Anatomy of the Digestive System

• The digestive system consists of the digestive tract,

Functions of the Digestive System plus specific associated organs.
• The digestive tract is also referred to as the GIT
• The digestive system is a complex set of organs, glands, (gastrointestinal tract)
and ducts that work together to transform food into • The tract is one long tube from the mouth to the anus.
nutrients for cells. The digestive tract consists of the:
• Food is taken into the digestive system, where it is • oral cavity (mouth)
broken down into smaller and smaller particles. • pharynx
• Enzymes break the particles down into small molecules • esophagus
which are absorbed into the blood and transported all • stomach
over the body. • small intestines
1. Ingestion and mastication – ingestion is the consumption • large intestines
of solid or liquid food. Mastication is chewing. • anus
2. Propulsion and mixing - Propulsion is the movement of Associated Organs
food from one end of the digestive tract to the other. The digestive system includes some associated organs,
Mixing is the movement of food back and forth in the not directly in the digestive tract, that have ducts that
digestive tract to mix it with enzymes and facilitate lead into the tract.
absorption. These associated organs are the:
3. Digestion and secretion - Digestion is the mechanical • salivary glands
and chemical breakdown of large molecules into smaller • liver
molecules that can be absorbed. Secretion is the addition • gallbladder
of liquids, enzymes, and mucus to the ingested food. • pancreas
4. Absorption - the movement of molecules out of the Layers of Digestive Tract Wall
digestive tract and into the blood or lymphatic system. The layers of the tract wall are also termed tunics.
5. Elimination - Elimination is the removal of undigested 1. Mucosa:
material, such as fiber from food, plus other waste • innermost layer
products from the body as feces. • secretes mucus
2. Submucosa:
• above mucosa
• contains blood vessels, nerves, small glands
3. Muscularis:
• above submucosa
• longitudinal, circular, and oblique muscles
4. Serosa/adventitia:
• outermost layer
• If peritoneum is present called serosa
• If no peritoneum then called adventitia
 • Cheeks - lateral walls of the oral cavity, within the
cheeks are the buccinator muscles which flatten the
cheeks against the teeth.
• Tongue - large, muscular organ that occupies most of
the oral cavity.
• The tongue moves food in the mouth and, in
cooperation with the lips and cheeks, holds the food in
place during mastication.

Peritoneum
• Visceral peritoneum - or serosa, is the serous
membrane that covers the organs.
• Parietal peritoneum - is the serous membrane that lines
the wall of the abdominal cavity.
Mesenteries:
• connective tissue sheets that hold organs in place in
the abdominal cavity
Teeth
Lesser omentum: • 32 teeth in normal adult
• mesentery connecting lesser curvature of stomach to
• Incisors, canine, premolars, molars, wisdom
liver and diaphragm
• 20 primary (deciduous) teeth
Greater omentum:
• Each tooth has crown, cusp, neck, root
• mesentery connecting greater curvature of stomach
• The bulk of the tooth is formed by a cellular tissue
to transverse colon and posterior body wall.
called dentin
• In the crown of the tooth, the dentin is covered by an
extremely hard, acellular enamel.
• Center of tooth is pulp cavity filled with a material
called pulp, which consists of blood vessels, nerves, and
connective tissue
• Teeth are held in place within pockets in the bone,
called alveoli
• Dental caries (cavities) are breakdown of enamel by
acids from bacteria.

Oral Cavity
• Lips - muscular structures, formed by the orbicularis
oris muscle and covered by skin.
 Palate, Hard palate and Soft palate
Palate:
• roof of oral cavity
Hard palate:
• anterior part made of bone
Soft palate:
• posterior part consists of skeletal muscle and
connective tissue
Salivary Glands
Produce saliva which is a mixture of serous (watery) and
mucous fluids
• Keeps the oral cavity moist
• Needed for normal speech
• Dissolves food particles so they can be tasted
• Protects against bacteria and neutralizes pH
• Begins the process of digestion
Salivary Glands:
• Parotid - serous glands anterior to each ear.
• Submandibular - produce more serous than mucous
secretions, found along the inferior border of the
mandible.
• Sublingual - produce primarily mucous and lie below the
mucous membrane in the floor of the oral cavity.
Serous portion of saliva contains enzymes
• Amylase - Digestive enzyme that breaks down
carbohydrates
• Lysozyme - Enzymes that are active against bacteria

Molar Tooth in Place in the Alveolar Bone Mucous portion contains mucin for lubrication
Pharynx
Throat
Connects the mouth to the esophagus
It has three parts:
• nasopharynx
• oropharynx Peristalsis
• laryngopharynx
Esophagus
Tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach
Transports food to the stomach
Joins stomach at cardiac opening
Heartburn:
• occurs when gastric juices regurgitate into esophagus
• caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating or drinking in
excess.
Swallowing
Voluntary phase:
• bolus (mass of food) formed in mouth and pushed into
oropharynx
Pharyngeal phase: Stomach
• swallowing reflex initiated when bolus stimulates • Located in abdomen
receptors in oropharynx • Storage tank for food
Esophageal phase: • Can hold up to 2 liters of food
• moves food from pharynx to stomach • Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein digesting
Peristalsis: enzymes
• wave-like contractions moves food through digestive • Contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates and
tract protects epithelial cells on stomach wall from acidic pH (3)
Events During the Three Phases of Swallowing Regions of the Stomach
• The esophagus opens into the cardiac part.
• The fundus is to the left of, and superior to, the
cardiac part.
• The body is largest part of the stomach.
• The body turns to the right, creating a greater • All but the surface mucous cells are found within the
curvature and a lesser curvature. gastric glands.
• The body narrows inferiorly to form the funnel-shaped Epithelial Cells in the Stomach
pyloric part of the stomach. • Surface mucous cells - produce mucus that coats and
Muscularis has 3 layers: protects the stomach
• outer longitudinal, middle circular, and inner oblique to • mucous neck cells - produce mucus
produce churning action • parietal cells - produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic
Rugae: factor
• large folds that allow stomach to stretch • endocrine cells – produce hormones and paracrine
Chyme: molecules
• paste-like substance that forms when food begins to • chief cells - produce pepsinogen, a precursor of the
be broken down protein-digesting enzyme pepsin.
Pyloric opening: Secretions of the Stomach
• opening between stomach and small intestine Hydrochloric acid
Pyloric sphincter: • Produces a pH of about 2.0 in the stomach.
• thick, ring of smooth muscle around pyloric opening • Kills microorganisms, activates pepsin.
which regulates movement of food into the small Pepsin
intestine. • breaks covalent bonds of proteins to form smaller
Anatomy and Histology of the Stomach peptide chains
Mucus
• A thick layer, which lubricates the mucosa of the
stomach
• Protects mucosa from acidic chyme and pepsin
Intrinsic factor
• Binds with vitamin B12 making it more readily absorbed
by small intestine
• Vitamin B12 is important in DNA synthesis and red blood
cell production
Regulation of Stomach Secretions
Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin, and histamine
increase
stomach secretions
1. Cephalic phase:
• Stomach secretions are initiated by sight, smell, taste,
or food thought
• Hydrochloric acid, pepsin, mucus, and intrinsic factor,
gastrin and histamine are released in the stomach
• The mucosa forms tube-like gastric pits which are the
openings for the gastric glands.
• The epithelial cells of the stomach can be divided into
five groups: (1) surface mucous cells, (2) mucous neck
cells,
(3) parietal cells, (4) endocrine cells, and (5) chief cells.
 Movement in Stomach
Mixing waves:
2. Gastric phase: • weak contraction
• Food in stomach, partially digested proteins and • thoroughly mix food to form chyme
distention of stomach promote increase of secretion Peristaltic waves:
• Peptides, produced by the action of pepsin on proteins, • stronger contraction
stimulate the secretion of gastrin. • force chyme toward and through pyloric sphincter
• Gastrin is carried through the blood back to the Hormonal and neural mechanisms regulate stomach
stomach stimulating more secretion. secretions and movement
Stomach empties every 4 hours after regular meal, and
6 to 8 hours after high fatty meal

3. Intestinal phase:
• Inhibits secretion and movement in stomach
• Entrance of chyme into duodenum stimulates neuronal
reflexes and secretions of hormones
• The hormones secretin and cholecystokinin are released
into the blood by the duodenum and they inhibit secretion
and movement in the stomach.
 Mucosa of the Small Intestine
The mucosa of the small intestine is simple columnar
epithelium with four major cell types.
1. Absorptive cells, which have microvilli, produce digestive
enzymes, and absorb digested food
2. Goblet cells, which produce a protective mucus
Small Intestine 3. Granular cells, which may help protect the intestinal
epithelium from bacteria; and
• Measures 6 meters in length 4. Endocrine cells, which produce regulatory hormones.
• Major absorptive organ of the gastrointestinal tract • The epithelial cells are located within tubular glands of
• Chyme takes 3 to 5 hours to pass through the mucosa, called intestinal glands or crypts of
• Contains enzymes to further breakdown food Lieberkühn, at the base of the villi.
• Contains secretions for protection against the acidity of • Granular and endocrine cells are located in the bottom
chyme of the glands.
Anatomy of Small Intestine • The submucosa of the duodenum contains mucous
Duodenum: glands, called duodenal glands, which open into the base
• first part of the intestinal glands.
• 25 cm long Secretions of the Small Intestine
• contains absorptive cells, goblet cells, granular cells, Secretions of mucus, ions, and water lubricate and
endocrine cells protect the intestinal wall from the acidic chyme and
• contains microvilli and many folds digestive enzymes.
• contains bile and pancreatic ducts The epithelial cells in the small intestine have enzymes
Jejunum: bound to their free surfaces.
• second part • Peptidases enzymatically breakdown proteins into amino
• 2.5 meters long acids for absorption.
• Primary site of nutrient absorption • Disaccharidases enzymatically breakdown disaccharides
Ileum: into monosaccharides for absorption.
• third part
• 3.5 meters long
Anatomy and Histology of the Duodenum Segmental Contractions in the Small Intestine

Liver Anatomy
Movement in the Small Intestine Weighs about 3 lbs.
Located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen
• Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary under the diaphragm
mechanical events that occur in the small intestine. Consists of right, left, caudate, and quadrate lobes
• Peristaltic contractions along the length of the intestine Porta:
cause the chyme to move along the small intestine. • gate where blood vessels, ducts, nerves enter and exit
• Segmental contractions are propagated for only short • Receives blood from the hepatic artery and hepatic
distances and mix intestinal contents. portal vein
• The ileocecal sphincter at the juncture of the ileum and Lobules:
the large intestine remains mildly contracted most of the • divisions of liver with portal triads at corners
time.
• Peristaltic contractions reaching the ileocecal sphincter Portal triad:
from the small intestine cause the sphincter to relax and • contain branches of hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein,
allow chyme to move from the small intestine into the hepatic duct
cecum. Hepatic cords:
• The ileocecal valve prevents movement from the large • between center margins of each lobule
intestine back into the ileum. • separated by hepatic sinusoids
Hepatic sinusoids:
• contain phagocytic cells that remove foreign particles
from blood
Central vein:
• center of each lobule
• where mixed blood flows to form hepatic veins
Hepatic duct:
• transports bile out of liver
Common hepatic duct:
• formed from left and right hepatic duct
Cystic duct:
• joins common hepatic duct Pancreas
• drains gallbladder
Common bile duct: • Located posterior to stomach in inferior part of left
• formed from common hepatic duct and cystic duct upper
quadrant
• Head near midline of body
• Tail extends to left and touches spleen
• Endocrine tissues have pancreatic islets that produce
insulin and glucagon
• Exocrine tissues produce digestive enzymes that travel
through ducts to duodenum
Pancreatic Secretions
The major protein-digesting enzymes are:
1. Trypsin
2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase
• Pancreatic amylase continues the polysaccharide
Functions of the Liver digestion that began in the oral cavity.
• The pancreatic enzyme lipase is a lipid-digesting enzyme.
Digestive and excretory functions • The pancreatic nuclease enzymes degrade DNA and
Stores and processes nutrients RNA to their component ucleotides.
Detoxifies harmful chemicals
Synthesizes new molecules
Secretes 700 milliliters of bile each day Duodenum and Pancreas
Bile:
• dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid and breaks down
fats
Control of Pancreatic Secretions

Functions of the Large Intestine

• Feces formation is due to absorption of water and
salts, secretion of mucus, and action of microorganisms.
Large Intestine • The colon stores the feces until defecation.
• Every 8 to 12 hours strong contractions, called mass
Function is to absorb water from indigestible food and movements propel the colon contents toward the anus.
create compact feces • Movement of feces into the rectum distends the
Contains cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal rectal wall and stimulates the defecation reflex.
Cecum: Digestive Process
• joins small intestine at ileocecal junction
• has appendix attached 1. Digestion:
Appendix: • Chemical and mechanical breakdown of food
• 9 cm structure that is often removed 2. Absorption:
Colon: • Most absorption occurs in the duodenum and jejunum,
• 1.5 meters long although some occurs in the stomach and ileum
• contains ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid 3. Transport:
regions • moves food through digestive tract, includes swallowing
Rectum: and peristalsis
• straight tube that begins at sigmoid colon and ends at Carbohydrate Digestion
anal canal • Polysaccharides split into disaccharides by salivary and
Anal canal: pancreatic amylases
• last 2 to 3 cm of digestive tract • Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides
Food takes 18 to 24 hours to pass through large by disaccharidases on the surface of intestinal epithelium
intestine • Glucose is absorbed by cotransport with Na+ into the
Feces are product of water, indigestible food, and intestinal epithelium
microbes. Microbes synthesize vitamin K • Glucose is carried by the hepatic portal vein to the liver
and enters most cells by facilitated diffusion
Lipid Digestion • The pancreas secretes the protein digesting enzymes
trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase into the
• Lipase breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and small intestine in an inactive state.
monoglycerides. • In the small intestines these enzymes are activated.
• Bile salts surround fatty acids and monoglycerides to • In the small intestine, other enzymes termed
form micelles. peptidases, bound to the microvilli of the intestinal
• Micelles attach to the plasma membranes of intestinal epithelium further break down small peptides into
epithelial cells, and the fatty acids and monoglycerides tripeptides.
pass by simple diffusion into the intestinal epithelial cells. • Absorption of tripeptides, dipeptides, or individual amino
• Within the intestinal epithelial cell, the fatty acids and acids occurs through the intestinal epithelial cells by
monoglycerides are converted to triglycerides. various cotransport mechanisms.
• Proteins coat the triglycerides to form chylomicrons, Water and Minerals
which move out of the intestinal epithelial cells by
exocytosis. • Water can move across the intestinal wall in either
• The chylomicrons enter the lacteals of the intestinal villi direction
and are carried through the lymphatic system to the • The movement depends on osmotic pressures
blood. • 99% of water entering intestine is absorbed
Lipoproteins • Minerals are actively transported across wall of small
intestine
• Lipids are packaged into lipoproteins to allow transport Fluid Volumes in the Digestive Tract
in the lymph and blood.
• Lipoproteins are molecules that are part water soluble
and part lipid soluble.
• Since lymph and blood contain water and lipids are not
water soluble, lipoproteins are necessary for transport.
• Lipoproteins include chylomicrons, low-density
lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).

Protein Digestion
• Pepsin is a protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the
stomach.
 • Example - nervous system function
Hormones and neurohormones:
Characteristics • secreted into blood and bind to receptors on target
tissues
• The endocrine system is composed of endocrine glands • Example - epinephrine and insulin
and specialized endocrine cells located throughout the Endocrine System Functions
body.
• Endocrine glands and cells secrete minute amounts of 1. Regulation of metabolism
chemical messengers called hormones into the 2. Control of food intake and digestion
bloodstream, rather than into a duct. 3. Modulation of tissue development
• Hormones then travel through the general blood 4. Regulation of ion levels
circulation to target tissues or effectors. 5. Control of water balance
• The target tissues have receptors for a specific 6. Regulation of cardiovascular function
hormone. 7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
• Hormones produce a particular response in the target 8. Control of reproductive functions
tissues. 9. Stimulation of uterine contraction and milk release
10.Modulation of immune system function
Types of Hormones
Water-soluble hormones:
• include proteins, peptides, amino acids
• most common type of hormone
• Examples - growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin

Lipid-soluble hormones:
• include steroids and eicosanoids
• Examples - Luteinizing hormone, androgens

Effects of Binding Proteins

Classes of Chemical Messengers

Autocrine:
• released by cells and a have local effect on same cell
type
• Example - eicosanoids
Paracrine:
• released by cells that affect other cell types in close
proximity Control of Hormone Secretion
• Example – somatostatin
• Blood-borne chemicals can directly stimulate the release
Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators: of some hormones.
• secreted by nerve cells
• These chemicals are referred to as humoral stimuli Control by Hormonal Stimuli
because they circulate in the blood,
• Humoral refers to body fluids, including blood.
• Hormone release can also be under neural control.
• Following action potentials, neurons release a
neurotransmitter into the synapse with the cells that
produce the hormone.
• Hormone release can also be controlled by other
hormones.
• It occurs when a hormone is secreted that, in turn,
stimulates the secretion of other hormones.
• The same three types of stimuli (humoral, neural, and
hormonal) can stimulate or inhibit hormone release.
Control by Humoral Stimuli

Inhibition of Hormone Release

• Humoral inhibition of hormone release generally involves
the actions of companion hormones.
• Usually each of the companion hormones performs an
opposite function.
• For example, to raise blood pressure, the adrenal
cortex secretes the hormone aldosterone in response to
low blood
pressure, but to lower it the heart atria secrete atrial
natriuretic peptide.
Control by Neural Stimuli
• They work together to maintain homeostasis of blood
pressure.
• Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they stimulate
targets.
• If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target
endocrine gland does not secrete its hormone.
• In control of hormone release by other hormones,
some hormones are inhibitory hormones, that reduce the
release of the hormone being controlled.
• For example, thyroid hormones can control their own
blood levels by inhibiting their anterior pituitary tropic
hormone.
Regulation of Blood Hormone Levels
• Two major mechanisms maintain hormone levels in the
blood within a homeostatic range: negative feedback and
positive feedback
• Most hormones are regulated by a negative-feedback
mechanism, whereby the hormone’s secretion is inhibited “family” of receptors that are structurally similar.
by the hormone itself once blood levels have reached a • This specificity is due to molecular shape and chemical
certain point. characteristics.
• Some hormones are regulation by positive feedback, as • Lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones bind to their
exemplified by tropic hormone action. own classes of receptors.
Negative and Positive Feedback • Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors due to
their lipid solubility and small molecular size allowing to
easily pass through the cell membrane.
• Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-bound
receptors. Water-soluble hormones are polar molecules
and cannot pass through the cell membrane.
Lipid-Soluble Hormone Receptors
• Nuclear receptors can also be located in the cytoplasm,
but then move to the nucleus when activated.
• When hormones bind to nuclear receptors, the
hormone- receptor complex interacts with nuclear DNA
to regulate specific gene transcription.
Water-Soluble Receptors
• Water-soluble hormones, such as protein and peptide
types, cannot pass through the cell membrane.
• Interactions are with membrane-bound receptors, that
are proteins that extend across the cell membrane, with
their hormone-binding sites exposed on the cell
membrane’s outer surface.
• When the hormone binds to the receptor, it turns on
intracellular enzymes that ultimately cause the response
dictated by the hormone-receptor interaction.
Target Tissue Specificity and Response

Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action

• A hormone can stimulate only the cells that have the
receptor for that hormone.
• The portion of each receptor molecule where a
hormone binds is called a receptor site.
• The receptor site has specificity, allowing only one
hormone to bind to it.
• Some hormones, such as epinephrine, can bind to a
Nuclear and Membrane-Bound Receptors

Membrane Bound Receptor Actions

• Membrane bound receptors act in two ways, either
altering the activity of G proteins on the inner surface of
the cell membrane or directly altering the activity of
intracellular enzymes.
• Activation of G proteins, or intracellular enzymes, elicits
specific responses in cells, including the production of
molecules called, second messengers.
• A second messenger molecule is produced inside a cell
once a ligand binds to its membrane-bound receptor.
• A second messenger, such as cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP), then activates specific cellular
Action of Nuclear Receptors processes inside the cell in response to the hormone.
• Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate protein synthesis. G-Protein Activation
• Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the cell
• Many membrane-bound receptors produce responses
membrane and bind to their receptors, with the complex
through the action of G proteins, which consist of 3
now binding to hormone-response elements on DNA.
subunits.
• This action regulates the transcription of specific
• The G proteins are so named because one of the
messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) molecules and protein
subunits binds to guanine nucleotides.
synthesis occurs.
• G-proteins, after several sequential actions, interact
with adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that converts ATP to
cAMP.
• cAMP binds to protein kinases and activates them.
• Protein kinases are enzymes that, in turn, regulate the
activity of other enzymes.
• Depending on the other enzyme, protein kinases can
increase or decrease its activity. Cascade Effect
• Phosphodiesterase, an intracellular enzyme, breaks
down cAMP and thus results in no further cell
stimulation.
Cyclic AMP Synthesis

Signal Amplification
• Hormones that stimulate the synthesis of second
messengers act quickly and have an amplification effect.
• Each receptor produces thousands of second Pituitary Gland
messengers, leading to a cascade effect and ultimately • Small gland in brain
amplification of the hormonal signal. • Controlled by hypothalamus
• With amplification, a single hormone activates many • Divided into 2 regions: anterior and posterior
second messengers, each of which activates enzymes • Secretes at least 6 hormones
that produce an enormous amount of final product.
• The efficiency of this second-messenger amplification
is virtually unparalleled in the body.
 Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Growth Hormone:
• Target tissues: most tissues
• Functions: stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and
Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary organs
• Abnormalities:
Gland • Too much GH causes giantism
• The anterior pituitary gland synthesizes hormones • Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism
under the control of the hypothalamus. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):
• Neurons of the hypothalamus secrete releasing • Target tissues: thyroid gland
hormones that stimulate the production and secretion of • Functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions
a specific hormone. • Abnormalities:
• Inhibiting hormones decrease the secretion of a • Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges (goiter)
specific anterior pituitary hormone • Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks
Gonadotropin Hormone
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) for females:
Hypothalamic Control of the Posterior Pituitary • Target tissue: ovaries
• Function: promotes ovulation and progesterone
• The posterior pituitary gland stores and releases
production
hormones
LH for males:
produced by neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus.
• Target tissue: testes
• The two hormones released from the posterior
• Function: production of sperm and testosterone
pituitary are antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) for females:
• Target tissue: follicles in ovaries
• Function: follicle maturation and estrogen secretion
FSH for males:
• Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes) Thyroid Gland
• Function: sperm production
Prolactin: One of largest glands
• Target tissues: mammary glands and ovaries Requires iodine to function
• Functions: milk production Secretes thyroid hormone and calcitonin
Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH): Thyroid hormones secreted by follicular cells:
• Target tissues: melanocytes in the skin • Target tissues: most tissues
• Functions: stimulate melanin production in melanocytes • Functions: regulates metabolic rates and is needed for
Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH): growth
• Target tissues: cells of adrenal cortex Calcitonin secreted by parafollicular cells:
• Functions: stimulate production of certain • Target tissues: bone and some other tissues
corticosteroids • Function: reduces blood calcium level when high
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary Thyroid Hormone Disorders
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Hypothyroidism:
• Target tissues: kidneys • Decreased metabolism
• Functions: conserve water • Weight gain, reduced appetite, fatigue
• Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus • Low temp. and pulse
• low ADH • Dry, cold skin
• kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute • Myxedema in adults
• (watery) urine • Cretinism in infants
• can lead to dehydration and thirst Hyperthyroidism:
Oxytocin: • Increased metabolism
• Target tissues: uterus • Weight loss, increased appetite, nervousness
• Functions: increases uterine contractions during labor • Higher temp. and pulse
• Warm, flushed skin
Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary
• Graves’ disease (leads to goiter)
Parathyroid Gland
Parathyroid hormone (PTH):
• Target tissues: bones and kidneys
• Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels (more than
calcitonin)
If Ca2+ is low, then osteoclasts break down bone matrix
and less Ca2+ is lost in urine.
If Ca2+ is high, then osteoclasts don’t break down bone
matrix and more Ca2+ is lost in urine.
Adrenal Gland Actions
• The adrenal glands are two small glands located
superior to each kidney
• Each adrenal gland has an inner part, called the adrenal
medulla, and an outer part, called the adrenal cortex.
• The adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex function as
separate endocrine glands.
Adrenal Medulla Hormones Regulation of Cortisol Secretion
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine:
• Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
• Functions: released as part of fight or flight response
Regulation of Adrenal Medullary Secretions

Androgens:
• Target tissues: most tissues
Adrenal Cortex Hormones • Functions:
Aldosterone: • Males: secondary sexual characteristics
• Type of mineralocorticoid • Females: sex drive
• Target tissues: kidneys Pancreas Actions
• Functions: regulate ion balance, causes Na+ and H2O to • The pancreas is a mixed gland, with an exocrine portion
be retained and K+ to be secreted, indirectly involved with and an endocrine portion.
blood pressure and blood volume • The exocrine portion of the pancreas secretes
Cortisol: digestive enzymes.
• Type of glucocorticoid • The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of
• Target tissues: most pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans), which are
• Functions: increases breakdown of fat and protein for dispersed throughout the exocrine portion of the
energy uses reduces inflammatory and immune pancreas.
responses • The islets consist of three cell types, each of which
secretes a separate hormone.
• Alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete insulin,
and delta cells secrete somatostatin.
• These three hormones regulate the blood levels of
nutrients, especially glucose.

Pancreas Hormones
Insulin:
• Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
• Functions:
• regulates blood glucose levels
• after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is
secreted
• extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen • The human species could not survive without functional
Insulin Abnormalities male and female reproductive systems.
Diabetes mellitus: • The reproductive systems play essential roles in the
• Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors development of the structural and functional
• Symptoms: hyperglycemia, exaggerated appetite, differences between males and females, influence
human behavior, and produce offspring.
excess urine, dehydration, thirst, fatigue
• However, a reproductive system, unlike other organ
• Type I: insulin dependent (daily injections required)
• Type II: insulin independent, often found in obese people, systems, is not necessary for the survival of an individual
human.
can be treated with diet but can turn into type I
Glucagon: Reproductive System Functions
• Target tissues: liver 1. Production of gametes
• Function: 2. Fertilization
• regulates blood glucose levels 3. Development and nourishment of a new individual
• between meals glucose levels drop and glucagon is 4. Production of reproductive hormones
secreted Major Reproductive Organs
• glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into
glucose
Testes Hormone
Testosterone:
• Target tissues: most tissues
• Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive organ
development and function
Ovarian Hormones
Estrogen/Progesterone:
• Target tissues: most tissues
• Functions: involved in uterine and mammary gland
development and menstrual cycle
Thymus Gland Hormone
Thymosin:
• Target tissues: immune system tissues
• Functions: promotes immune system development and
function
Pineal Gland Hormone
Melatonin:
• Target tissues: hypothalamus
• Functions: plays a role in onset of puberty and controls
circadian rhythms. Light affects its function.
 6. Meiosis I produces 2 haploid cells, each having 23
chromosomes composed of 2 chromatids joined at a
centromere.
7. During Meiosis II, each of the 2 cells divide into 2 more
cells and the centromere breaks, giving separate
chromosomes.
8. The final result from meiosis are four haploid cells,
each having 23 chromosomes.
Since the number of chromosomes are reduced during
the process of dividing into 4 cells, the process is a
reduction division process.

From Fertilization to Fetus

Fertilization:
• union of sperm and oocyte
Zygote:
Formation of Gametes • A fertilized oocyte
Gametes: • develops after fertilization
• develops into an embryo 3 to 14 days after fertilization
• reproductive cells Male Reproductive System
• sperm in males
• oocytes (eggs) in females • The male reproductive system consists of the testes, a
series of ducts, accessory glands, and supporting
structures.
Meiosis: • The ducts include the epididymis, the duct deferens,
• a special type of cell division that leads to formation of and the urethra.
gametes • Accessory glands include the seminal vesicles, the
Each sperm cell and each oocyte contains 23 prostate gland, and the bulbourethral glands.
chromosomes • Supporting structures include the scrotum and the
1. Before meiosis begins, all the chromosomes are penis.
duplicated creating identical copies called chromatids.
2. At the beginning of meiosis, each of the 46
chromosomes consists of 2 chromatids connected by a
centromere.
3. The chromosomes align as pairs in a process called
synapsis.
4. Because each chromosome consists of 2 chromatids,
the pairing of the chromosomes brings 2 chromatids of
each chromosome close together.
5. Genetic material is exchanged when a part of a
chromatid of 1 chromosome breaks off and is exchanged
with part of another chromatid from the other
chromosome, in a process termed, crossing over.
Male Reproductive Organs Ducts
Scrotum: Epididymis:
• contains testes • thread-like tubules on side of each testis
• contains dartos muscle that moves scrotum and testes • where seminiferous tubules empty new sperm
close to and away from body depending on temperature. • where sperm continue to mature and develop the
• sperm must develop at temperatures less than normal ability to swim and bind to oocytes
body temperature. Ductus deferens:
• cremaster muscles - extensions of abdominal muscles • “vas deferens”
can contract and pull the testes nearer the body. • extends from epididymis and joins seminal vesicle
Testes: • cut during a vasectomy
• primary male reproductive organ Seminal vesicle:
• produces sperm • Sac shaped gland near the ampulla of each ductus
• in scrotum deferens
• contain seminiferous tubules: where sperm is produced • Ducts from the seminal vesicle and the ampulla of the
• contain interstitial cells: secrete testosterone ductus deferens join at the prostate gland to form the
• contain germ cells: cells that sperm cells arise from ejaculatory duct.
• contain sustentacular cells: nourish germ cells and • Each ejaculatory duct enters the prostate gland and
produce hormones joins the urethra.
Urethra:
Spermatogenesis • extends from urinary bladder to end of penis
• formation of sperm cells • passageway for urine and male reproductive fluids
• begins in males at puberty Penis:
• interstitial cells increase in number and size • corpus cavernosum, corpus spongiosum, spongy
• seminiferous tubules enlarge urethra are 3 columns of erectile tissue which fill with
• seminiferous tubules produce germ cells and blood for erection
sustentacular cells • Transfers sperm from male to female
• excretes urine
Production of Sperm Cells • distal end of the penis forms a cap, the glans penis.
1. Germ cells • Urethra opens to the exterior as the external urethral
2. Spermatogonia orifice.
3. Primary spermatocytes
4. Secondary spermatocytes Male Reproductive System Glands
5. Spermatids Prostate gland:
6. Sperm cells • surrounds urethra
• size of a walnut
Sperm Cell Structure Bulbourethral gland:
Head: • small mucus secreting glands near base of prostate
• contain a nucleus and DNA gland
Midpiece:
• contain mitochondria
Tail:
• flagellum for movement
Structure of the Testis and Sperm Cell

Secretions
Semen:
• mixture of sperm and secretions from glands
• provides a transport medium and nutrients that
protect and
activate sperm
• 60% of fluid is from seminal vesicles
• 30% of fluid is from prostate gland
• 5% of fluid is from bulbourethral gland
• 5% of fluid is from testes

Seminal vesicles:
• provide fructose
• contain prostaglandins which decrease mucus thickness
around cervix and uterine tubes and help sperm move
through female reproductive tract
• contains coagulants that help deliver semen into female
Prostate gland:
• contains enzymes to liquefy semen after it is inside
female
• neutralizes acidity of vagina
Bulbourethral gland:
• neutralize acidity of male urethra and female vagina
• 2 to 5 milliliters of semen is ejaculated each time
• 1 milliliter of semen contains 100 million sperm
• Sperm can live for 72 hours once inside female

Path of Sperm
1. Sperm develop in seminiferous tubules (testes)
2. Epididymis (mature)
3. Ductus deferens Penile Erection
4. Receive secretions from seminal vesicles, prostate • Erection is the first major component of the male sex
gland, and bulbourethral gland act.
5. Urethra where semen (sperm) exits body • Neural stimuli cause the penis to enlarge and become
firm.
Male Sex Hormones • Specifically, parasympathetic action potentials from the
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is produced in sacral region of the spinal cord cause the arteries that
the hypothalamus and stimulates secretion of LH and FSH. supply blood to the erectile tissues to dilate.
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is produced in the anterior • Blood then fills small venous sinuses called sinusoids in
pituitary and stimulates secretion of testosterone. the erectile tissue and compresses the veins, which
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is produced in the reduces blood flow from the penis.
anterior pituitary and prompts spermatogenesis. Emission
• Testosterone is produced in the interstitial cells in the • Emission is the accumulation of sperm cells and semen
testes and is involved in development and maintenance of in the urethra.
reproductive organs. • Stimulated by sympathetic action potentials that
• Inhibin is secreted by cells of the seminiferous tubules originate in the lumbar region of the spinal cord.
and inhibits FSH secretion. • Cause the reproductive ducts to contract and stimulate
the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland to release
Male Puberty secretions.
• sequence of events in which a boy begins to produce • Semen accumulates in the urethra.
male hormones and sperm cells
• begins at 12 to 14 and ends around 18 Penile Ejaculation
• testosterone is major male hormone • Ejaculation results from the contraction of smooth
• secondary sexual characteristics develop: muscle in the wall of the urethra and skeletal muscles
Example - skin texture, fat distribution, hair growth, surrounding the base of the penis.
skeletal muscle growth, and larynx changes • Just before ejaculation, action potentials are sent to
the skeletal muscles that surround the base of the penis.
Male Sex Act • Rhythmic contractions are produced that force the
• The male sex act is a complex series of reflexes that semen out of the urethra, resulting in ejaculation.
result in erection of the penis, emission, and ejaculation. • In addition, muscle tension increases throughout the
• Emission is the movement of sperm cells, mucus, body.
prostatic secretions, and seminal vesicle secretions into
the prostatic, membranous, and spongy urethra. Female Reproductive System
• Ejaculation is the forceful expulsion of the secretions • The female reproductive organs consist of the ovaries,
that have accumulated in the urethra to the exterior. the uterine tubes, the uterus, the vagina, the external
• Sensations, normally interpreted as pleasurable, occur genitalia, and the mammary glands.
during the male sex act and result in an intense sensation • The internal reproductive organs of the female are
called an orgasm. located within the pelvis, between the urinary bladder
• A phase called resolution occurs after ejaculation in and the rectum.
which the penis becomes flaccid, an overall feeling of • The internal reproductive organs are held in place
satisfaction exists, and the male is unable to achieve within the pelvis by ligaments.
erection and a second ejaculation. • The broad ligament spreads out on both sides of the
uterus and attaches to the ovaries and uterine tubes.
Female Pelvis • Oogenesis begins before a female is born. By the
fourth month of development, the ovaries contain 5
million oogonia which are the cells from which oocytes
develop.
• Females are born with all of their oogonia (2 million),
unlike males that only begin to produce sperm during
puberty.
• At puberty about 300,000 to 400,000 oogonia are
left.
• Puberty to menopause, FSH stimulates several follicles
to begin developing during each menstrual cycle but only 1
follicle should be ovulated.
• Oocytes are swept into one of uterine tubes by
fimbriae during ovulation.
• If sperm is present in uterine tube during ovulation
oocyte could be fertilized.
• If fertilization occurs then zygote implants in uterus.
• Oocytes only live for 24 hours, so if no sperm is
present at ovulation no zygote develops, and oocyte dies.
Uterine (Fallopian) tubes:
• part of uterus which extends toward ovaries and
receive oocytes
• fimbriae are fringe-like structures around opening of
uterine tubes that help sweep oocyte into uterine tubes
• Fertilization usually occurs in the part of the uterine
tube near the ovary, called the ampulla
• tubal ligation (sterilization of female)
Uterus:
Ovaries
• pear sized structure located in pelvic cavity
• Primary female reproductive organ
• functions: receive, retain, and provide nourishment for
• Produces oocytes and sex hormones
fertilized oocyte, where embryo resides and develops
• One on either side of uterus
• body: main part
• Ovarian ligaments: anchor ovaries to uterus
• fundus: the part of the uterus superior to the
• Suspensory ligaments: anchor ovaries to pelvic cavity
entrance of the uterine tubes
• Mesovarium: attaches the ovaries to the broad
• cervix: narrow region that leads to vagina
ligament
Uterine wall layers:
• Ovarian follicle: groups of cells in ovaries that contain
• perimetrium (serous): outermost layer
oocytes
• myometrium (muscular): middle layer, composed of
• Each of the ovarian follicles contains an oocyte, the
smooth muscle
female reproductive cell.
• endometrium: innermost layer that is sloughed off
during menstruation
Oogenesis and Fertilization Vagina:
• Oogenesis is the process of gamete production in
• extends from uterus to outside of body
females.
• female copulation organ that receives penis during
intercourse • Consists of lobes covered by adipose tissue
• allows menstrual flow • Lobes, ducts, lobules are altered during lactation to
• involved in childbirth expel milk
• contains very muscular walls and a mucous membrane Anatomy of the Breast
• very acidic to keep bacteria out
Vulva:
• external female sex organs
• Includes mons pubis, labia majora and minora, clitoris,
prepuce and vestibule
Mons pubis:
• fatty layer of skin covering pubic symphysis
External Female Genitalia
Labia majora:
• larger, outer folds of skin surrounding the entrance to
the vagina
• equivalent to male scrotum
Labia minora: Female Puberty
• thin, inner folds of skin surrounding entrance to the • Begins between 11 to 13 years of age and is usually
vagina completed by age 16
Clitoris: • Menarche first episode of menstrual bleeding
• small erectile structure located in vestibule • Vagina, uterus, uterine tubes, and external genitalia
• equivalent to male penis enlarge and fat is deposited in breasts and hips
Prepuce: • Elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone are
• where 2 labia minora unite over clitoris secreted by ovaries
Vestibule: Female Sex Hormones
• space in which vagina and urethra are located • Gonadotropin-releasing (GnRH) hormone is produced in
the hypothalamus and stimulates secretion of LH and FSH.
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is produced in the anterior
pituitary and causes ovulation.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is produced in the
anterior pituitary and prompts follicles in the ovaries to
begin development.
Estrogen:
• proliferation of endometrial cells
• development of mammary glands (especially duct
system)
• control of LH and FSH secretion
• development and maintenance of secondary sex
Characteristics
Progesterone:
Mammary Glands • enlargement of endometrial cells and secretion of fluid
• Organs of milk production in breasts from uterine glands
• Modified sweat glands • maintenance of pregnancy state
• Female breasts begin to enlarge during puberty • development of mammary glands (especially alveoli)
• control of estrogen, FSH, and LH secretion dependent on hormones.
• development of secondary sex characteristics • Testosterone-like hormones, and possibly estrogen,
Menstrual Cycle affect brain cells (especially in the area of the
Menstrual cycle: hypothalamus) influence sexual behavior.
• series of changes that occur in sexually mature, • Testosterone-like hormones are produced primarily in
nonpregnant females the adrenal cortex.
Menses: • Psychological factors also play a role in sexual behavior.
• time when endometrium is shed from uterus • The sensory and motor neural pathways involved in
Average is 28 days and results from cyclical changes controlling female sexual responses are similar to those
that occur in endometrium found in the male.
Stages of Menstrual Cycle Female Sex Act
Days 1 to 5 Menses (shedding of endometrium) • During sexual excitement, erectile tissue within the
• menstrual bleeding (menses) clitoris and around the vaginal opening becomes engorged
• estrogen and progesterone levels are low with blood.
• follicle begins to mature • The mucous glands within the vestibule secrete small
Days 6 to 13 Proliferative (between end of menses and amounts of mucus, with larger amounts extruded into
ovulation) the vagina through its wall.
• endometrium rebuilds • Stimulation of the female’s genitals during sexual
• estrogen levels begin to increase intercourse and psychological stimuli normally trigger an
• progesterone levels remain low orgasm, or climax.
• follicle matures • The vaginal and uterine smooth muscle, as well as the
Day 14 Ovulation surrounding skeletal muscles, contract rhythmically, and
• oocyte is released due to LH muscle tension increases throughout much of the body.
• estrogen levels high • After the sex act, there is a period of resolution,
• progesterone levels are increasing which is characterized by an overall sense of satisfaction
• cervical mucus thins and relaxation.
Corpus luteum - mature follicle after ovulation Contraception
• degenerates if egg is not fertilized • Many methods are used to prevent pregnancy, either
Days 15 to 28 Secretory (between ovulation and next by preventing fertilization (contraception) or by
menses) preventing implantation of the developing embryo.
• endometrium is preparing for implantation • There are six main types of birth control. From the
• estrogen levels decrease (low) most to least effective they include: (1) long-acting
• progesterone levels high reversible contraception, (2) sterilization, (3) hormonal
• cervical mucus thickens methods, (4) barrier methods, (5) fertility awareness,
Menopause and (6) emergency contraception.
• time when ovaries secrete less hormones and number
of follicles in ovaries is low
• menstrual cycle and ovulation are less regular
• hot flashes, fatigue, irritability may occur
• estrogen replacement therapy may be used to
decreases side effects
Female Sexual Behavior
• Sexual drive in females, like sexual drive in males, is
URINARY SYSTEM
• The urinary system is the major excretory system of
the body.
• Some organs in other systems also eliminate wastes,
but they are not able to compensate in the case of
kidney failure.

Kidney Characteristics
Bilateral retroperitoneal organs
Shape and size:
• bean shaped
• weigh 5 ounces (bar of soap or size of fist)
Location:
• between 12th thoracic and 3rd lumbar vertebra
Kidney Structures
Renal capsule:
• connective tissue around each kidney
Urinary System Functions • protects and acts as a barrier
1. Excretion Hilum:
2. Regulation of blood volume and pressure • indentation
3. Regulation of blood solute concentration • contains renal artery, veins, nerves, ureter
4. Regulation of extracellular fluid pH Renal sinus:
5. Regulation of red blood cell synthesis • contains renal pelvis, blood vessels, fat
6. Regulation of Vitamin D synthesis Renal cortex:
Components of the Urinary System • outer portion
• Two kidneys Renal medulla:
• Two ureters • inner portion
• One urinary bladder Renal pyramid:
• One urethra • Cone shaped structures in the medulla whose bases
project into the cortex
Renal papillae:
• tip of pyramids which drain into calyces
Renal pelvis:
• where calyces join together
• narrows to form ureter
Longitudinal Section of the Kidney

Types of Nephrons
1. Juxtamedullary nephrons
• renal corpuscles are deep in the cortex near the
medulla
• long loops of Henle extend deep into the medulla
Nephron • Well adapted for water conservation.
• The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. • About 15% of nephrons
• Each kidney has over one million nephrons. 2. Cortical nephrons
• Approximately 15% are juxtamedullary • Renal corpuscles distributed throughout the cortex
• The nephron includes the renal corpuscle, proximal • Loops of Henle are shorter and closer to the outer
convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule edge of the cortex than juxtamedullary nephrons
and collecting duct Renal Corpuscle
The filtration portion of the nephron
Glomerulus:
• A network of capillaries twisted around each other like
a ball of yarn
Bowman’s capsule:
• enlarged end of nephron surrounds glomerulus
• opens into proximal convoluted tubule
• contains podocytes (specialized cells around glomerular
capillaries)
• Bowman capsule consists of two layers:
• Outer layer - simple squamous epithelial cells that Nephron Components
become cube-shaped at the beginning of the proximal Proximal convoluted tubule:
convoluted tubule • where filtrate passes first
• Inner layer - cells called podocytes, which wrap around • drains filtrate from Bowman capsule
the glomerular capillaries Loop of Henle:
Characteristics of Renal Corpuscle • contains descending and ascending loops
• Porous capillaries - highly permeable due to the • water and solutes pass through thin walls by diffusion
presence of pores. Neither large proteins nor blood cells Distal convoluted tubule:
can fit through them. • structure between Loop of Henle and collecting duct
• Porous inner layer of Bowman capsule - A basement Collecting duct:
membrane lies between the endothelial cells of the • empties into calyces
glomerular capillaries and the podocytes of the Bowman • carry fluid from cortex through medulla
capsule. Flow of Filtrate through Nephron
• High pressure 1. Renal corpuscle
• An afferent arteriole supplies blood to the glomerulus 2. Proximal convoluted tubule
for filtration. 3. Descending loop of Henle
• An efferent arteriole transports the filtered blood 4. Ascending loop of Henle
away from the glomerulus. 5. Distal convoluted tubule
• Efferent arteriole has smaller diameter than afferent 6. Collecting duct
arteriole creating a high pressure in the capillaries. 7. Papillary duct
Blood Flow through Kidney
Filtration Membrane 1. Renal artery
• The structures in the corpuscle make up the filtration 2. Interlobar artery
membrane. 3. Arcuate artery
• Consists of capillary endothelium, the basement 4. Interlobular artery
membrane, and the podocytes of the Bowman capsule 5. Afferent arteriole
• Filtrate is the fluid filtered from the glomerular 6. Glomerulus
capillaries. Enters the lumen inside the Bowman capsule. 7. Efferent arteriole
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus 8. Peritubular capillaries
• Juxtaglomerular apparatus – specialized cells of the 9. Vasa recta
afferent arteriole and distal convoluted tubule in close 10. Interlobular vein
contact with each other. 11. Arcuate vein
• Juxtaglomerular cells – specialized smooth muscle cells 12. Interlobar vein
located where the afferent arteriole enters the renal Urine Formation
corpuscle Urine formation involves three processes:
• Macula densa - part of the distal convoluted tubule that • Filtration – occurs in the renal corpuscle, blood plasma
lies between the afferent and efferent arterioles next leave glomerulus and enters Bowman space
to the renal corpuscle. • Tubular Reabsorption – involves removing substances
• The juxtaglomerular apparatus is an important from the filtrate and placing them back into the blood
regulatory structure. • Secretion – involves taking substances from the blood
• Secretion of the enzyme renin by the juxtaglomerular at a nephron area other than the renal corpuscle and
apparatus plays an important role in the regulation of putting back into the nephron tubule
filtrate formation and blood pressure.
Urine Formation-Filtration
• Movement of water, ions, small molecules through Urine Production-Reabsorption
filtration membrane into Bowman’s capsule • 99% of filtrate is reabsorbed and reenters circulation
• 19% of plasma becomes filtrate • The proximal convoluted tubule is the primary site for
• 180 Liters of filtrate are produced by the nephrons reabsorption of solutes and water
each day • The descending Loop of Henle concentrates filtrate
• 1% of filtrate (1.8 liters) become urine, the rest is • Reabsorption of water and solutes from distal
Reabsorbed convoluted tubule and collecting duct is controlled by
• Only small molecules are able to pass through filtration hormones
membrane Urine Production—Secretion
• Formation of filtrate depends on filtration pressure • Tubular secretion removes some substances from the
• Filtration pressure forces fluid across filtration blood.
membrane • These substances include by-products of metabolism
• Filtration pressure is influenced by blood and interstitial that become toxic in high concentrations and drugs or
fluid pressures, and osmotic pressures of plasma and other molecules not normally produced by the body.
interstitial fluid. • Tubular secretion occurs through either active or
passive mechanisms.
• Ammonia secretion is passive.
• Secretion of H+, K+, creatinine, histamine, and penicillin is
by active transport.
• These substances are actively transported into the
nephron.
• The secretion of H+ plays an important role in regulating
the body fluid pH.
Urine Concentration Mechanism Concentrated urine is produced when the permeability
• The kidneys regulate blood composition and are able to increases and water leaves filtrate by osmosis.
produce very dilute or very concentrated urine to Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume
maintain the extracellular fluid concentration close to 300 Three major hormonal mechanisms are involved in
mOsm/L. regulating urine concentration and volume:
• The ability to control the volume and concentration of 1. renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
the urine depends on: (1) countercurrent mechanisms, (2) 2. the antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
a medullary concentration gradient, and (3) hormonal 3. the atrial natriuretic hormone
mechanisms. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism
• Countercurrent mechanism - fluids in separate 1. The juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidneys release
structures flow in opposite directions relative to each the enzyme renin when blood pressure is low
other. As they pass by each other, materials can be 2. Renin enters the blood and converts angiotensinogen to
exchanged between them. produce angiotensin I
• The countercurrent mechanism creates a very high 3. Angiotensin-converting enzyme converts angiotensin I
solute concentration in the medulla compared to the to angiotensin II
cortex. Called the medullary concentration gradient. 4. Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and raises blood
• The medullary concentration gradient develops from (1) Pressure
the actions of the countercurrent mechanisms and (2) 4. Angiotensin II also acts on adrenal cortex to release
the recycling of urea. aldosterone
• The concentration of solutes in the medulla increases 5. Aldosterone increases rate of active transport of Na+
from 300 mOsm/L to 1200 mOsm/L deep in the in distal convoluted tubules and collecting duct
medulla at the tip of the renal pyramid. 6. Volume of water in urine decreases and blood
• The descending limb of the loop of Henle is a critical site pressure increases
for water reabsorption. Aldosterone Actions
• The filtrate leaving the proximal convoluted tubule is
further concentrated as it passes through the
descending limb of the loop of Henle.
• The mechanism for this water reabsorption is osmosis.
• The wall of the thin segment of the descending limb is
highly permeable to water.
• As the filtrate moves through the medulla containing
the highly concentrated interstitial fluid, water is
reabsorbed out of the nephron by osmosis.
• The water enters the vasa recta which removes
excess water and solutes from the medulla without
changing the high concentration of solutes in the
medullary interstitial fluid.
• The ascending limb of the loop of Henle dilutes the
filtrate by removing solutes Antidiuretic Hormone Mechanism
• The thin segment of the ascending limb is not 1. ADH is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland when
permeable to water, but it is permeable to solutes so the solute concentration of the blood or interstitial fluid
solutes diffuse out of the nephron. increases
• The permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and 2. ADH acts of kidneys, causing them to absorb more
collecting duct vary depending upon hormonal control. water (decrease urine volume)
3. Result is to maintain a normal blood volume and blood Urethra
Pressure • tube that exits bladder
ADH and the Regulation of Extracellular Fluid • carries urine from urinary bladder to outside of body
Internal urethral sphincter
• smooth muscle surrounds urethra at the junction of
the urinary bladder and prevents urine from leaving the
bladder
External urethral sphincter:
• formed of skeletal muscle surrounding the urethra
near the pelvic floor.
• allows a person to voluntarily start or stop the flow of
urine out of the urethra
Urine Movement
Micturition reflex:
• activated by stretch of urinary bladder wall
Atrial Natriuretic Hormone • action potentials are conducted from bladder to spinal
1. ANH is secreted from cardiac muscle in the right cord through pelvic nerves
atrium of the heart when blood pressure increases • parasympathetic action potentials cause bladder to
2. ANH acts on kidneys to decrease Na+ reabsorption contract
3. Sodium ions remain in nephron and enter urine • stretching of bladder stimulates sensory neurons to
4. Increased loss of sodium and water reduce blood inform brain person needs to urinate
volume and blood pressure Micturition Reflex

Ureters and Urinary Bladder

Ureters:
• small tubes that carry urine from renal pelvis of kidney
to bladder
Urinary bladder:
• in pelvic cavity
• stores urine
• can hold a few ml to a maximum of 1000 milliliters
Body Fluid Compartments Thirst Regulation of Extracellular Fluid
• The intracellular fluid compartment includes the fluid Concentration
(cytosol) inside all the cells of the body.
• Approximately two-thirds of all the water in the body
is in the intracellular fluid compartment.
• The extracellular fluid compartment includes all the fluid
outside the cells.
• The extracellular fluid compartment includes, interstitial
fluid, plasma, lymph, and other special fluids, such as joint
fluid, and cerebrospinal fluid.
Composition of Fluids
• Intracellular fluid contains a relatively high concentration
of ions, such as K+, magnesium (Mg2+), phosphate
(PO43−), and sulfate (SO42−), compared to the
Ion Concentration Regulation
• Regulating the concentrations of positively charged ions,
extracellular fluid.
such as Na+, K+, and Ca2+, in the body fluids is particularly
• It has a lower concentration of Na+, Ca2+, Cl−, and
important.
HCO3− than does the extracellular fluid.
• Action potentials, muscle contraction, and normal cell
Exchange Between Fluid Compartments membrane permeability depend on the maintenance of a
• The cell membranes that separate the body fluid narrow range of these concentrations.
compartments are selectively permeable. • Negatively charged ions, such as Cl−, are secondarily
• Water continually passes through them, but ions regulated by the mechanisms that control the positively
dissolved in the water do not. charged ions.
• Water movement is regulated mainly by hydrostatic • The negatively charged ions are attracted to the
pressure differences and osmotic differences between positively charged ions; when the positively charged ions
the compartments. are transported, the negatively charged ions move with
• Osmosis controls the movement of water between the them.
intracellular and extracellular spaces.
Sodium Ions
Regulation of Extracellular Fluid Composition • Sodium ions (Na+) are the dominant ions in the
• Thirst Regulation extracellular fluid.
• Ion Concentration Regulation • About 90 to 95% of the osmotic pressure of the
Thirst Regulation extracellular fluid results from sodium ions and from the
• Water intake is controlled by the thirst center located negative ions associated with them.
in the hypothalamus • Stimuli that control aldosterone secretion influence the
• When the concentration of ions in the blood increases, reabsorption of Na+ from nephrons of the kidneys and
it stimulates the thirst center to cause thirst the total amount of Na+ in the body fluids.
• When water is consumed, the concentrations of blood • Sodium ions are also excreted in sweat.
ions decreases, due to a dilution effect; this causes the Potassium Ions
sensation of thirst to decrease • Electrically excitable tissues, such as muscles and
nerves, are highly sensitive to slight changes in the
extracellular K+ concentration.
• The extracellular concentration of K+ must be
maintained within a narrow range for these tissues to
function normally.
• Aldosterone plays a major role in regulating the Acidosis and Alkalosis
concentration of K+ in the extracellular fluid. • Acidosis occurs when the pH of blood falls below 7.35
Calcium Ions • Respiratory Acidosis - respiratory system is unable to
• The extracellular concentration of Ca2+ is maintained eliminate adequate amounts of CO2 from the blood.
within a narrow range. • Metabolic acidosis - excess production of acidic
• Increases and decreases in the extracellular substances (lactic acid and ketone bodies) due to
concentration of Ca2+ have dramatic effects on the increased metabolism or decreased ability of the kidneys
electrical properties of excitable tissues to eliminate H+ in the urine.
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH), secreted by the • Alkalosis occurs when the pH of blood increases above
parathyroid glands, increases extracellular Ca2+ 7.45
concentrations. • Respiratory alkalosis results from hyperventilation
• Calcitonin reduces the blood Ca2+ concentration when it resulting in low CO2 concentration in blood.
is too high. • Metabolic alkalosis results from the rapid elimination of
Phosphate and Sulfate Ions H+ from the body resulting from severe vomiting or
• Some ions, such as phosphate ions (PO43−) and sulfate when excess aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal
ions (SO42−), are reabsorbed by active transport in the cortex.
kidneys.
• The rate of reabsorption is slow, so that if the
concentration of these ions in the filtrate exceeds the
nephron’s ability to reabsorb them, the excess is
excreted into the urine.
• As long as the concentration of these ions is low,
nearly all of them are reabsorbed by active transport.
Regulation of Acid-Base Balance
Buffers
• Chemicals that resist change in the pH of a solution
• buffers in body contain salts of weak acids or bases
that combine with H+
• three classes of buffers: proteins, phosphate buffer,
bicarbonate buffer
Respiratory system involvement in acid-base regulation:
• responds rapidly to changes in pH
• increased respiratory rate raises blood pH (more alkali)
due to increased rate of carbon dioxide elimination from
the body
• reduced respiratory rate reduces pH (more acidic) due
to decreased rate of carbon dioxide elimination from the
body

Kidney Involvement in acid-base:

• nephrons secrete H+ into urine and directly regulate pH
of body fluids
• more H+ secretion if the pH is decreasing and less H+
secretion if pH is increasing