bedding dips identified and picked up from the FMI and
Figure 12. Statistical plots of FMI and UBI bedding dips identified and picked up from the FMI and
UBI images acquired across 1194.2–1310 m interval of the Well MD-8.
UBI images acquired across 1194.2–1310 m interval of the Well MD-8.
3.4. Earth Stresses—Geological Inference
Natural stresses can neither be computed nor precisely measured; they can only be estimated at
some level of reliability using a variety of techniques. Stresses are different for each point in the earth
and a “stress state” can only be defined at a single point. In situ stresses can be estimated through
field measurements (e.g., image logs, hydraulic fracture tests, step-rate injection tests, calibrated
Energies 2018, 11, 312 18 of 26
3.4. Earth Stresses—Geological Inference

Natural stresses can neither be computed nor precisely measured; they can only be estimated at
some level of reliability using a variety of techniques. Stresses are different for each point in the earth
and a “stress state” can only be defined at a single point. In situ stresses can be estimated through
field measurements
fractures, borehole (e.g., image logs,
breakouts). hydraulic fracture
A combination tests, step-rate
of methods for eachinjection tests, calibrated
study region is necessary dipoleto
sonic logs) or inferred through geological indicators (e.g., tectonic fabric
integrate data between wells, to reduce uncertainty (each method has particular limitations in NFRs) and history, faults, fractures,
borehole
and to build breakouts). a combination model
the 3-D geomechanics of methods for each
that will servestudy
as theregion
basis isfornecessary
reservoir to integrate data
simulations and
between
predictions. wells, to reduce uncertainty (each method has particular limitations in NFCRs) and to build
the 3-DTo geomechanics model that will
conduct a comprehensive serve as of
assessment thenatural
basis for reservoir
fractures in simulations
the reservoir, andall predictions.
fractures were
To conduct a comprehensive assessment of natural fractures
measured on whole and slabbed cores reoriented to their original status in the reservoir using in the reservoir, all fractures were
measured on whole and slabbed cores reoriented to their original status in the
geological criteria and image log data. Results obtained from core analysis are presented in Figure 13a. reservoir using geological
criteria
Orientationand image
of thelog data. Results
detected fracturesobtained
in coresfromis core
highly analysis are presented
variable; however, in Figure
most 13a. Orientation
fractures are steep,
of
N-S to NNE trending structures with dip azimuth towards the E to EES. This suggests that theto
the detected fractures in cores is highly variable; however, most fractures are steep, N-S NNE
Persian
trending structures with dip azimuth towards the E to EES. This suggests
Gulf Sedimentary Basin seems to be detached from its basement. Results obtained from fracture study that the Persian Gulf
Sedimentary
by using image Basin seems
logs are to be detached
presented from its13b.
in Figure basement. Results
The results of obtained from fracture
core analysis are morestudy by
or less
using image logs are presented in Figure 13b. The results of core analysis
consistent with image log analysis but there are some differences between the results obtained from are more or less consistent
with
theseimage log analysis
two methods. The but
study there
areaareis some differences
a tectonically between
active area andthemultiple
results obtained
tectonic from
eventsthese
overtwothe
methods. The study area is a tectonically active area and multiple tectonic
past geological history of the study area can be considered as responsible for rotation of the structures events over the past
geological
(e.g., a massivehistory90 ofkmthein study
11 kmarea can beThe
anticline). considered
trends ofasnatural
responsible for rotation
fractures measured of from
the structures
cores are
(e.g.,
aligned a massive
with the90 km in 11 km anticline).
Qatar-Kazerun fault system The trends
in the studyof area.
naturalThefractures measured
Qatar-Kazerun faultfrom
has cores
tilted are
the
aligned with the Qatar-Kazerun fault system in the study area. The Qatar-Kazerun
nose of the Kuh-e-Mond anticline. Such a rotation can result in orientation of the fractures both at fault has tilted the
nose
depthofand the at
Kuh-e-Mond
the surfaceanticline.
at variousSuch a rotation
directions andcan result in
at points in orientation
the study area.of the
It fractures
should beboth at depth
highlighted
and
hereatthatthe using
surfacefracture
at variousdatadirections
derived and fromatcore
points datain the
andstudy
imagearea.
logsItisshould be highlighted
considered here
more reliable
that using fracture data derived from core data and image logs is considered
compared with the surface fracture studies data, as they are more likely to represent the current in more reliable compared
with the surface
situ stress state. fracture studies data, as they are more likely to represent the current in situ stress state.
13. Rose diagram of trends of natural

Figure 13. natural fractures
fractures measured in image
image logs (a);
(a); Rose
Rose diagram
diagram of
trends of natural fractures from core analysis (b).
trends of natural fractures from core analysis (b).
3.4.1. Magnitude
3.4.1. Magnitude of
of the
the In
In Situ
Situ Principal
Principal Stresses
Stresses
Vertical stress
Vertical stress magnitudes
magnitudes (σ (σvv)) can
can be
be estimated
estimated by
by establishing
establishing depth-density
depth-density relationships
relationships
within about 2 to 4% reliability. Hydraulic Fracturing (HF), including leak-off
within about 2 to 4% reliability. Hydraulic Fracturing (HF), including leak-off tests, is tests, is the
the most
most
common technique for measuring the σ magnitudes while drilling [37] if σ is
common technique for measuring the σhmin magnitudes while drilling [37] if σhmin is vertical but no
hmin hmin vertical but no
method alone
method alone can
canreliably
reliablymeasure
measurethe theσσ HMAX. σHMAX can be estimated using a formula proposed by
HMAX . σHMAX can be estimated using a formula proposed by
Hubert and Willis (1957) [38]. Extended leak-off
Hubert and Willis (1957) [38]. Extended leak-off test, test, XLOT,
XLOT, along
along with
with fracture
fracture reopening
reopening testtest can
can
be used to estimate provided that the rock behaves elastically and that there are no severe thermal,
poroelastic, or plasticity effects arising from the drilling and testing [39].
The relative quantity of the principal stresses can be determined via using geological inference
from the tectonic history of the sedimentary basin. This is the case, especially when there are
relatively recent tectonic activities in the region such as movement of faults that are sufficiently close
to the site. As an example, salt at depth can create distinct elongated ridges, almost “waves.” Such
Energies 2018, 11, 312 19 of 26
be used to estimate provided that the rock behaves elastically and that there are no severe thermal,
poroelastic, or plasticity effects arising from the drilling and testing [39].
The relative quantity of the principal stresses can be determined via using geological inference
from the tectonic history of the sedimentary basin. This is the case, especially when there are relatively
recent tectonic activities in the region such as movement of faults that are sufficiently close to the site.
As an example, salt at depth can create distinct elongated ridges, almost “waves.” Such structures are
oriented at 90◦ from σhmin (=σ3 ). Hence, a relative quantity compared with the other two principal
stresses can be determined.
Stress measurements using hydraulic fracturing and extended leak-off tests data are widely
employed and commercial services are available (e.g., Minifrac™) based on precision pumps, bottom
hole gauges and a refined methodology. Minimum stress magnitudes (σ3 ) from these data are highly
reliable. Because of various effects, σHMAX values may be interpreted often as a lower-bound estimate:
the actual σHMAX stress is likely to be larger than the calculated value.
In contrast to σv(z) , increase in lateral stresses is not monotonic with depth at the scale of geological
or rock units. Layers with different stiffness deviate from a regular increase pattern in lateral stress
quantity. In addition, the quantity and nature of the difference depends on the rock type and the stress
history in the region such as tectonic loading and erosion unloading. Lateral stresses in ductile shales
are often closer to the vertical stress than the lateral stresses in adjacent stiff rocks such as dolomites
and sandstones and in salt an isotropic stress state can be assumed.
Magnitudes of estimated in situ principal stresses and pore pressure were made at a depth of
1200 m in well MD-8; a hydrostatic stress regime is assumed here for pore pressure:
Po = h × γw = 1200 × 9.81 = 11.77 MPa
σ2 = σV = h × γ = 1200 × 25 = 30 MPa
σ3 = σhmin = K × σV = K × σ2 = 13.5
K was obtained as 0.45 based on Sheorey’s model [40].
σ1 = σHMAX > σ2 = σV = 30 MPa > σ3 = σhmin = 13.5 MPa
As one can see, the earth stress regime in the study area is a compressive stress regime as expected.
Better estimates can also be obtained for the σhmin and fracturing pressure using hydraulic fracturing
data. Unfortunately, there was no hydraulic fracturing test data available for the study area for use
in calculations. Note that the estimated magnitudes of in situ principal stresses in this study are
just “rough estimates” for such a big structure and oil field. This is despite the fact that values are
consistent with the geological and field evidences from the study area. Implementation of some form
of more detailed in situ measurement techniques for delineation of the stress field in the study area
is inevitable.
3.4.2. Orientations of the In Situ Stresses

Stresses are controlled primarily by lithostatic loads and present-day tectonic loading [20,21,41].
Surface indicators (contemporary stress orientations) such as “pop ups” (small stress relief anticlines), may
reveal mean stress orientations, the axis of the anticline will be roughly perpendicular to σHMAX [42,43].
Brittle fractures parallel to σHMAX can form at the surface. Subsurface indicators such as breakouts are
the best for oil wells and aligned with σhmin . Borehole images help in distinguishing genuine breakouts
from other features [20,21]. In most cases where breakouts occur the rock was subject to very high stress
anisotropy. Core features, stress relief (center line petal fracturing, coring induced fractures, core disking)
can be used and orientations of principal stresses can be estimated from the orientation of recovered
strains using stress relief techniques on cores [44].
Energies 2018, 11, 312 20 of 26
Geological inference is considered as a powerful and useful technique for assessment of the
direction of earth stresses. In general, near faults, mountain chains and graben-rift systems the stress
directions mirror the geological structures. For example, σ3 = σhmin is in the same direction with strike
of an active normal fault. However, its direction is perpendicular to the fault strike if the fault is
a thrust fault and then σ3 = σv . For a strike-slip fault, first the motion direction needs to be found and
then σ3 = σhmin directions can be determined. Normally, the orientation of σhmin about 60◦ –70◦ from
the fault’s strike. a check is required to ensure that the present-day stresses are measured and stress
field has not rotated since the last tectonic activity in the region.
Large hydraulically induced fractures are perpendicular to σ3 , simply because this is the most
energetically efficient orientation for fractures to open. Provided that σhmin = σ3 , the fracture will
grow and spread vertically in the natural stress state. To be used as an indicator of stress directions,
the fracture should be big enough to be far from the influence of the borehole region. In addition,
it should be much longer than the joint spacing in the rock mass as the joints can affect the local fracture
propagation but not large-scale direction. The most reliable method to determine the orientation of
large vertical hydraulic fractures at moderate depths is using high precision tiltmeters.
From core analysis and image logs, it can be concluded that the orientation of the maximum
horizontal stress (σHMAX = σ1 ) around the well MD-8 is NE-SW as shown in Figure 14. Hence,
the orientation of σhmin (=σ3 ) is NW-SE and σ2 is vertical, as well. For petroleum geomechanics
purposes, these results are more reliable compared with the information obtained from surface fracture
studies for such a tectonically active area and such a large geological structure and oil field.
Figure 14. Direction of maximum principal earth stresses (Red arrows) and strain rates from seismic
Figure 14. Direction of maximum principal earth stresses (Red arrows) and strain rates from seismic
(Black arrows) and geodetic (Purple arrows) data in the Iranian plateau (Modified from [45]).
(Black arrows) and geodetic (Purple arrows) data in the Iranian plateau (Modified from [45]).
Generation of fractures in the Jahrum Formation occurred because of tectonic events within a
Neo-Tethys age basin, which included the development of the present-day Zagros foreland basin. By
the Late Cretaceous, basin convergence occurred due to subduction of the Arabian plate [46]).
Continuing collision movements up to the late Miocene caused buckling which led to the shortening
Energies 2018, 11, 312 21 of 26
3.4.3. Pore Pressure Estimation

To complete the determination of stress state, knowledge about pore pressure is required.
In general, these cannot be estimated reliably and with precision with any known means. This is due
to geological heterogeneity and complex geological structures in geological environments similar to
the case study presented here. It is recommended to check the estimates with seismic methods and
extrapolation from offset wells, which can be quite useful in specific basin settings. During hydraulic
fracturing with precision tools and packers to isolate the fracture zone, it is often possible to also
obtain a good value of the pore pressure. If various methods are used, then it is normally possible to
have proper data on orientation of the earth stresses and reasonable values for Po , σv , and σhmin , with
a rough estimate of σHMAX from geological inference.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Origins of Natural Fractures in the Study Area

In geomechanics, natural fracture types can be divided into two classes considering their mode
of creation: shear fractures, which are created through shearing of the rock parallel to the fracture
formed and tension (extensional) fractures, which are created through extensional strain perpendicular
to the fracture plane. In NFCRs, there are at least three sources of fractures. One is the high solubility
of the carbonate rock that leads to porosity loss through internal mass transfer during diagenesis,
causing a general shrinkage in the horizontal plane and leading to some fracturing when Po > σhmin .
Similarly, volume diminution during dolomitization leads to opening of factures in a similar manner.
Finally, there is the flexure response aspect of a stiff rock, which leads to open fractures. Non-fractured
carbonates, invariably not too deeply buried, are far rarer than fractured carbonates because of
these processes.
Geological interpretation of the fracturing system in the study area based on the tectono-physical
models (Figure 14) showed that formation of the anticlinal fold is due to the vertical tectonic
displacement of a deep-seated feature, which could be a basement block or a salt ridge. Another
major system of fracturing identified as a radial system was formed by a deep-seated local center of
tectonic uplift.
The averaged vertical in-line sections (Figure 7) show a more complicated image of a random
distribution of fractures as compared to the previous cross-section. The random character of fracture
distribution is increasing at depths below 4 km where the distribution of anomalies of maximum and
minimum fracturing intensity has a mosaic character.
Generation of fractures in the Jahrum Formation occurred because of tectonic events within
a Neo-Tethys age basin, which included the development of the present-day Zagros foreland basin.
By the Late Cretaceous, basin convergence occurred due to subduction of the Arabian plate [46]).
Continuing collision movements up to the late Miocene caused buckling which led to the shortening of
the mountain range of the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt. The shortening normal to the Zagros range was
confirmed by using magnetic fabric data from the Kuh-e-Mond anticline. Layer-parallel shortening
in early to middle Miocene has leaded to detachment folding in the Kuh-e-Mond region adjacent to
the Kazerun Fault [47–52]. This tectonic event created interconnected fractures over large distances,
which significantly increased porosity and permeability and influenced draining and accumulation of
petroleum fluids in the carbonate reservoirs [53–57].
4.2. Present Day Stress Field Orientation in the Study Area

The present day tectonic stress state in the Middle East, the most prolific hydrocarbon basin in the
world where vast amounts of hydrocarbon production are taking place, remains poorly understood
in detail due to lack of data. Nevertheless, present-day stress field orientation in the study area is
shown in Figures 14 and 15 based on the currently available data in the public domain. These maps
show that the azimuth of σ1 and σ3 in the study area is approximately 030◦ –035◦ and 120◦ –125◦ ,
Energies 2018, 11, 312 22 of 26
respectively and σ2 is vertical and equal to the overburden weight. This orientation of in situ stress
field is consistent with the geotectonics (passive plate tectonics margins), structural geology, image
logs and fracture study used. Estimates made in this study using multiple sources such as core analysis
and image logs are in a good agreement with estimates suggested by World Stress Map and geological
and geotectonic evidences.
Figure 15. World Stress Map generated for the study area to infer the orientation of the in situ stress
Figure 15. World Stress Map generated for the study area to infer the orientation of the in situ stress
field (Courtesy of the World Stress Map Project) [53].
field (Courtesy of the World Stress Map Project) [53].
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Data from outcrop studies, core analysis, SVSL seismic method and borehole image logs (FMI
Data from outcrop studies, core analysis, SVSL seismic method and borehole image logs (FMI and
and UBI logs) were implemented to delineate natural fracture systems in a heavy oil fractured
UBI logs) were implemented to delineate natural fracture systems in a heavy oil fractured carbonate
carbonate field in Iran. In addition, available data and techniques including core analysis, image logs,
field in Iran. In addition, available data and techniques including core analysis, image logs, World
World Stress Map and geological and geotectonics inference were utilized to infer the in situ stress
Stress Map and geological and geotectonics inference were utilized to infer the in situ stress state in
state in the study area. The following major conclusions can be drawn based on the results obtained
the study area. The following major conclusions can be drawn based on the results obtained from
from this study:
this study:
• Integrated studies of natural fracture systems in fractured reservoirs can be instrumental in E&P
projects and site characterization practices for geological CO2 sequestration projects.
• Borehole image logs, FMI and UBI, proved to be useful tools in identifying and characterizing
natural fractures in the study area.
• The studied reservoirs, including regions in both Jahrum and Sarvak formations are highly
Energies 2018, 11, 312 23 of 26
• Integrated studies of natural fracture systems in fractured reservoirs can be instrumental in E&P
projects and site characterization practices for geological CO2 sequestration projects.
• Borehole image logs, FMI and UBI, proved to be useful tools in identifying and characterizing
natural fractures in the study area.
• The studied reservoirs, including regions in both Jahrum and Sarvak formations are highly
fractured. Three dominant orientations were identified for vertical and sub-vertical fractures
atop the crestal region of the anticlinal structure: N, NE and E. Both the surface and subsurface
fractures are shear fracture type of tectonic origin nearly in the same direction. Distribution of
open fracturing in the study area depends on tectonic, lithology, overburden and rock dilation.
Tectonics is the major factor.
• NE-SW and NW-SE found to be the dominant orientations for maximum and minimum horizontal
stresses in the study area.
• Most fractures are steep, N-S to NNE trending structures with dip azimuth towards the E to EES.
This suggests that the Persian Gulf Sedimentary Basin seems to be detached.
• From image logs, the strike azimuth of the drilling induced fracture is N45◦ W, which indicates
that the orientation of σHMAX = σ1 around the well MD-8 is NE-SW; the orientation of σhmin = σ3
is NW-SE and σ2 is vertical. Azimuths of σ1 and σ3 in the study area are 030◦ to 035◦ and 120◦ to
125◦ ; respectively.
• Estimated magnitudes of the in situ principal stresses and pore pressure at depth of 1200 m in
well MD-8 are: Po = 11.77 MPa, σ2 = σV = 30 MPa, σ3 = σhmin = 13.5 MPa and σ1 = σHMAX = > σ2
= σV = 30 MPa > σ3 = σhmin = 13.5 MPa.
Author Contributions: Ali Shafiei conceived the idea and wrote the first draft of the manuscript;
Maurice B. Dusseault reviewed the manuscript multiple times and contributed to the writing of the manuscript at
various stages; Ehsan Kosari reviewed the manuscript and helped with analysis of the fracture data and wrote
small sections on structural geology of the study area; Morteza N. Taleghani has reviewed the manuscript and
helped with analysis and interpretation of the image logs and seismic data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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Received: 9 December 2017; Accepted: 25 January 2018; Published: 1 February 2018

Energies 2018, 11, 312; doi:10.3390/en11020312 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

2. Kuh-e-Mond Heavy Oil Field

Energies 2018, 11,Figure

The SVSL approach

3.3. FMI and UBI Image Logs

3.4. Earth Stresses—Geological Inference

13. Rose diagram of trends of natural

Po = h × γw = 1200 × 9.81 = 11.77 MPa

K was obtained as 0.45 based on Sheorey’s model [40].

σ1 = σHMAX > σ2 = σV = 30 MPa > σ3 = σhmin = 13.5 MPa

3.4.2. Orientations of the In Situ Stresses

3.4.3. Pore Pressure Estimation

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Origins of Natural Fractures in the Study Area

4.2. Present Day Stress Field Orientation in the Study Area

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