Owned By: Pdf_sells

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS (IDEA) of nerves, blood vessels, small
1. Ingestion of food. glands
2. Digestion of food. ▪ Plexus – extensive network of
3. Elimination of wastes. nerve cell processes (innervated
4. Absorption of nutrients. by the autonomic nerves)
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY 3. Muscularis
▪ With the help of the circulatory ▪ Consists of circular SM (inner),
system, is like a gigantic ‘meals longitudinal SM (outer)
on wheels’, serving 100 T ▪ Enteric nervous system –
customers the nutrients they composed of the nerve plexuses
need of the submucosa and
▪ Has its own quality control and muscularis; controls movement
waste disposal methods and secretion within the tract

4. ISerosa
▪ Outermost layer
▪ Consists of the peritoneum
(smooth epithelial layer +
underlying CT)
▪ Adventitia – connective tissue;
regions of the DT not covered
by the peritoneum

Digestive Tract / Gastrointestinal Tract

▪ Oral cavity, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, anus
Peritoneum
Four Tunics 1. Visceral Peritoneum /
1. Mucosa
Serosa – serous
▪ Innermost tunic
membrane that covers the
▪ Consists of mucous epithelium,
organs
lamina propria (loose CT),
2. Parietal Peritoneum – serous
muscularis mucosae (thins SM
layer) membrane that covers the wall
▪ Mouth, esophagus, anus; resists of the abdominal cavity
abrasion Mesenteries – CT sheets that hold the
▪ Stomach, intestine; absorbs and abdominal cavity organs in place
secrets a. Lesser omentum – connects the
2. Submucosa lesser curvature of the stomach
▪ Thick layer of loose CT, consists to the liver and diaphragm
 Owned By: Pdf_sells
b. Greater omentum – connects organ for taste; one of the major
the greater curvature of the organs of speech
stomach to the transverse colon ❖ Frenulum – thin fold of tissue
and posterior body wall inferior to the tongue
❖ Omental bursa – a Teeth
long, double fold of ▪ 32 teeth in normal adult mouth
mesentery that extends ▪ Located in the mandible and
inferiorly from the maxillae
stomach before looping 1. Incisor – to cut
back to the transverse 2. Canine – to tear
3. Premolars
colon to create a 4. Molars
cavity/pocket 5. Wisdom teeth – third molars
❖ Mesentery proper – Permanent teeth – secondary teeth
attaches the small Primary teeth – deciduous teeth; milk or
intestine to the baby teeth
posterior abdominal
Parts
wall a. Crown
Retroperitoneal – abdominal organs b. Cusps
that have no mesenteries; duodenum, c. Neck
pancreas, ascending + descending d. Root
colon, rectum, kidneys, adrenal
glands, urinary bladder Pulp cavity –
center of the
tooth; contains
blood vessels
nerves, and
pulp
(connective
tissue)
Dentin – bonelike tissue that
surrounds the pulp cavity
Enamel – extremely hard, acellular
substance that covers the dentin of the
tooth drown
Cementum – covers the surface of the
dentin in the root; anchors the tooth in
the jaw
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX, AND Alveoli (along the alveolar process of
ESOPHAGUS mandible x maxillae) – where the teeth
Anatomy of Oral Cavity are rooted
▪ Bounded by the lips and
Gingiva – dense fibrous CT and most
cheeks ++ contains the teeth
and tongue stratified squamous epithelium that
Lips – muscular structures formed by covers the alveolar processes
the orbicularis oris muscle Periodontal ligaments – CT fibers that
Cheeks – buccinators muscles flatten extend from the alveolar walls that hold
the cheeks against teeth the teeth in place
Mastication – begins the process of
mechanical digestion Dental caries / Tooth decay – result of
Tongue – plays a major role in the the breakdown of enamel by acids
process of swallowing; major sensory produced by bacteria on tooth surface
 Owned By: Pdf_sells
Periodontal disease – inflammation x ▪ Contains enzymes that begin the
degeneration of the periodontal process of digestion
ligaments, gingiva, alveolar bone Salivary amylase – a digestive enzyme
Palate and Tonsils
Palate – roof of the oral cavity; prevents
food from passing into the nasal cavity
during chewing and swallowing
a. Hard palate – anterior part that
contains bone
b. Soft palate – posterior portion
that consists of skeletal muscle _
CT
• Uvula – grape-like; posterior
extension of the soft palate
Tonsils – protect against pathogens that breaks the covalent bonds bet.
from entering the nose and mouth glucose molecules (starch) and other
Salivary Glands polysaccharides; enhances the sweet
• Produce saliva (serous + mucous taste of food
fluids) Lysozyme – enzyme that has weak
antibacterial action
Tongue – house taste buds and mucus
Mastication
• Breaks large food particles into
many small ones
• Increases the efficiency of
digestion
Pharynx
• Throat
• Connects the mouth with the
esophagus
3 Pairs of SG • Oropharynx + laryngopharynx –
1. Parotid glands – largest; serous transmit food
glands located anterior to each • Contains pharyngeal constrictor
ear muscles
2. Submandibular glands – Esophagus
produce more serous than ▪ Muscular tube that ransports
mucous secretions food from the pharynx to the
3. Sublingual glands – smallest; stomach
produce primarily ▪ Esophageal sphincters –
regulate the movement of food
mucous secretions
into and out of the esophagus
Mumps – inflammation of the parotid ▪ Cardiac sphincter – lower ES
gland caused by viral infection
Saliva Swallowing / Deglutition
1. Voluntary Phase
▪ Helps keep the oral cavity moist
 Owned By: Pdf_sells
▪ Bolus (mass of food) us formed STOMACH
in the mouth ▪ Functions primarily as a
▪ Bolus is pushed by the tongue storage and mixing chamber
forcing in into the oropharynx for ingested food
2. Pharyngeal Phase
▪ A reflex initiated when a
bolus of food stimulates
receptors in the oropharynx
▪ Epiglottis – tipped posteriorly
to cover the larynx

3. Esophageal Phase
▪ Responsible for moving food
form the pharynx to the
stomach
▪ Peristaltic waves – muscular
contractions of the esophagus
Anatomy
Gastroesophageal opening– opening
from theesophagus into the stomach
Cardiac region – region of
around the gastroesophageal
opening; near the heart
Fundus – most superior part of the
stomach

Body – largest part of the stomach

❖ Greater curvature
❖ Lesser curvature
Pyloric opening – opening from the
stomach into the small intestine
Pyloric sphincter – thick ring of smooth
muscle
 Owned By: Pdf_sells
Pyloric region – region near the pyloric
opening
Outer longitudinal, middle circular,
and inner oblique layer – produce a
churning action in the stomach
Rugae – large folds where the
submucosa and mucosa are thrown into
when the stomach is empty
Gastric pits – openings for the gastric
glands; formed by simple columnar
epithelium

Secretions of the Stomach

Chyme – semifluid mixture (food +
stomach secretions)

1. Hydrochloric acid kills

Epithelial cells of the Stomach microorganisms and activates
1. Surface mucous cells – inner pepsin
surface of stomach & lining the 2. Pepsin breaks covalent bond of
gastric pits; coats and protects proteins to form smaller
the stomach lining peptide chains.
2. Mucous neck cells – produce 3. Mucus lubricates and protects
mucus epithelial cells from the
3. Parietal cells – produce
damaging effect of acidic chime
hydrochloric acid & intrinsic + pepsin
4. Intrinsic factor binds with vit.
factor
4. Endocrine cells – produce B12 (DNA synthesis and RBC
regulatory chemicals prod.) and makes it more
5. Chief cells – produce readily absorbed in the small
pepsinogen (precursor of the intestine
protein digesting enzyme
pepsin) Regulation of Stomach Secretions
1. Cephalic phase – stomach
 Owned By: Pdf_sells
secretions are initiated by the Movement in the Stomach
sight, smell, taste, or thought of ▪ Increased motility = increases
food emptying
2. Gastric phase – partially ▪ Distention of stomach =
digested proteins and increases gastric motility
distention of the stomach
promote secretion A. Mixing waves – thoroughly
➢ Gastrin – hormone that mix ingested food with
enters the circulation stomach secretions to form
and is carried back to the chime
stomach ➢ Fluid part of chime –
3. Intestinal phase – acidic chime pushed toward the
in the duodenum stimulates pyloric sphincter
neuronal reflexes and the ➢ Solid center – moves
secretion of hormones that back toward the body
inhibit gastric secretions by of the stomach
negative feedback loops B. Peristaltic waves – force the
➢ Secretin – hormone that chime toward and through the
inhibits gastric pyloric sphincter
secretions; released from
the duodenum in
response to low pH
➢ Cholecystokinin –
major inhibitor of gastric
motility; released from
the duodenum initiated
by fatty acids and
peptides

SMALL INTESTINE
▪ Major site of digestion and
absorption of food
▪ Major function is the
absorption of nutrients
Anatomy
1. Duodenum – 12 in. long;
contains absorptive cells, goblet
cells. Granular cells and
endocrine cells
2. Jejunum – 2.5 m long; makes
up 2/5
3. Ileum – 3.5 m long; makes up
3/5
 Owned By: Pdf_sells
Common bile duct (liver) and the intestinal epithelium from
pancreatic duct bacteria
(pancreas) – join and empty into the 4. Endocrine cells – produce
duodenum regulatory hormones
Intestinal glands – epithelial cells
produced within tubular galnds of
mucosa
Duodenal glands – mucous glands in
the submucosa of the duodenum
Peyer patches – clusters of lymphatic
nodules along the digestive tract;
collection of lymphatic tissue
Ileocecal junction – where the ileum
connects to the large intestine
Ileocecal sphincter – ring of smooth
muscle
Ileocecal valve – allow intestinal
contents to move from the ileum to the
large intestine; but not in opposite
Increased surface area direction
1. Circular folds – formed by
mucosa and submucosa that Secretions of the Small Intestine
run perpendicular to the long 1. Peptidases – break peptide
axis of the digestive tract bonds in proteins to form
2. Villi – formed by tiny, amino acids
fingerlike projections of the 2. Disaccharidases – break
mucosa down disaccharides (maltose)
3. Microvilli – numerous into monosaccharides
cytoplasmic extensions on the (glucose)
surface of the villi Movement of the Small Intestine
Lacteal – lymphatic capillary A. Peristaltic contractions –
proceed along the length of the
intestine for variable distances;
causes the chime to move
along the small intestine
B. Segmental contractions –
propagate for shot distances;
mix intestinal contents
LIVER AND PANCREAS
Anatomy of Liver Major Lobes
1. Right lobe
2. Left lobe
Falciform ligament – CT septum that
Simple Columnar Epithelium separates the right and left lobe of the
1. Absorptive cells – have liver
microvilli, produce digestive
Smaller Lobes
enzymes, absorb digested 1. Caudate lobe
food 2. Quadrate lobe
2. Goblet cells – produce a
protective mucus Porta – gate through which blood
3. Granular cells – help protect vessels, ducts, and nerves enter and
exit the liver
 Owned By: Pdf_sells
Sources of Blood in the Liver efficiency of fat digestion and
1. Hepatic artery – takes oxygen- absorption; stimulated by secretin
rich blood to the liver; supplies Bile salts – emulsify fats
liver with oxygen Bilirubin – bile pigment that results
2. Hepatic portal vein – oxygen- from the breakdown of hemoglobin
poor blood but rich in nutrients
Hepatic veins – where blood exits the
liver and empty into the inferior vena
cava
Portal Triads
1. Hepatic artery
2. Hepatic portal vein
3. Hepatic duct
Hepatic cords – located bet. the center
and margins of each lobule
Hepatocytes – platelike groups that
form the hepatic cords
Hepatic sinusoids – blood channels
that separates the hepatic cords from
one another Anatomy of Pancreas
Central vein – where mixed blood 1. Head – near the midline of the
flows toward the center of each lobule body
Bile canaliculus – a cleftlike lumen bet. 2. Tail – extends to the left
the cells of each hepatic cord Pancreatic islet / Islets of Langerhans
Common hepatic duct – right + left – endocrine part; produce insulin and
hepatic ducts glucagon
Common bile duct – common hepatic
duct + cystic duct Compound acinar gland – exocrine
Gallbladder – stores and concentrates part
bile Acini – produce digestive enymes
Duodenal papilla – where the Pancreatic duct – formed by larger
common bile duct joind the pancreatic ducts from clusters of acini
duct and opens into the duodenum

Functions of the Liver

1. Digestion
2. Excretion
3. Nutrient storage Functions of the Pancreas
4. Nutrient conversion
Major Proteolytic enzymes – continue
5. Detoxification of harmful
chemicals protein digestion that began in the
6. Synthesis of new molecules stomach
Bile – dilutes and neutralizes stomach 1. Trypsin
2. Chymotrypsin
acid; dramatically increases the
3. Carboxypeptidase
 Owned By: Pdf_sells
Pancreatic amylase – continues
polysaccharide digestion that began in
the oral cavity
Lipase – lipid-digesting enzyme
Nucleases – enzymes that degrade
DNA and RNA to their component
nucleotides
LARGE INTESTINE
Anatomy Cecum
▪ Proximal end of the large
intestine
Appendix – 9 cm tube attached to the
cecum
Colon DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND
1. Ascending colon TRANSPORT
2. Transverse colon Digestion
3. Descending colon - breakdown of food to molecules
4. Sigmoid colon
Crypts – straight, tubular glands in the tha are small enough to be
mucosal lining of the colon absorbed into the circulation
Teniae coli – three bands a. Mechanical digestion – breaks
Rectum large good particles into
▪ Straight, muscular tube that smaller ones
begins at the termination of b. Chemical digestion – breaking
sigmoid colon & ends at the anal of covalent chemical bonds in
canal
Anal Canal organic molecules by digestive
▪ Begins at the inferior end of the enzymes
rectum and ends at the anus Absorption
(external digestive tract opening) - begin in stomach; lipid-soluble
Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle molecules diffuse through the
layer at superior end stomach epithelium into the
External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle circulation
at inferior end
Hemorrhoids – enlarged or inflamed Transport
rectal or hemorrhoidal, veins that supply - requires carrier molecules and
the anal canal; may cause pain, itching, includes facilitated diffusion,
bleeding around anus cotransport, and active transport
Functions of Large Intestine
1. Feces production
2. Water absorption
Feces – converted chyme
Defecation – elimination of feces from
the colon
Mass movements – strong contractions
in the large parts of the colon; propel the
colon contents a considerable distance
towards the anys
Defecation reflex – local (weak
contractions) + parasympathetic (strong
contractions) reflexes Carbohydrates
▪ Consist primarily of starches,
cellulose, sucrose (table sugar),
small amounts of fructose (fruit
 Owned By: Pdf_sells
sugar), and lactose (milk sugar)
Polysaccharides – large carbohydrates
that consist of many sugars linked by
chemical bonds
Salivary amylase – begins the digestion
of carbohydrates in the mouth
Pancreatic amylase – continues
digestion of carbohydrates
Disaccharides – two sugars; broken
down polysaccharide Proteins
Disaccharidase – group of enzymes ▪ Chains of amino acids
that break the disaccharides to Pepsin – enzyme secreted by stomach
monosaccharides that breaks down proteins
Monosaccharides – single sugars; Polypeptides – shorter amino acid
glucose, galactose, and fructose chains
Trypsin, Chymotrypsin,
Carboxypeptidase – enzymes
produced by pancreas that continue
the digestive process
Peptidases – small peptides

Water and Minerals

Lipids ▪ Approximately 9 L of water
▪ Molecules which are insoluble enters the digestive tract
or slightly soluble in water ▪ Approximately 2 L from food
Triglycerides – most common type of & drink & remaining 7 liters is
lipid; 3 fatty acids bound to glycerol from digestive secretions
Saturated – fatty acids have only single
bonds
Unsaturated – fatty acids have one or
more double bonds
Emulsification – large lipid droplets
are transformed into much smaller
droplets
Lipase – secreted by pancreas; digests
lipid molecules
Micelles – aggregated bile salts around
small droplets of digested lipids
Chylomicrons – packaged lipid-
protein complexes (lipoproteins)
Chyle – lymph containing late
amounts of absorbed lipid