Waves Parameters

Prepared by Samwel D.

+255754 829 937

+255 715 829 937
 WAVES
Defn: Is the periodic mechanism that transfers energy from one point to another.
Examples of waves are Sound waves, water waves, light waves and radio waves.

TYPES OF WAVES
Waves can be categorized into two kinds according to their media of propagation;
i. Electromagnetic waves
ii. Mechanical waves

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Are the waves which do not need any medium for their transmission (ie They can travel in vacuum).
Examples Light, microwaves, Infrared, X-rays ect

MECHANICAL WAVES
Are the waves which need medium for their transmission (ie they can’t travel in vacuum).
Examples of mechanical waves are Sound, water, Earth quake, seismic waves.

Page | 1
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES.
Mechanical waves are divided into two type namely;
 Longitudinal waves
 Transverse waves

LONGTUDINAL WAVES
Longitudinal waves, also known as "I waves", are waves in which the displacement of the medium is in
the same direction as, or the opposite direction to, the direction of travel of the wave.
Examples Sound wave

TRANSVERSE WAVES
Are the waves in which the displacement of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of travel of the
wave. If a transverse wave is moving in the positive x-direction, its oscillations are in up and down
directions that lie in the y–z plane.
Example Light wave

WAVES PARAMETERS
I. Amplitude(A)
It is maximum displacement of waves from their resting position.
Displacement is the distance from the centre of oscillation to the wave.

II. Frequency(ƒ)
Is the complete number of cycles (oscillations) in one second.
Frequency of the wave is the reciprocal of its period
ƒ = 1⁄𝑇
SI-unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz)

Page | 2
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
III. Wavelength(λ)
The distance between successive crests of a wave, especially points in a sound wave or
electromagnetic wave.
SI-unit of wavelength is Meter (m)

IV. Velocity(v)
Is the product of wavelength and the frequency of the waves.
SI-unit of velocity is meter per second (m/s)

Then 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 1⁄𝑇 and since 1⁄𝑇 = 𝑓

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
From the formula 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ,
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Therefore 𝑉 = 𝜆𝑥ƒ

V. Period(T)
It is the time taken for one complete cycle or oscillation.
It’s the reciprocal of frequency of the wave. The SI-unit of period is second (S)

VI. Node
A node is a point along a standing wave where the wave has minimum amplitude. For instance, in
a vibrating guitar string, the ends of the string are nodes.

VII. Antinode
Is the region of maximum amplitude between two adjacent nodes in a standing wave.
Antinode are divided into Crest and Trough
 Crest is the positive antinode
 Trough is the negative antinode

Keys.
Points A,C,E & G are Nodes
Points B,D,F &H are Antinodes (B & F are Crests and D & H are Trough)

Page | 3
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 Example
In the following diagram the waves move from left to right and then stop. The motion of the
waves lasts for 2 seconds.

a) What is the amplitude of the waves?

b) What is the wavelength of the waves?
c) So what is the frequency of the waves?
d) What is the wave speed?
ANSWERS
a) 0.4m
b) 2m
c) 1Hz
d) 2m/s

NB: Since the frequency is inversely proportional to the period

𝑓 𝛼 1⁄𝑇 Then 𝑓 = 𝑘 1⁄𝑇 and therefore
𝑓1 𝑇1 = 𝑓2 𝑇2

Example. A wave of frequency 188Hz and period 5sec, what is the period if its frequency is increased to
256Hz?
ANSWER 4.7sec

Page | 4
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 BEHAVIOUR OF WAVES.
The behaviours of waves are;
i. Reflection
ii. Refraction
iii. Diffraction
iv. Interference

I. REFLECTION
Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier. The
reflection of waves can be observed using a Ripple tank and Stroboscope.

Ripple tank is a shallow glass tank of water used in schools and colleges to demonstrate the basic
properties of waves

Page | 5
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
Stroboscope is an instrument for studying periodic motion or determining speeds of rotation by shining a
momentary bright light at intervals so that a moving object appears stationary.

Reflection of waves on string

When a string is taut between two fixed ends A and B and the string plucky slightly upwards at one point
say A, the pulse will travel to the other end and be reflected back to the first point. This results to what is
called Stationary (Standing) waves.
Any stationary wave can be formed by the addition of two travelling waves moving in opposite
directions.

Reflection of sound waves

A reflected sound is called Echo. Echo occur when you sound or shout in forest, in front of tall building,
escarpment or any other obstacles.

Page | 6
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 Reverberation
Is a multiple reflection of sound waves when they are placed in an enclosed room or cavity. When
reverberation occurs you cannot distinguish sound and it’s Echo. Reverberation occurs when the distance
between the sound source and obstacle is less than 17m (The minimum distance the listener can
distinguish the incident sound and echo). The listener will receive the impressions that original sound has
been prolonged and sound will take long time before it dies.
Uses of reverberation.
It is used as hearing aid in large halls where there is no microphones.
Prevention of reverberation.
There are materials that are good absorber of sound and no reverberation can occur e.g Paper

Reflection of water waves

Water waves are reflected and their direction depends on the way the reflecting surface was placed.

Incident wave Reflected wave

Page | 7
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 II. REFRACTION
Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to
another. When waves are refracted there is change in the velocity of wave between the two media and
hence changes in the wavelength of the waves.

The direction of the incident and the refracted wave fronts have simple relationship to the speed
of wave in two media.
The relation between the direction of the wave in two media is
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖
= 𝐾 Where
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑟 − 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
And constant K is refractive index
Velocity of incident wave Wavelength of incident wave
𝐾= =
Velocity of refracted wave Wavelength of refracted wave

Page | 8
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 𝜆1 𝑉1
𝐾= =
𝜆2 𝑉2
Example.
The figure below shows the refraction of a light wave front AB travelling from water to air where it
emerges as wave front QP. The lengths of AB, QP and AQ are 4cm, 3cm and 5cm respectively. If the
speed of light in air is 3𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠. Find,
a) Speed in water
b) Angle of refraction if incidence angle is 30°

Soln
speed of light in water BQ
=
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 AP
By Pythagoras theorem AP = 4cm and BQ = 3cm
Vw 3
=
Va 4

3
a) Vw = x 3x108 = 2.25x108
4

Sin i 3
=
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 4

Sin r = 4/3 x Sin 30°

b) Refractive angle is 41.8°

Page | 9
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 III. DIFFRACTION
Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening(slit) or around a
barrier in their path. Diffraction of sound waves unlike the case of light and water waves, increase with
the size of the aperture. Sound waves do not pass through very small aperture.

Consider the speed of sound waves in air at 15℃ is 340m/s and if the frequency is 1000Hz
𝑉 340
Then, λ = = = 0.34𝑚 = 34𝑐𝑚
𝑓 1000
Therefore this wave has large wavelength compared to that of Light waves of 10−7 𝑚. Hence it cannot
pass through a slit less than its wavelength. That’s why it show little or hardly diffraction with narrow slit.

Huygens’s principle applied to a straight wavefront striking an opening. The edges of the wavefront bend after
passing through the opening, a process called diffraction. The amount of bending is more extreme for a small
opening, consistent with the fact that wave characteristics are most noticeable for interactions with objects about the
same size as the wavelength.

Page | 10
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 IV. INTERFERENCE
Interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater or lower
amplitude.
There are two types of Interference

 Constructive interference
This occur when two waves of nearly equal frequency and wavelength which are also in phase and travel
in the same direction overlap
Constructive interference gives a resultant wave of large amplitude.

 Destructive interference
This occur when two waves of nearly equal frequency and wavelength which are out of phase and travel
in the same direction overlap
Constructive interference gives a resultant wave of amplitude equal to zero.

Page | 11
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
NB: Waves are said to be in phase if they attain their maximum and minimum at the same time.

APPLICATIONS OF REFLECTION, REFRACTION, DIFFRACTION AND

INTERFERENCE OF WAVES.
Reflection: reflection by a mirror or prism is useful in everyday life for seeing around a sharp bend in a
road in a periscope to enable you to look over tall people in front of you.

Refraction: when we look into a pond of water for example, a fish appear to be closer to the surface than
it really is. The refractive index is very important to identify the particular substance (sold, liquid or gas)

Diffraction: diffraction in atmosphere by small particles can cause a bright ring to be visible around the
bright source like Sun or Moon.

Interference: Interference among radio signals continues to be a challenge, since most people still hear
the radio via old-fashioned means rather than through new technology, such as the Internet. A number of
interference problems are created by activity on the Sun, which has an enormously powerful
electromagnetic field

SOUND WAVES
Sound waves are produced whenever air is set into vibration by an oscillating body such as stretched
string, whistle, and stretched membrane, turning fork or vocal cords of human being.
Sound waves like all other mechanical waves need a medium for their transmission, they cannot travel in
vacuum.

THE HUMAN EAR

The human ear responds to vibrations in the air caused by the vibrating bodies. Vibrating bodies can make
vibrations ranging from very low frequencies to very high frequencies.
The range the human ear can respond to are called Audible range and is from 20Hz to 20,000Hz. Judging
by their reactions, animals like rats can hear frequencies below 20Hz and cats hear above 20,000Hz.
Frequencies above audible range are ULTRASONIC while those below audible range are called
INFRASOUND.

MECHANISM OF HUMAN EAR.

Air vibrations impinging on the Pinna or Ear lobe are directed through the Auditory canal to the Ear
drum.
The vibrations of ear drum are taken up by the three auditory ossicles called Hammer, Anvil and
Stirrup which are found in the middle ear. The ossicles cause the fluid in the cochlea(Inner ear) to
oscillate. The fibres in the cochlea are connected by nerves to the Auditory nerve. When fluid oscillate the
fibres with different length also oscillate and each fibre can respond to different frequencies only. The
message from the fibres are collected in form of electrical pulse and interpreted by brain. If some fibres
are removed then a person will become deaf to frequencies whose fibres are removed.

Page | 12
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
VELOCITY OF SOUND
Sound travel with different velocity in different media.
In solid sound travel 15 times its speed in air, in liquid its velocity is about 4.3 times its speed in air and in
air the velocity is 330m/s – 340m/s depending with temperature.
Material Speed (m/s) at 20℃
Steel 5000
Water 1400
Air 330

Aircraft travel faster than330m/s and is said to travel at Supersonic speed. At supersonic speed the
aircraft overtake its own speed and result to Sonic boom.

DETERMINING THE SPEED OF SOUND BY USING ECHOES.

Example.
If a person stands 500m from the foot of the tall wall claps his hands and heard an echo 1.5sec later.
Calculate the velocity of sound.
Soln

Page | 13
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
The total distance travelled is (250𝑥2) = 500𝑚 and time taken to travel the distance is 1.5sec
Then
𝑉 = 𝜆𝑥ƒ
distance 500
= =
time 1.5

Velocity is 333.3m/s

Example. A signal is sent from the bottom of a ship. The signal comes back in one-fifth of a second. How
deep is the water?
ANSWER 150m Hints 𝑉𝑤 = 1500𝑚/𝑠.

Example. Sound travel 1.7km in 5sec. the time between the flash of the lighting and the thunder is 10sec.
how far is the storm.
ANSWER 3400m

MUSICAL SOUNDS
Musical Sounds and Noise
Audible sounds are classified into two groups, namely musical sounds and noise.

A musical sound is that in which the vibrations of the sounding body are periodic, follow each other
regularly and rapidly, so as to produce a pleasing effect on the ear without any sudden change in loudness.

Noise is an abrupt sound of a complex character with an irregular period and amplitude, originating from
a source in non-periodic motion. The horn of a motor car, the sound of a hammer striking an anvil, the
report of a gun, the sound from a motorbike or a flying aeroplane and bursting of crackers are examples of
noise. Noises produce a jarring effect on the ear.
Noise is considered as an undesired sound whose effect is to disturb the normal work, sleep or peace of
mind of human beings. Sometimes, it produces strain, irritation and headache.

Sound of musical instrument depends on the four parameters;

i. Pitch or Frequency
ii. Intensity
iii. Loudness

Page | 14
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 iv. Quality or timbre

I. Pitch.
It is defined as that characteristic of sound by which the ear assigns it a place on a musical scale. When a
stretched string is plucked, a sound of a certain pitch sensation is produced. If the tension in the string is
increased, the pitch (the shrillness) becomes higher. Increasing the tension also increases the frequency of
vibration. Therefore, pitch is intimately related to frequency.
II. Intensity
The Intensity of waves is defined as the power delivered per unit area.SI-unit is W/m2. It’s also defined as
power density

III. Loudness
It is the state of clear audibility. It depends on the frequency of sound and sensitivity of one ear. The
loudness increase on increasing the amplitude of the wave.

IV. Quality(Timbre)
It is that characteristic of a musical sound which enables us to distinguish between the sounds produced
by two different musical instruments or two different persons although their pitch and loudness may be
same. It is because of this characteristic that we are able to recognize the voice of a known person over
the telephone or to distinguish between the sounds produced by different musical instruments in an
orchestra.
The quality depends primarily on the waveform of the sound. But most bodies vibrate in a very complex
manner. Besides the fundamental frequency f, they consist of additional frequencies of 2f, 3f, 4f, etc.
These additional tones are called overtones or harmonics.

RELATIONSHIP BTN FREQUENCY AND LENGTH, TENSION AND DIAMETER

1
i. 𝑓 ∝ where 𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑙
ii. 𝑓 ∝ √𝑊 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑊 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
1
iii. 𝑓 ∝ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐷

To describe the factors above the Sonometer can be used. It’s a device that consists of the long sounding
box with strings of different diameter.
From the relation above the formula below can be derived.
1 𝑊
𝑓0 = √
2l 𝜇
Where W – Tension
𝜇 – 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
l – Length

Hence the frequency of the nth overtone is given by 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓0

Page | 15
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 RELATIONSHIP BTN THE WAVELENGTH AND LENGTH OF THE STRING
i. Fundamental frequency

𝑉
Then 𝜆0 = 2𝐿 and from 𝑓0 =𝜆
0
𝑉
Now,𝑓0 = 2𝐿

ii. First overtone

For first overtone

𝑉
𝐿 = 𝜆 and then 𝑓1 =
𝐿

For second overtone

3 2𝐿 3𝑉
𝐿= 𝜆 and hence 𝜆 = then 𝑓2 =
2 3 2𝐿

Using mathematics, the general formula for frequency of nth overtone is 𝑓𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑓0

Page | 16
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 Example.
A string of length 3m has its two ends fixed. Find;
a) Wavelength of the fundamental
b) Wavelength of third harmonic
c) If the velocity of sound is 340m/s. calculate the fundamental frequency
d) Frequency of fourth harmonic

Soln
Data
Length = 3m
From the formula 𝜆0 = 2𝐿
Wavelength of the fundamental = 2𝑥3
Wavelength of the fundamental = 6m

Wavelength of third harmonic

Remember third harmonic = Second overtones
𝑉 340
And 𝑓0 = 𝑓0 = = 56.67
2𝐿 6

𝑓2 = (2 + 1)𝑓0 𝑓2 = 3𝑥56.67 = 170𝐻𝑧

𝑉 340
And now 𝜆2 = =
𝑓2 170
Wavelength of the third harmonic = 2m

Fundamental frequency = 56.67Hz

Frequency of the fourth harmonic = frequency of third overtones

𝑓3 = (3 + 1)𝑓0

= 4𝑥56.67 = 226.67𝐻𝑧
Frequency of fourth harmonic = 226.67Hz

Example. A stretched string adjusted to a length of 48m produce the same note when plucked as a fork of
256Hz. If the wire is then adjusted to 32m and tension kept constant. What will be the frequency of the
fork which would be in time with the wire?
ANSWER 384Hz.

Page | 17
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
Questions.
01. A frequency obtained from a plucked string is 400Hz when the tension is 2N. calculate;
a) Frequency when tension increased to 8N
b) Tension needed to produce frequency of 600Hz
02. The frequency of the wire emitted by sonometer wire is 300Hz. What will be the frequency of the
note if;
a) Length is reduced to one third at the same tension
b) Tension is increased by one third in the original length of the wire.

03. The fundamental frequency of the certain string is 400Hz. Find in which mode of vibration the
string is if it emits waves of frequency 1600Hz. Hence find the frequency of 6 th overtone.

04. A distance between two successive crests of water in ripple tank experiment is 3.2cm and their
speed is 26cm/s. Determine the wavelength, frequency and period of the ripples.

05. A drum at station A is connected to Station B with a wire. A man at A beat the drum while the
other man at B place his ear at the wire and hear two sounds separated by the time interval of
0.5sec. If the velocity of the sound in air is 340m/s and that in string/wire is 5280m/s. How far
apart are the two men?

06. A vibrating string has tension of 400N and produces a note of 200Hz. If the length is unaltered
and the tension increased to 160N. What will be the frequency?

Page | 18
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 RELATION OF WAVELENGTH AND LENGTH OF PIPE FOR WAVES IN PIPES
Waves in pipes are considered to be either in
a) Open pipe or
b) Closed pipe

A. OPEN PIPE
These are pipes which are open both ends. Since both ends are open then the ends of the pipe are
always antinodes.

i. Fundamental frequency, first and second overtone.

From the figure above

For fundamental frequency
𝜆
𝐿= Therefore 𝜆 = 2𝐿
2
𝑉
𝑓0 =
2𝐿
First overtone

𝑉
𝐿 = 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓1 =
𝐿
Second overtone
3𝜆 2𝐿
𝐿= 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜆 =
2 3

3𝑉
Therefore 𝑓=
2𝐿

Page | 19
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 Using mathematics (sequence) the general formula to find the frequency of the nth
overtone in an open pipe is like that of the string.
𝑓𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑓0

B. CLOSED PIPE.
These are the pipes whose one end is closed. When the air is blown in the pipe through
the open end the closed end is always a node.
i. Fundamental, first and second

For the fundamental frequency

𝜆
𝐿=4 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜆 = 4𝐿
𝑉
And then 𝑓0 = 4𝐿

For the first overtone

3𝜆 4𝐿
𝐿= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜆 =
4 3

3𝑉
And then 𝑓1 = 4𝐿

Page | 20
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 For the second overtone
5𝜆 4𝐿
𝐿= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜆 =
4 5
5𝑉
And then 𝑓2 = 4𝐿
Using mathematics the general formula to find the frequency of the nth overtone in a
closed pipe is
𝑓𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝑓0

Examples.
01. What is the wavelength and frequency of the fundamental wave produced by an organ pipe
closed at one end if its length is 2m? Velocity of sound is 340m/s.

Soln
Data
L = 2m.
For closed pipe 𝜆0 = 4𝐿
Therefore wavelength = 4𝑥2
Fundamental wavelength is 8m.

𝑉
𝑓=
𝜆

340
= = 42.5𝐻𝑧
8
Fundamental frequency is 42.5Hz

02. A flute with both ends open has a fundamental frequency of 261.6Hz. Find
a) The frequency of the fourth harmonic
b) If the velocity of sound in a flute is 343m/s. Find the wavelength of this sound and
hence determine the shortest length of the air column in the flute.

Soln
Data
𝑓0 = 261.6𝐻𝑧 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒.
Frequency of the fourth harmonic is the frequency of the third overtone and for open pipe
𝑓3 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑓0
The frequency is 4𝑥261.6
Frequency of the fourth harmonic is 1046.4Hz
𝑉 343
Wavelength of the sound = =
𝑓 261.6
Wavelength of the sound is 1.3m

Page | 21
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 The shortest length of air column in the flute
From the formula 𝜆0 = 2𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
1.3 = 2L
1.3
𝐿= = 0.65𝑚
2
The shortest length of air column is 0.65m

03. An organ pipe is used to produce the lowest note audible to the human ear - 20.-Hz. If the
temperature is 25 °C, then how long is the organ pipe? (First decide whether it will produce
this low note as a closed- or as an open-end air column.)

Soln
Harmonics produced by closed-end air columns are characterized by longer wavelengths than the
harmonics of open-end air columns of the same length. Thus, a closed-end air column produces
lower frequencies. For this reason, we'll assume that the organ pipe in this problem is a closed-end
air column. (Note, your answer will be two times larger if you assumed this to be an open-end air
column.)
At a temperature of 25°C, sound waves travel at 346 m/s. The frequency and speed can be used to
determine the wavelength (lambda):
lambda = v / f = (346 m/s) / (20 Hz) = 17.3 m
The wavelength of the first harmonic of a closed-end air column is four times the length of the
column; so the length of the column is one-fourth the wavelength.
L = 0.25 x17.3 m = 4.3 m

04. A 440.-Hz tuning fork is held above the open end of a water-filled pop bottle and resonance
is heard. The length of the pop bottle (bottom to top) is 28.2 cm. If the speed of sound is 345
m/s, then to what height is the pop bottle filled with water?

Soln
The wavelength (lambda) of a 440 Hz sound can be determine from the wave equation (v = f x
lambda)
Lambda = v / f = (345 m/s) / (440. Hz) = 0.784 m
For a closed-end air column, the wavelength of the first harmonic is four times the length of the air
column. So the length is one-fourth the wavelength:
L = 0.25 x 0.784 m = 0.196 m = 19.6 cm
If the pop bottle is 28.2 cm tall, then it should be filled with 8.6 cm of water in order for there to
remain 19.6 cm of air.

Page | 22
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
Questions.
01. An organ pipe has a length of 2.45 m and is open at both ends. Determine the
fundamental frequency of the pipe if the temperature in the room is 25 degrees Celsius
and the velocity of sound is 346m/s. Hence determine the fundamental frequency of the
pipe if it is closed at one end.

02. Determine the frequency of the lowest three harmonics at which a closed-end air column
would sound out at 25 degrees Celsius (346m/s) if its length is 135 cm

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic waves are waves which can travel in vacuum. The sun is the main source of
these waves. The energy from the sun reaches the Earth via electromagnetic waves.
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic
radiation.

Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes – the visible light that comes from a
lamp in your house and the radio waves that come from a radio station are two types of
electromagnetic radiation. The other types of EM radiation that make up the electromagnetic
spectrum are microwaves, infrared, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma-rays.

Electromagnetic radiation can be expressed in terms of energy, wavelength, or frequency.

Frequency is measured in cycles per second, or Hertz. Wavelength is measured in meters.
Energy is measured in electron volts. Each of these three quantities for describing EM radiation
are related to each other in a precise mathematical way

VISIBLE SPECTRUM
The visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human
eye. Electromagnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called visible light or simply light.
A typical human eye will respond to wavelengths from about 390 to 700 nm. In terms of
frequency, this corresponds to a band in the vicinity of 430–770THz. The spectrum does not,
however, contain all the colors that the human eyes and brain can distinguish. Unsaturated
colors such as pink, or purple variations such as magenta, are absent, for example, because they
can be made only by a mix of multiple wavelengths. Colors containing only one wavelength are
also called pure colors or spectral colors.

Page | 23
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
 Colours of visible spectrum

Color Wavelength Frequency

Violet 380–450 nm 668–789 THz

Blue 450–495 nm 606–668 THz

Green 495–570 nm 526–606 THz

Yellow 570–590 nm 508–526 THz

Orange 590–620 nm 484–508 THz

Red 620–750 nm 400–484 THz

Page | 24
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
You know more about the electromagnetic spectrum than you may think. The image below shows where
you might encounter each portion of the EM spectrum in your day-to-day life.

The electromagnetic spectrum from lowest energy/longest wavelength (at the top) to highest
energy/shortest wavelength (at the bottom)

Page | 25
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
Radio: Your radio captures radio waves emitted by radio stations, bringing your favorite tunes.
Radio waves are also emitted by stars and gases in space.

Microwave: Microwave radiation will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes, but is also used
by astronomers to learn about the structure of nearby galaxies.

Infrared: Night vision goggles pick up the infrared light emitted by our skin and objects with
heat. In space, infrared light helps us map the dust between stars.

Visible: Our eyes detect visible light. Fireflies, light bulbs, and stars all emit visible light.

Ultraviolet: Ultraviolet radiation is emitted by the Sun and is the reason skin tans and burns.
"Hot" objects in space emit UV radiation as well.

X-ray: A dentist uses X-rays to image your teeth, and airport security uses them to see through
your bag. Hot gases in the Universe also emit X-rays.

Gamma ray: Doctors use gamma-ray imaging to see inside your body. The biggest gamma-ray
generator of all is the Universe.

SPECTROSCOPY
Spectroscopy is the study of objects based on the spectrum of color they emit, absorb or reflect.
Spectroscopy is an important investigative tool in astronomy, where scientists use it to analyze
the properties of distant objects.

Measuring electromagnetic radiation

Page | 26
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937
Infrared radiation
Infrared radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation. It is invisible to human eyes, but people can feel
it as heat.
Infrared radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation, which involves waves rather than particles. This
means that, unlike conduction and convection, radiation can even pass through the vacuum of space. This
is why we can still feel the heat of the Sun, although it is 150 million km away from the Earth.

Detection of Infrared radiations

You can detect infrared radiation by the heating effect it has on object or with special sensors such as
thermometers, barometer strip, radiometer and thermopile.

Properties of Infrared
i. Absorbed by ordinary glass but transmitted by rock salt and quartz
ii. Used for quick drying of paints and enameled surfaces. Infrared lamps used for quick growth of
chickens and also in aircrafts for night piloting
iii. Are used to take photos in haze.
iv. In heating and cooking purposes

Ultraviolet radiation
Radiation in the part of the electromagnetic spectrum where wavelengths are just shorter than those of
ordinary, visible violet light but longer than those of x-rays.

Detection of Ultraviolet radiation

They can be detected by fluorescence. Quinine compounds, anthracene and motor oil all glow when
exposed to these rays.

Properties of Ultraviolet radiation

i. Blacken photographic plate
ii. Produce fluorescence
iii. Ultraviolet from the sun is a source of vitamin D
iv. Used for photosynthesis

Hazards of Ultraviolet radiations

i. They are harmful to eyes since they can lead to snow-blindness
ii. They can kill colonies of microorganism
iii. Long exposure to these radiations can cause skin cancer.

Page | 27
Samwel Daniel +255 754 829 937 & +255 715 829 937