Significance of a Slopes and Maps in the field of Architecture

by

Gabriel Aron Kyle P. Legua

Submitted to:

Mr. Gerelson Ray R. Bernardino

February 1, 2024
II. Table of Contents

I. Title Page……………………………………………………..………………………1

II. Table of Contents……………………………………….…………..……………….2

III. Introduction………………………………………………………..………………3-4

Background of the Study…………...………………………..……………..3-4

Purpose of the Study…………………………………………..………….…..4

Scope………………………………………………………..…………….……4

IV. Body………………………………………………………………………..…….5-16

Slope………………………………………………………………………….5-6

Slopes and Structures………………………………………………………6-7

Slope Analysis………………………………………………………...……..7-9

Slope and Angle Repose……………………...……………………..……9-10

Maps/Types of Maps…………………………………...……………...…10-16

V. Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………17

VI. Recommendations………………………………………………………………...18

VII. References………………………………………………………………………...19

VIII. Appendix/Appendices……………………………………………….……….20-23

2
III. Introduction

Background of the study

A variety of processes influence slope settings, including sediment bypass,

mass wasting, canyon and gully incision, and/or broad suspension settling of fine-
grained particulate debris. On slopes, coarse-grained debris can accumulate
significantly, especially when ponding occurs in channels and minibasins. Ichnology
has been neglected in slope strata assessment, owing to the misconception that slope
trace-fossil suites are rather uniform and only belong to the Zoophycos Ichnofacies or
are virtually indistinguishable from basin-floor assemblages. Organisms on the slope
respond to a variety of parameters, including current energy, sedimentation, slope
instability, substrate consistency, oxygen and food availability, and water turbidity, all
of which are influenced by basin circulation, water stratification, shelf width, and
sediment supply.

Due to a lack of specific control signs and advice, the present code for
structures primarily concentrates on buildings on the ground, ignoring the unique
characteristics of structures on slopes. From three perspectives seismic design,
foundation design, and supporting structure design a number of issues that need for
extra care in the design process were presented, along with some sample solutions.

Slope stability analysis is a critical and complex issue in civil engineering,

especially for large-scale projects like dams, mining, highways, and tunnels. Many
ways exist for determining the stability of a particular slope. The primary goal of slope
stability analysis is normally to calculate a factor of safety (FS) against slope failure.
Despite much research over the previous few decades, slope stability analysis remains
a barrier in geotechnical engineering.

In industrial and technical applications, granular materials such as powders,

seeds, and soils are required. As a result, additional research and developments are
currently required to optimize and facilitate the handling and manufacture of bulk
granular materials. Such advancements are based on an understanding of the varied
characteristics and mechanical behavior of these materials. When granular materials
are sheared or disturbed, they behave as non-Newtonian fluids rather than stable, solid
materials, which presents issues in handling and manufacturing. Furthermore, stress
is not distributed uniformly in granular materials, but rather along force chains that are
determined by particle interactions and packing arrangement. Granule flowability

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depends on several characteristics, including the angle of repose. This overview
discusses the various definitions, measurement methods, and applications of the angle
of repose, which can be used to determine flowability.

In architecture, various types of maps are employed to facilitate the planning,

design, and construction processes. These maps such as Topographic Maps, Site
Plans, Zoning Maps, Survey Maps, Utility Maps, and the Climate and Weather Maps
provide valuable information about the site, surroundings, and other relevant factors
that influence architectural decisions. By utilizing these types of maps, architects can
make informed decisions during the design process, creating structures that are well-
integrated with their surroundings and adhere to regulatory requirements.

Purpose of the study

This study aims to help architects and architecture students become more
knowledgeable about techniques that they can apply on sloping sites when they come
across this kind of project. It also aims to familiarize students and architects with other
terms and mathematical techniques used in slope analysis, and it helps them properly
analyze the site using the various types of maps used in architecture. Ultimately, the
goal of this study is to enhance the skills of every architecture students when it comes
to designing structures on the sloping sites.

Scope

This study will focus only on the Slopes and types of maps use in Architecture,
this is only limited for the Architects and Architecture students who possibly facing the
different kinds of sites in the future. This will be delimited to the other course or
profession which has nothing to do with the field of construction and sites.

This study only addressed the slope sites, particularly in the mountainous
region where the structures are to be erected. In contrast to sloping sites, which are
riskier and require deeper procedures, the flat surface area will be the boundary of this
study.

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IV. Body

Slopes

Deposits from the continental slope, as well as other slopes associated with
high-relief basin edges, record sedimentological processes that are important for
understanding sediment movement from continents to deep-sea basins. In many
cases, slopes can be thought of largely as zones of sedimentary bypass, in which
coarse-grained sediment from the continent is routed through conduits such as
undersea canyons before aggregating as submarine fans on the basin floor. Extensive
and frequent mass-wasting events also play important roles in sediment remobilization
and bypass on slopes. Contour currents play an important role in shaping the seascape
on numerous boundaries. It is critical to note that slopes can be as diverse as many
better-documented depositional environments; in many cases, slope accretion by
broad suspension settling of fine-grained particle debris is the dominant process.

Building reliable depositional models for old sedimentary successions requires

the integration of ichnological and sedimentological data. Significant sedimentological
and geomorphological studies of slope units conducted over the previous 20 years
have improved our understanding of these settings, particularly the key physical
processes that are at play (e.g., Hodgson et al., 2011, Normark et al., 2009, Paull et
al., 2005, Posamentier and Kolla, 2003, Prather et al., 1998). These investigations offer
the foundation for combining trace-fossil data, which will eventually result in the
creation of more reliable facies models appropriate for slope stratigraphic
interpretations. According to Seilacher's classical study, the zone between the turbidite
sedimentation and wave-influence zones is characterized by the presence of
Zoophycos Ichnofacies. Naturally, our understanding of the variety of sedimentary
processes including both depositional and turbidity current bypassing that affect the
slope has expanded. According to cf. MacEachern et al., 2007a, The Zoophycos
Ichnofacies is commonly depicted in popular bathymetric schemes as a middleman
between the Cruziana Ichnofacies and the Nereites Ichnofacies, a misconception that
harms the ichnofacies. Reassessing the Ichnofacies of Zoophycos by Seilacher (1978)
and Frey and Seilacher (1980) revealed that reduced oxygen levels, linked to organic
waste building up in mostly persistent low-energy regimes, are one of the main
environmental constraints typifying the Zoophycos Ichnofacies. Such conditions are
typically seen in slope settings devoid of continuous oceanic currents and in distal
(outer) shelf settings. Though more varied, the resulting ichnological suites in more

5
dynamic slope situations often stay within the ethological bounds of the Zoophycos
Ichnofacies.

Over the past 20 years, the discovery of significant intraslope sand

accumulations has revolutionized slope sedimentology and stratigraphy. This change
has been largely attributed to the creation of predictive models by oil industry experts
(e.g., Prather et al., 1998). It has been demonstrated that intraslope minibasins are
frequently characterized by sand-rich fills and are the result of a mix of processes
including mass-wasting, growth-fault development, extensional rifting, and/or salt
withdrawal. Ponded sandstone has also frequently been found in conduits, such as
underwater canyons and gullies.

Slopes and Structures

In recent years, as environmental requirements have increased and people

have learned to adapt to their natural surroundings, mountainous terrain has resulted
in an increasing amount of building in suburban mountain and mountain city areas.
Because of the mountainous environment, mountain building structures are required
to be on slopes and cannot be reduced to the same level of structural forms, meaning
that a portion of the base component is not bounded by the same horizontal plane.
The topography and structure of the mountains must be adjusted to create a distinctive
form, however this is difficult due to the steep environment and the resulting irregular
vertical planes. This establishes the intricacy and uniqueness of the seismic reaction
of structures in mountains.

According to Guangzhou Residential Architecture Design Institute Co. Ltd.,

Guangzhou, Guangdong 510623, China, Targeted study is still comparatively sparse
since there is a dearth of mountain seismic design for building structures and unique
comprehension issues with the investigation and analysis of earthquake damage.
There is no system in place for doing fundamental research on the unique structural
design issues that arise in mountainous regions, nor is there study on the design
guidelines for mountain building structures that does not comply with national
standards. Research in this field has made some progress, though, as more and more
real-world engineering needs and experience have accumulated.

6
 Type Delimitation mountain building structure, The primary mountain building
styles in Chongqing Residential are characterized by their foot structure and layer
structure, as seen in Figure below. Two groups or types can be developed from basic
engineering practice.

Slope Analysis

Slope analysis typically refers to the examination of the steepness or incline

of a surface or terrain. It is commonly used in various fields, including geography,
geology, civil engineering, environmental science, and even in financial analysis.
Here are a few contexts in which slope analysis is applied:

1. Geography and Geology:

In geography and geology, slope analysis is crucial for understanding the topography
of an area. It involves measuring the incline of the land surface and can be used to
identify potential landslide-prone areas or to assess the overall stability of a region.

2. Civil Engineering:

In civil engineering, slope analysis is vital for designing infrastructure projects such as
roads, highways, and bridges. Engineers analyze slopes to ensure the stability of
structures and to prevent issues like soil erosion or landslides.

7
3. Environmental Science:

Slope analysis is also used in environmental science to study the impact of slopes on
ecosystems. Steep slopes can affect water runoff, leading to changes in soil erosion
patterns and potentially influencing vegetation distribution.

4. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs):

Slope analysis is frequently applied to digital elevation models, which are

representations of the Earth's surface in digital form. By analyzing the slope of the
terrain in DEMs, researchers can gain insights into landscape characteristics.

5. Financial Analysis:

In financial analysis, slope analysis may refer to examining the slope of a regression
line in a scatter plot. This can be used to assess the relationship between two variables,
such as the correlation between the performance of two financial assets.

6. Mathematics:

In mathematical terms, slope is the ratio of the vertical change to the horizontal change
between two points on a line. It's a fundamental concept in calculus and is used to
describe the rate of change or steepness of a curve.

The methods and tools used for slope analysis can vary depending on the context. In
geography and geology, for example, Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
software is often employed to analyze digital elevation data and calculate slope
values. Civil engineers may use slope stability analysis methods and modeling
software for infrastructure projects.

According to the book of Slope Analysis by Henry and Smith Method, The term
‘slope’ denotes some small portion of the land surface which is inclined from the
horizontal one. It may be scientifically explained as the ratio between the vertical rise
and the equivalent horizontal distance on the surface of the earth. Slope is considered
one of the most important morphological attributes which helps in studying the surface
configuration of the terrain. The flow of running water, the amount of surface run-off,

8
intensity of soil erosion, transportation and deposition are governed by the degree of
slope. Therefore, it is regarded as the base of geomorphological map. Since it controls
surface materials and weathering processes, it exerts strong influence on the land use.
In the hilly terrain the pattern of crop land use and distributional pattern of settlements
are governed mostly by the nature of slope. The soil survey of Great Britain considers
slope as one of the five basic parameters influencing land use capability classes and
the Forestry Commission treats slope as one of the three parameters in terrain
evaluation. So the determination of slope and its reproduction requires careful attention
and scrutiny.

Although from the very beginning of geomorphological studies, analysis of

slope and its categorization have received due attention yet the scientific and
systematic quantitative studies could start only in the first quarter of 20th century.
Significant contributions on this aspect have been made by Rich (1916), Wentworth
(1930), Raisz and Henry (1937), Smith (1938), Wood (1942), Robinson (1948), King
(1949), Calef (1950), Strahler (1956), Monkhouse and Wilkinson (1964), Young (1972),
Gerrard (1987) etc.

Slope and Angle of Repose

Angle of repose is a term used in science and engineering and can have two
related meanings. It is generally used to describe the maximum angle, measured
upwards from the horizontal, at which a pile of a particular granular material will
remain stable without any of the material sliding downward. It can also refer to a
combination of a ramp or other slope and an object resting upon it. In this case, it is
the maximum angle at which the ramp or slope will support the object without it
sliding downward. In either case, the critical angle of repose, as it is more properly
known, will always be greater than 0° and less than 90°, and most materials will have
one of 45° or less.

Any granular material, even very big individual units such as massive chunks
of fractured concrete or boulder-sized rocks, will naturally create a cone-shaped pile
when deposited from a height on a level surface. For that specific material or
composition, the angle of repose will be roughly represented by the cone's natural
profile. Pile formations with shallower sides are typically formed by very small or
smooth grains that do not exert much friction on one another. Pile formation is
typically characterized by steeper sides and a higher angle due to the rougher or

9
highly adherent granules. For the majority of materials, moisture content also has a
major impact on this measurement.

This measurement is frequently used by geologists, mining professionals, and

civil engineers to assess the risk of avalanche as well as the risk of slope collapse
and embankment collapse. It can help engineers develop granular material storage
and transportation equipment by providing insight into the proper dimensions and
form of these devices. When planning and supervising construction and land
management projects, like levees, dams, and elevated roadbeds, civil engineers use
the data. It is used by geologists and vulcanologists to investigate processes
associated with rock weathering and sediment deposition, as well as to forecast
potential behavior of cinder cones and sand volcanoes.

A variety of techniques are employed by scientists and engineers to determine

the angle of repose of a granular material or combination. For any substance with small
enough grains to be easily handled, there are a number of easy experiments for
figuring out the angle, as well as calculations and formulas that use already published
data. The figures tend to be close approximations rather than exact values, depending
on the method and the quality of possible measurements; however, this does not
lessen or remove their usefulness.

When sand cascades down the face of a dune, it comes to rest at a slope that
has nearly the same angle as a cone-shaped pile of sand formed by a colony of ants.
A pile of wheat develops a nearly identical cone having essentially the same slope.
This slope angle must therefore be an intrinsic property of loose grains, a property that
is generally termed the angle of repose, the acute angle that the slope makes with the
horizontal. On average this angle is approximately 33°, but varies by a few degrees
depending on the sizes and shapes of the grains, as well as on other factors such as
the moisture content. According to Van Burkalow, 1945; Allen, 1969; Carrigy, 1970,
Investigations of the angle of repose have produced the slope in the laboratory by: (a)
carefully pouring loose particles into a pile, (b) removing one side of a container to
release the particles, or (c) rotating a trough containing grains until movement forms a
slope.

Maps/Types of Maps

There are many different types of maps, which are usually classified according
to what they are attempting to show.

10
 However, it must be noted that there are many different ways to interpret the
types of maps. There are different types of maps that is very essential the field of
Architecture and Engineering: These maps such as Topographic Maps, Site Plans,
Zoning Maps, Survey Maps, Utility Maps, and the Climate and Weather Maps.

Topographic Maps

The distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is the use of elevation

contour lines to show the shape of the Earth's surface. Elevation contours are
imaginary lines connecting points having the same elevation on the surface of the land
above or below a reference surface, which is usually mean sea level. Contours make
it possible to show the height and shape of mountains, the depths of the ocean bottom,
and the steepness of slopes.

USGS topographic maps also show many other kinds of geographic features
including roads, railroads, rivers, streams, lakes, boundaries, place or feature names,
mountains, and much more. Older maps (published before 2006) show additional
features such as trails, buildings, towns, mountain elevations, and survey control
points. Those will be added to more current maps over time.

Image from:ThoughtCo.

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Site Plans

According to the book of Marsh and Partners A site plan is a graphic

representation of all existing and proposed improvements to a site. Sometimes
referred to as a plot plan, the site plan functions as a map for a development project,
incorporating all aspects of landscaping, construction, paving, utilities, and terrain
features in a single depiction.

Site plans are important for several reasons. First, a site plan is almost always required
for planning and development applications. Every municipality has its unique
requirements for the plan review and approval process – the planning department will
review a site plan to ensure it adheres to all applicable ordinances and development
standards.

Second, the plan serves as a common operating picture and project roadmap for the
development team. Capturing all major earthwork, site engineering, and construction
elements on a single plan helps keep the efforts of the engineers, architects, general
contractors, and developers aligned.

Lastly, a site plan is a critical tool to help with project budgeting. As a site is laid out
graphically, engineering and construction requirements are identified, enabling a
developer to better predict and plan for costs ahead of time.

Image from: Location Maps Ltd

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Zoning Maps

Zoning is a legal instrument to regulate the use of land, building size, height,
and setbacks. Zoning is intended to promote an orderly pattern of development and to
separate land uses that are incompatible such as industrial uses and homes.

The official zoning map is a legal document maintained by the Planning and
Development Department that defines the zoning for all areas within the City’s
jurisdiction. Every parcel of land within the City’s jurisdiction, including parkland, has a
zoning designation. The spatial designations in the official zoning map are known as
zoning districts.

Image from:Runnemede NJ

Survey Maps

The output of the ALTA/NSPS Land Title Survey, often known as a Property
Map, is a Plat or Survey Map. The property map, also known as the plat map, can be
extremely detailed and should include a wealth of information about the subject
property, such as ownership, rights, and usage restrictions. All of the data found in the
ALTA Survey will be represented on the plat map, including boundaries, descriptions,
dimensions, closures, easements, servitudes, rights of way, access, and

13
documentation. The 2016 Minimum Standard Detail for ALTA Surveys' wording must
be depicted on the certified plat map of the survey.

Usually, the Plat Map is submitted to the county recorder's office with the
property's deed and other public documents pertaining to the property.

Image from: Smokey Mountain Land Surveying

Utility Maps

Utility mapping is the process of locating, identifying, and mapping

underground utilities such as water and sewage pipes, electrical and communications
cables, gas lines, and other infrastructure. The goal of utility mapping is to create an
accurate and up-to-date record of the location and type of utilities in a given area, and
to provide this information to contractors, engineers, and other professionals who need
to work on or near these utilities.
Utility mapping is typically done using a combination of ground-penetrating radar
(GPR), electromagnetic location equipment, and other specialized tools and
technologies. This information is then compiled into a detailed map that shows the
location and type of each utility, as well as its depth and any other relevant information.

14
Utility mapping is important for several reasons, including:

• Safety: Utility mapping helps to prevent damage to underground utilities during

construction, excavation, or other projects.
• Cost savings: By accurately identifying the location of utilities before a project
begins, utility mapping can help to minimize the costs associated with utility
relocation and damage to underground infrastructure.
• Improved planning: With an accurate and up-to-date record of the location and
type of utilities in a given area, utility mapping can help to inform project
planning and design, ensuring that projects are developed in a way that
minimizes the impact on existing utilities.
• Regulatory compliance: In some cases, utility mapping may be required by
local, state, or federal regulations to ensure that projects are developed in a
safe and responsible manner.
Overall, utility mapping is a critical aspect of many construction, engineering,
and infrastructure projects, providing valuable information to help ensure the
safe and efficient development of these projects.

Image from: ResearchGate

Climate and Weather Maps

In conclusion, although climate maps show average weather data over

extended periods of time and are used to comprehend regional climate trends, weather
maps show the current weather conditions and are used for short-term forecasting.
Whereas climate maps rely on historical data, weather maps emphasize data that is

15
current. Weather maps sometimes cover smaller areas than climate maps, and the
factors shown on each style of map may vary. Lastly, while climate maps are updated
less frequently, weather maps are updated more frequently.

Understanding weather patterns and climate change requires the use of maps,
both climate and weather-related. While climate maps can help people plan for long-
term changes in climate patterns, weather maps can assist individuals in getting ready
for extreme weather occurrences. These maps can also be used to pinpoint locations
that are susceptible to drought or flooding as a result of climate change. In order to
handle the environmental issues our planet is facing, it is imperative that we
comprehend weather patterns and climate change.

Climate change has been linked to a range of environmental issues, including

rising sea levels, increased frequency and intensity of natural disasters, and changes
in temperature and precipitation patterns. Weather maps and climate maps are
important tools for monitoring these changes and developing strategies to address
them.

Image from:SERC

16
V. Conclusions

In conclusion, the study on slopes and types of maps has provided valuable
insights into the relationship between terrain characteristics and cartographic
representation. Through a comprehensive analysis of various map types and their
depiction of slopes, several key findings have emerged.

Firstly, it was observed that different types of maps serve distinct purposes in
conveying slope information. Topographic maps, for instance, excel in presenting
detailed elevation changes, showcasing the varying degrees of steepness across a
landscape. On the other hand, thematic maps may prioritize specific slope-related
features, such as slope distribution or landforms, depending on the intended focus of
the map.

The study also highlighted the importance of considering scale and resolution
when interpreting slope information on maps. Smaller-scale maps may generalize
slope characteristics over larger areas, providing a broader perspective, while larger-
scale maps offer more detailed and localized slope data. Understanding these nuances
is crucial for accurate terrain interpretation and decision-making in fields such as
environmental planning, agriculture, and urban development.

Furthermore, advancements in technology have significantly influenced the

representation of slopes on maps. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote
sensing tools have enhanced the accuracy and precision of slope mapping, enabling
more sophisticated analyses and modeling. The integration of these technologies with
traditional cartographic methods has opened new avenues for creating dynamic and
interactive maps that cater to diverse user needs.

In conclusion, this research emphasizes the need for a nuanced approach

when interpreting slopes on different types of maps. The interplay between map scale,
resolution, and technological advancements underscores the dynamic nature of
cartographic representation. As mapping techniques continue to evolve, future
research may further refine our understanding of how slopes are portrayed and utilized
in diverse applications, contributing to improved decision-making processes and
sustainable development practices.

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VI. Recommendations

This study examined many approaches for building on sloping terrain using
various map types; nevertheless, the study's findings are restricted to feasible
construction methods and procedures.

Future Researchers could investigate how different map projections affect the
representation of slopes. Consider the distortion and scaling issues associated with
various projections and explore methods to mitigate these effects, particularly in
regions with significant terrain variations.

Explore the development of dynamic maps that can represent changes in

slopes over time. Investigate how real-time data and historical slope information can
be integrated into maps to provide a dynamic visualization of evolving terrain
characteristics.

Conduct user-centered design studies to understand how different user groups

interpret and utilize slope information on maps. Identify the specific needs of diverse
users, such as urban planners, hikers, or researchers, and design maps that cater to
their requirements.

Explore the application of machine learning algorithms for automated slope

classification on maps. Investigate the feasibility of using machine learning models to
analyze satellite imagery and generate accurate slope maps, potentially improving
efficiency in large-scale mapping projects.

Focus on the role of slope maps in disaster preparedness and risk mitigation.
Assess how accurately representing slopes on maps can contribute to early warning
systems and effective response strategies in the face of natural disasters like
landslides or flash floods.

These research recommendations aim to push the boundaries of our

understanding of slopes on maps and their practical applications, incorporating
emerging technologies, user perspectives, and specialized mapping considerations.

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VII. REFERENCES

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877705811029997?ref=pdf_down
load&fr=RR-2&rr=84e32c47b9bd8530

https://danielalleje.com/building-on-a-sloping-site-what-you-need-to-know/

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/215271699.pdf

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780444538130000204

https://oldsite.pup.ac.in/e-content/social_sciences/geography/MAGeog113.pdf

https://www.allthescience.org/what-is-the-angle-of-repose.htm

https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-topographic-map

https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-topographic-map

https://raleighnc.gov/planning/services/zoning-map

https://www.partneresi.com/resources/glossary/plat-map-or-survey-
map/#:~:text=A%20Plat%20or%20Survey%20Map,limitations%20to%20use%20the
%20property

https://sitesurvey.co.uk/about-surveying/what-is-utility-mapping/

https://www.spatialpost.com/difference-between-weather-map-and-climate-
map/#:~:text=In%20summary%2C%20weather%20maps%20display,maps%20rely%
20on%20historical%20data

https://guides.library.unt.edu/maps/thematic-and-
historical#:~:text=Historical%20maps%20may%20show%20places,now%20useful%2
0for%20historical%20purposes

19
VIII. Appendix/Appendices

Slopes

How to build on sloped lots

The cut-and-fill method and making the use of stilts are the most common
ways to build a house on a sloped lot.

Cut-and-fill “is a process of levelling out the land by cutting away some of the
earth on the high side and moving it to the low side” (“Building on a Sloping Block,”
2019). This, then, makes construction of the house more time consuming and
expensive.

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 Another method is to build on a series of supporting stilts or columns. Building
on stilts is a more cost-effective choice because it leaves the ground relatively
untouched, and it scraps out the need for expensive foundations.

While there are different resources on how to build on an incline, a thorough

site analysis from the experts is vital to the process. Different sloped lands have
different properties, and so, the cost and the design appropriate for each would be
different.

Slope Stability Analysis

A common type of failure in homogeneous fine-grained soils is a rotational slide

that has its point of rotation on an imaginary axis parallel to the slope (Duncan, 2005).
Brief descriptions of three types of rotational failure that often occur are given below:

• Base slide: occurs by an arc engulfing the whole slope. A soft soil layer resting
on a stiff layer of soil is prone to base failure and passes below the toe Figure
2.1(b).
• Toe slide: whereby the failure surface passes through the toe of the slope
Figure 2.1(c)
• Slope slide: whereby the failure surface passes through the slope and above
the toe Figure 2.1(d)

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Angle Repose

For powders, which can be defined as small-sized granular materials subject

to cohesion and suspension in a gas, the definition of the angle of repose is frequently
linked with the Hausner ratio or the tapped-to-bulk density ratio, and the powders will
flow at angles greater than the angle of repose. The angle of repose can also indicate
the cohesiveness of the granular material, referring to the Carr classification of
flowability shown in Table 1. However, for cohesive materials, the angle of repose is
hard to obtain. Hence, indirect methods are often used, such as the angle-composition
plot method, which is based on mixing the cohesive material with granular material and
plotting the composition against the respective angle of repose to indirectly obtain the
angle of repose of the cohesive material.

Numerous factors, such as the angle of internal friction, grain size and shape,
density, moisture content, interface friction angle, stratification, roughness of the base
at which the material is heaped, segregation, pull-out velocity of the hollow cylinder
(a measurement instrument for the angle of repose), mass of the material, pouring
height, morphology of the material, and addition of solvents, can affect the angle of
repose, as shown later in this review. The angle of internal friction is the angle between
the normal and resultant forces that occur at failure due to shear stresses within a
substance, while the interface friction angle is used to determine the skin frictional
resistance between different substances. Moreover, when the interface friction angle
is determined between two surfaces of the same type of material, it can be
proportionate to the peak angle of internal friction by a ratio between approximately
0.2 and 1.0. In general, the angle of repose ranges from 0° to 90°; while for sand, it
ranges from 30° to 35°, as reported in Table 2.

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