Power Vize Öncesi

Introduction
EE328 Power Electronics

Prof. Dr. Mutlu BOZTEPE
Ege University, Dept. of E&E
Recommended Course Books
“Power Electronics”  “Power Electronics Circuits,

Daniel W. Hart Devices and Applications”,
McGraw-Hill Muhammed H. Rashid
Prentice Hall
EE328 Power Electronics, Prof.Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, Spring 2023
1
Course content
 Introduction to power electronics concept, electronic switches,
circuit simulation
EE328 POWER ELECTRONICS
 Power computations, energy recovery, effective (RMS) value,
power computations for non-sinusoidal waveforms
 AC/DC converters (Rectifiers)
– Uncontrolled rectifiers with diodes, half&full wave, 1 and 3 phase
– Controlled rectifiers with SCR, half&full wave, 1 and 3 phase
– Power factor correction (PFC) circuits
 DC/DC converters
– Buck, Boost, Buck-boost, Cuk, Flyback, Forward, Half&Full Bridge
 DC/AC converters (Inverters)
– Single and three phase full bridge PWM inverters, multilevel
inverters
 AC/AC converters
– Single and three phase AC voltage controllers, cycloconverter.
Course web page

 Announcements, lecture notes, design
projects etc. are all included in the
course web page in the University Portal
of EGEDERS https://egeders.ege.edu.tr/
 University licence for MATLAB

For more information: http://matlab.ege.edu.tr/
 Free software: LTSpice SPICE circuit

simulator, Analog Devices
 Install these softwares into your computer.
2
All laboratory works are postponed to
LABORATORY April. In lab hours, there will be lectures.
 Simulation experiments in
PSIM environment
 Read the laboratory manual
carefully before doing an
experiment.
 Each student should
prepare a preliminary design
report before coming to
laboratory.
 Each group should submit
an experiment report.
 More information will be
given by the laboratory
assistant: Ar. Gör. Seçkin
Şola
Design project of 2023

15V/2A adjustable power supply.
Objective: The objective of this project is to design, simulate and realize an
15V/2A adjustable power supply
General specifications:
 Input: 16Vdc to 30Vdc
 Output : 1.5V to 15Vdc voltage @ 0-2A adj. current.
 Protections: Short circuit (SCP), over-current (OCP),
over-voltage (OVP) and over-temperature (OTP) protections
 Displaying of Vout & Iout
 Proposal:
 Project team: 5 students
 The team leader makes all communications
for proposal, report etc. on behalf of the team.
A commercial
 Each team will submit a project proposal
product
 Proposal due date: 02.04.2022
 More information will be given in Egeders course website.
3
Design Project of Previous Years
 2022: USB car charger
 2021: Offline power supply design 12Vdc (PSIM)
 2020: Digital power converter which boosts 12V voltage to 48V (PSIM)
 2019: Fully digital, adjustable 0-15V / 2 A DC power supply
 2018: LED stroboscobe Sample project video
 2017: USB mobile charger Sample Project video
 2016: Power conditioner design for wind power generator
 2015: A speed controller for 12V brushed DC motor
Grading policy
 Success in laboratory activity is obligatory to pass the course.
 Repeat takers must repeat all the activities of the course; that means
both laboratory section and design project must be repeated.
 Students have to attend at least 70% of classes. Repeat takers are
not liable if they have fulfilled this condition before.
 All reports and assignments must be submitted before due date. Late
submissions will not be accepted!
 Assessment of the course
Midterm exam 30% Quiz score on the lecture
Design Project 15% about sustainable energy
review will be added to
Lab. score 15%
midterm exam as a bonus
Final exam 40% 5%.
Course score 100%
4
What is power electronics?
 Power electronics is a branch of engineering that combines the
generation, transformation and distribution of electric energy through
electronic means. (Kevin Bai)
 Power electronics is the application of solid-state electronics for the
control and conversion of electric power. (Wikipedia)
 In broad terms, the task of power electronics is to process and
control the flow of electric energy by supplying voltages and currents
in the form that is optimally suited for user loads. (Mohan et.al.)
 Power electronics combine power, electronics and control.
(M.Rashid)
 Power electronics is the application of static converters to process
and control the electric energy. (Hacı Bodur)
 Power electronics circuits convert electric power from one form to
another using electronic devices. Conversion is done using
electronic switches, capacitors, magnetics, and control systems
(Daniel Hart)
Interdisciplinary nature of power electronics

Fourier series
Embedded
coding
Circuit Signal
theory processings
Simulation and
computing Solid-state
physics
Control Power
theory Renewable
Electronic energy
s
Power
Electronics systems
Electric
machines
Electromagnetics
5
Scope of power electronics
 Applications of power electronics range from low power battery
operated equipments to high power utility equipments.
Power Level Example System
<1 kW Battery operated equipment, cordless screwdrivers,
cell phone chargers, Satellite power systems, Offline flyback
miliWatt
power supply, Notebook chargers, Computer power supply,

Blender, sound systems, solar micro-inverters
1-100 kW Electronic welding machine, Electric car, Eddy current
braking, Heating and lighting control, induction heating,
LED lamps, Motor driver, washing machine, dishwascher,
induction stoves, refrigerator,EV chargers, UPS, Solar string
GigaWatt
inverter
>100 kW Magnetic aircraft lunch, Big locomotives, Power distribution
Power plant, Energy storage, solar central inverter, wind
turbine, High Voltage DC Transmission (Giga Watt!)
Worlds smallest power converter, Murata Inc.
6
PC ATX power supply
Microprocessor voltage regulator
7
Induction heating
Induction stoves
8
Maglev Train
Maglev train video
Electric cars and its chargers
TESLA MODEL S
VESTEL 22 KW AC CHARGER INSTALLED IN

EGE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS
9
Wireless charging of EVs
 Project Title: Design and Optimization
of a Contactless Charging System
for Electric Vehicles
 Supported by Tübitak
 Nominal power: 2 kW
Renewable energy
10
Phovoltaic Home Energy System
Battery charger
& DC-AC
Energy monitoring inverter
PV modules
Wall outlet
Battery
Smart grid
 Electricity grid involves more and more power electronics.
 Penetration rate of non-stable renewable power sources into future
grid can be increased only with smart control strategies by using
suitable power electronics equipments.
11
Conversion clasification
According to power conversion type:
AC input DC output DC input AC output

(rectifier) (inverter)
Half wave, full wave Inverters, UPS, Electric Vehicle

rectifiers, PFC circuits motor drives, Solar inverters
DC input DC output AC input AC output

(converter)
(converter) (cycloconverter)
Voltage regulator, power

supplies, battery chargers Dimmer, induction
machine starter
Conversion clasification
According to the power flow direction
• Uni-directional • Bi-directional
Generally power flows Power can flow in both ways

from source to the load
Power flow Forward

direction direction
Reverse
direction
12
Example: AC-DC bidirectional converter
 The instantaneous power flow through the converter can be forward
or backward direction at any instant of time.
Rectifier operation: The power
flows from AC source to the DC
source in forward direction.
AC DC
source source
Inverter operation: The power

flows from DC source to the AC
source in backward direction.
Multistep conversion
 Power conversion can be a multistep process involving more than
one type of converter.
 For example, an AC-DC-AC conversion can be used to modify an
AC source by first converting it to direct current and then converting
the dc signal to an ac signal that has an amplitude and frequency
different from those of the original ac source
DC
AC AC
AC-DC DC-AC
AC-AC converter
13
Power Electronics Applications in Energy
Source: "Power Electronics – Quo Vadis",

Frede Blaabjerg, presentation
Power conversion concept (1/3)

 The ultimate goal is to supply 3 V to a resistive load.
 Method #1: Voltage divider
 Problem 1 (regulation): Load voltage vary if
X
the value of the load resistance changes.
 Problem 2 : Low efficiency (33.3%).
 Method #2: Pass transistor

 The pass transistor behaves as a variable
resistor and solves the regulation problem
using a control system
 This type of regulator is known as Linear
Regulators (e.g. 7805, 7815, 7915 etc.)
 But the problem 2 is still exist. Efficiency is as
low as method #1.
14
 Method #3: Chopper
 An electronic switch is used instead of pass transistor, which is on/off
periodically.
 This type of operation is known as chopping.
 If the switch is closed for one-third of the period, the average value of
vx(t) is one-third of the source voltage.
Serious problem: The output
voltage is not pure DC!
Switch is
fully ON
or
fully OFF
Power absorbed by the

ideal switch is zero!
Efficiency is 100%!!

 Method #4: Chopper + Low pass filter
 A low-pass filter removes the switching harmonics and 3 Vdc output
voltage with small ripple is obtained.
 This method is known as
"Switching power
conversion" Fourier
series of
vx(t)
3V DC
15
Switching Power Converters
Practical Losses: Loss
Loss
 The filter have some losses and
absorbs some power.
 The electronic switch is not perfect
and have losses.
 However, the efficiency is still quite
high (usually >90%).
Output voltage regulation:

 Converter output voltage is
measured and switch ON time is
adjusted accordingly by the control
system to maintain the desired
output voltage.
Practical switches
IGBT is
IGBTs are faster than
abbreviation for
thyristors, but slower Isolated Gate
than MOSFETs. It is Bipolar
preferred in medium to Transistor.
high power converters
GTO: Gate
MOSFET: Turn Off
Metal Oxide thyristor.
Semiconductor
Field Effect GTO and thyristors
Transistor can only be
preferred at very
MOSFETS high voltage and
are the very high current
fastest applications
switches
Today, MOSFETs and IGBTs are mostly used in power electronics.
16
Switch selection in power electronics
 The selection of a power SWITCH PROVIDE CONTROL PROVIDE CONTROL
device depends on; TYPE OF TURN-ON OF TURN-OFF
– voltage & current levels, MOSFET  
– switching speeds, IGBT  
– power losses,
– cost etc.
GTO  
SCR  
DIODE  
 The IGBT is a minority carrier device and have storage delays.

 The MOSFET is a majority carrier device that does not have storage delays
 Therefore, MOSFET has advantage in switching speeds. Generally has lower
switching losses.
Wide Band-gap Materials:

Galium-Nitride (GaN) and Silicon-Carbide (SiC)
17
History of power electronics
First
Invention of SiC diode
Invention of
Power MOSFET and
Invention of IGBT
Power BJT Wide-bandgap devices
Thyristor
SiC Diode
Mercury arc SiC MOSFETs, JFETs, BJTs
rectifier Power MOSFET IGBT GaN power devices
Vacuum-tube Power diode Power BJT Power MOSFET Intelligent Power Modules
rectifier Thyristor GTO, Thyristor Thyristor (IPMs)
Thyratron (P control) (DSP control) (DSP & FPGA control)
1900 1957 Mid 1970s Late 1980s Early 2000s
Pre-history 1st phase 2nd phase 3rd phase 4th phase
Intelligent Power Modules (IPMs)

600V, 30A PFC module
27 mm
44mm
18
Cooling requirements
 The power converters have not 100% efficient due to the power
losses arised in power semiconductors and in other components.
 The power loss is converted into heat, and raises the device
temperature. If the heat is not removed from the device properly, the
temperature can exceed the limit (~150°C) and the device can be
damaged.
 Therefore, the heat must be removed
from the device by using heat transfer
methods, and the temperature
must be kept below the limit.
 A heatsink can be used for power
dissipation into ambient by convection.
 The heat dissipation capacity can be
increased by increasing the volume
which reduces the thermal resistance
between the power device and ambient.
Force cooling
 The heat dissipation capacity of
heatsinks under natural convection 1.5°C/W
are limited due to volume of heatsink for infinite heatsink
increases excessively.
 In this situation, the forced
convection cooling can be an option
that increases thermal conductivity
remarkably.
Below 0.5°C/W
with airflow
19
PC mainboard cooling
Heat pipe contains
heat transfer liquid
circulating naturally
Heatsink
Notebook mainboard cooling

 Limited space for cooling.
 Heat pipe is essential technology to obtain low profile and low
volume.
Heatsink
With fan
Heatpipe
20
Water cooling
Suitable for high power applications;
such as electric cars
hollow
Water
inlet
Water
outlet
Be careful in calculations!
 Use at least 3 significant figures for all calculations in engineering.
10 mV
----------- = 3  = 3.3  = 3.33 
3 mA Unbelievable! Wrong! Correct
 An example to emphasize the importance of S.F..

A student calculation in exam It should be
12 12
Duty  1   0.6 1S.F. !!! Duty  1   0.666 3S.F. !!!
36 36
D (1  D ) 2 R D (1  D ) 2 R
L L
2f 2f
0.6(1  0.6) 210 0.666(1  0.666) 210
 Error 29.4% 
2.100000 2.100000
 4.8uH  Terribly wrong!  3.71uH  Correct
21
Be careful in calculations!
A student calculation in exam (2018-2019 Fall semester, EES 433)
 Wrong 2 SF!!
 30 
8.15  8.63  I S  e1.848  1
 
 I S  4.276 x108 Error 46%
It should be
 Correct 3 SF!!
 30.7

8.15  8.63  I S  e 1.848
 1
 
 I S  2.928 x108
22
Power and Energy
Introduction
 Power computations are
essential skill in analyzing
and designing of power
electronics circuits.
 The current and voltage
waveforms can be
– DC
– Sinusoidal
– Non-sinusoidal
 For all waveforms, we should

know how to calculate
following quantities;
– RMS voltage & average voltage sawtooth wave
– RMS current & average current

– Instantaneous power & active power &
reactive power
– Apparent power & complex power &
power factor,
– Harmonics voltages & currents
– and so on.
EE328 Power Electronics, Prof.Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2023 2
1
AC & DC quantities
 If the value of any electrical quantity (voltage, current etc.) doesn’t
change with respect to time, it is a DC quantity.
 If the value of any electrical quantity vary with time periodically, it is

an AC quantity.
Average value is zero for an AC signal.

Instantaneous power
 The power is defined as the product of current and voltage
 This equation is valid for any device

or any circuit.
 The instantaneous power is the value
of power p(t) at any instant of time.
 The instantaneous power is generally
a time-varying quantity.
 The power can have negative or
positive value with respect to the time.
 The sign of the power indicates its
direction of flow.
2
Sign conventions
Passive sign convention (Mostly used) (In this course too!)
 Positive power means device absorbing power!
 At any instant of time;
– if p(t)>0, it indicates the device is absorbing power
– if p(t)<0, it indicates the device is supplying power
Active sign convention

 Positive power means device producing power!
 At any instant of time;
– if p(t)<0, it indicates the device is absorbing power
– if p(t)>0, it indicates the device is supplying power
Only difference between the conventions are

the reference direction of current i(t) !!!
Exercise 1
 Calculate the power
of all components
in the circuit.
Active sign convention Passive sign convention
3
Exercise 2
 Voltage and current, consistent with the passive sign convention, for
a device are shown below.
a) Determine the instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by the device.

b) Determine the energy absorbed by the device in one period.
c) Determine the average power absorbed by the device.
Solution (1)
a) Instantaneous voltage&current Period
 Instantaneous power
4
Solution (2)
b) The energy absorbed by the device can be found by integration of
instantanous power p(t) over the period.
c) The average power is determined as follows;
 or alternatively;
Average Power of DC voltage source

 The average power absorbed by a dc voltage source is
 Bringing the constant Vdc outside of the integral gives
dc voltage
source
Therefore, average power absorbed by a dc voltage source is

the product of the voltage Vdc and the average current Iavg .
5
Exercise 3
 Assume that the voltage and current waveforms of a DC voltage
source are;
 The average power delivered by this voltage source can be found as
Exercise 4 - Power and voltage for an Inductor

 The current in a 5-mH inductor is the
periodic triangular wave as shown
below.
 Determine the voltage, instantaneous
power, and average power for the
inductor.
6
Solution (1/2)
 The current-voltage relationship
of an inductor is
 By using this relationship, the

voltage across the inductor can
be found as shown in the figure
on the right.
 It can be determined easily from

the figure that the average
inductor voltage is zero
Solution (2/2)
 The instantaneous power in the
inductor is
 when p(t) is positive, the inductor is

absorbing power,
 when p(t) is negative, the inductor is
supplying power.
 The average inductor power is zero.
7
Energy recovery
 Inductors and capacitors must be energized and de-energized in
several applications of power electronics.
 For a periodic operations, the net energy in inductors and capacitors
must be zero in steady-state condition, otherwise the current or voltage
ramps up, and can easily destroy the sensitive devices.
 For example, a fuel injector solenoid in an automobile is energized for
a certain time interval by a transistor switch.
 During this time interval, energy is stored in the solenoid’s inductance.
 The circuit must be designed to remove
the stored energy in the inductor while
preventing damage to the transistor
when it is turned off.
Coil of
solenoid
Solenoid switching
 The solenoid can be modelled as an inductor. The resistance
associated with the inductor is assumed to be negligible
 Transistor (as switch) and diode are assumed to be ideal.
 The diode-resistor path provides a means of opening the switch and
removing the stored energy in the inductor when the transistor turns
off.
 Without the
diode-resistor path,
the transistor could
be destroyed
when it is turned off
8
Circuit operation: 0<t<t1
 Inductor voltage is equal to the supply voltage Vcc. Therefore the
current can be calculated as follows,
 The transistor current is equal to

the inductor current
 Inductor and source currents

thus increase linearly Transistor
when the transistor is on. is ON
Circuit operation: t1<t<T

 This is a simple RL circuit, so that the inductor current can be
calculated as follows
Time constant
 The initial value of inductor

current is
 The current in the inductor

and resistor is decaying
exponential with
time constant L/R.
 The switch current is zero
9
Average DC source power
 The current waveform supplied by the DC source is
 The average power supplied by the DC source is
Average resistor power (Method 1)

 The average power absorbed by the resistor could be determined by
integrating an expression for instantaneous resistor power, but an
examination of the circuit reveals an easier way.
 The average power absorbed
by the inductor is zero
 The power absorbed by
the ideal transistor and
diode are both zero.
 Therefore, all power
supplied by the source
must be absorbed
by the resistor
10
Average resistor power (Method 2)
 Another way to approach the problem is to determine the peak
energy stored in the inductor,
 The all energy stored in the inductor is transferred to the resistor

while the transistor switch is open.
 Power absorbed by the resistor can be determined from
All the energy stored in the inductor is

dissipated in the resistor, and
converted to heat. Therefore, the
energy efficiency is very low.
High Efficiency Solenoid Driver

 The circuit efficiency can be improved if stored energy in the
inductance can be transferred back to the source rather than
dissipating in resistor.
 The circuit below
can be used for
this purpose
 Two transistor
switches
are turned on
and off
simultaneously.
Real Circuit Ideal switch model of the Circuit
11
Circuit operation: 0<t<t1
 Inductor voltage is equal to the supply voltage Vcc. Therefore the
current can be calculated as follows,
 The transistor current is equal to

the inductor current
ON
 Inductor and source currents ON

thus increase linearly
when the transistors are on.
Circuit operation: t1<t<2t1

 Inductor voltage is vL(t)= –Vcc ,then the current can be found as,
 The source current is negative

then the source is absorbing
power.
 Average source current is zero,
resulting in an average
source power of zero.
No energy losses!!!
12
Exercise 5
 In the following circuits Vcc=90 V, L=200 mH, R=20, t1=10 ms,
and T=100 ms. Determine,
a) the peak current and peak energy storage in the inductor
(Ans. 4.5A, 2.025J)
b) the average power absorbed by the resistor,
(Ans. 20.25W)
c) the peak and average
power supplied by the source.
(Ans. 405W, 20.25W)
d) Compare the results with
what would happen if
the inductor were energized
using lossless two
transistor circuit.
Average Power for Resistors

 The voltage and current are in
phase.
 A dissipative device in electric SMD
circuits which obeys Ohm’s law, resistors
 The power absorbed by

a resistor is
Through Hole
!! Learn how to read the resistor color codes !! resistors
13
P, V and I for a resistor
Energy in Inductors and Capacitors

 Inductors and capacitors have some particular characteristics that
are important in power electronics applications.
 They are able to store energy,
Inductors store energy Capacitors store energy

in magnetic field in electric field
14
P, V and I for an inductor&Capacitor
For inductor For capacitor
Average power for Inductor&Capacitor

 In steady-state,the stored energy at the end of the period should be
equal to the value at the beginning.
Inductor Capacitor
 That means the energy increases and decreases in a period, but the
average power is zero for steady-state periodic operation.
 Instantaneous power is not necessarily be zero !!!
15
Inductor vs. Capacitor
Inductor’s volt-second balance Capacitor Charge balance
 Therefore, for periodic currents,  Therefore, for periodic currents, the

the average voltage across an average current that flows through a
inductor is zero. capacitor is zero.
Volt-second balance and Charge-balance are frequenclty

used in analyzing of switching converters
Inductor Packages
Through Hole packages Inductor SMD packages
16
Inductor saturation
 Magnetic cores have a hysteresis curve
 If magnetic field strength is strong
enough, the core satures.
 Therefore, all inductors have a
maximum operating current value,
called as saturation current, Isat
 In power inductors, as the current

increases the inductor value
decreases too as shown in the figure
 Ferrite cores can saturate rapidly!
 Powder core saturation current is high
but inductor value decreases
considerably
Capacitor through-hole packages

Film capacitors Aluminium Electrolithic
Screwed
terminal
Snap-in
Ceramic capacitors
Axial terminal
Radial-terminal
Polarized! Be careful!!
17
Capacitor SMD packages
Multilayer ceramic capacitors Aluminium Electrolithic
Tantal capacitors
Capacitor types mostly used in power electronics
 Ceramic cap  Aluminum Electrolytic Caps.

• pF-uF range • Polarized!
• Low ESR • uF-mF range
• Low leakage • High ESR (0.05-2)
• High voltage rating • Medium leakage
• -55°C to 150°C • Low voltage rating
• -40°C to 105°C
• Low lifetime
 Film cap
• nF-uF range  Tantalum Capacitors
• Medium ESR • Polarized!
• Medium leakage • uF-mF range
• High voltage rating • Medium ESR (5m-0.2 )
• -55°C to 125°C • Low leakage
• Lowest voltage rating
• -55°C to 150°C
ESR: Equivalent Series Resistance
18
Voltage vs. Capacitance
 Aluminum electrolytic, ceramic and film capacitors are widely used in power
electronics.
19
Power Computations
Effective value: RMS

 The effective value of a periodic voltage waveform is based on the
average power delivered to a resistor.
 The effective voltage (Veff) is defined as equal to the dc voltage
which produce same average power on the resistive load.
 Effective value is a constant value.
Both of voltage sources produce same average power!

1
 Average power on the resistor is
 Equating the expressions for average power
 Then we obtain the definition formula of the effective value as

follows
RMS: Root-Mean-Square

 Similarly, the RMS current is developed from the
equation of P=I2rmsR as,
 The usefulness of the RMS value is that it doesn’t vary

with time.
 Thus, the AC circuits can be analyzed as like DC circuits
by using RMS values of voltages and currents in the
circuits.
 Additionally, ratings of devices such as transformers are
often specified in terms of RMS voltage and current.
2
Exercise 6
 Determine the rms value of the periodic pulse waveform that has a
duty ratio of D as shown below.
Solution: The voltage is expressed as
The rms value is then calculated
Exercise 7
 Determine the RMS Value of a sinusoidal voltage of v(t)=Vm sin(wt)
RMS value of a full-wave

rectified sinewave
v(t)=|Vm sin(wt)| is same
3
Exercise 8
 Determine the RMS Value of a half-wave rectified sinewave of
The square of the function has one-half the area of full wave,
Exercise 10
Find the RMS Value of Triangular Waveforms at below
Triangular waveform Triangular waveform

with offset
A triangular current waveform is commonly

encountered in dc power supply circuits.
4
Solution for triangular waveform
 The current is expressed as
 The rms value is determined by using definition formula as
 Details of integration are quite long, but the result is simple:
Solution for offset triangular waveform

 It is assumed that the waveform
has two parts;
– A dc offset
– A triangular waveform
 DC signal and triangular waveform
are orthogonal
 Therefore the resultant RMS value is,
5
RMS value of two periodic voltage added
"v1v2" term is zero if the functions

v1 and v2 are orthogonal.
 If v1 and v2 have different frequencies, they are orthogonal. Then,
RMS of the sum of two periodic voltage (cont.)

 Noting that
 Then the equation becomes
 If a voltage is the sum of more than two periodic voltages, all

orthogonal, the rms value is
6
Exercise 9
 Determine the effective (rms) value of
Solution for case

 The rms value of a single sinusoid is Vm/2
 The rms value of a dc voltage equals to its dc value.
 The sinusoids have different frequencies, then they are orthogonal
 All the terms are orthogonal, therefore the the rms value is,
7
Solution for case
 The sinusoids have same frequencies, then they are not orthogonal
 First combine the terms using phasor addition,
 The voltage function is then expressed as
 The rms value of this expression
Power computations for

Sinusoidal AC circuits
8
Power computations for sinusoidal ac circuits
 For any element
 Then instantaneous power is
 Using the trigonometric identity gives
Average power for sinusoidal ac circuits

RL load has avg.power!
Avg. is zero Constant
Pure inductive load has no net power, its

average power is zero! (in steady-state)
or in terms of rms value
Average power is Active Power!
9
Power computations for sinusoidal ac circuits
 Reactive power, Q, represents the energy exchange between the
source and reactive part of the load, such as inductive and
capacitive loads.
Unit of Q is VAR
 Complex power, S, is a vector containing all information related

with power
 Apparent power, S, is magnitude of complex power. Alternatively it

is the product of rms voltage and rms current magnitudes and is
often used in specifying the rating of power equipment such as
transformers.
Unit of S is VA
Power triangle
 Power factor of a load is defined as the ratio of average power
to apparent power
 The power factor is also equal to the cosine of the power angle 
pf=cos 
10
Power of Ayran
Reactive
power
(VAR)
Apparent
power
(VA)
Active
power
(W)
2000
1500
Power [W]
1000
500
-500
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
time [s]
Power computations for

Non-sinusoidal AC circuits
11
Power Computations for
Non-sinusoidal Periodic Waveforms
 Power electronics circuits typically have voltages and/or currents
that are periodic but not sinusoidal.
 The Fourier series can be used to describe non-sinusoidal periodic
waveforms in terms of a series of sinusoids.
Fourier Series
 The Fourier series for a periodic function f(t) can be expressed in
trigonometric form as
The term a0 is a
constant that is the
average value of f(t)
 Sines and cosines of the same frequency can be combined into one
sinusoid, resulting in an alternative expression for a Fourier series:
or
12
Visualization of Fourier series
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series
Some examples for Fourier series

Square wave
Ramp signal
13
Average power calc. using Fourier series
 If periodic voltage and current waveforms represented by the Fourier
series as
 then average power is computed as follows;
The average of the

product is zero
if the current and
voltage have
different
frequencies!
 Note that total average power is the sum of the powers at the
frequencies in the Fourier series.
Case 1: "Non-sinusoidal Source" – "Linear Load"

 If a non-sinusoidal periodic voltage
is applied to a linear load the power Non-
sinusoidal
absorbed by the load can be
Voltage
determined by using superposition. Source
 A non-sinusoidal periodic voltage is

equivalent to the series combination of
the Fourier series voltages.
 The current in the load can be

determined using superposition.
 Be careful! Superposition is not valid
if the frequency of voltage sources
are same.
14
Exercise 12
 A non-sinusoidal voltage source has a fourier series of
 This voltage is connected to a load that is 5 ohm resistor and 15 mH

inductor in series.
 Determine the power absorbed by the load.
Solution
 The dc term is
DC equivalent circuit
 AC current terms are computed from

phasor analysis:
 Load current then can be calculated as AC equivalent circuit
15
Solution (cont.)
 The power at each frequency in the Fourier series can be
determined as follows,
 Total power is then
 Alternative Method: Since the average power of inductor is zero,

the power absorbed by the load can be calculated using rms current
as follows
Case 2: "Sinusoidal Source" – "Nonlinear Load"

 If a sinusoidal voltage source is applied
to a nonlinear load, the current waveform
will not be sinusoidal but can be
represented as a Fourier series.
 Voltage source is linear,
 and current is represented by the Fourier

series
16
 then average power absorbed by the load (or supplied by the
source) is computed as
Note that the only nonzero power term is at the

frequency of the applied voltage!!!

 The power factor of the load
Where rms current is
computed from
distortion displacement
factor (DF) factor
The distortion factor represents the This term is mistakenly known as

reduction in power factor due to the non- power factor in linear circuits, since
sinusoidal property of the current. DF=0 for sinusoidal linear circuits!
Power
factor
17
 Total harmonic distortion (THD) is another term used to quantify
the non-sinusoidal property of a waveform.
 THD is the ratio of the rms value of all the non-fundamental
frequency terms to the rms value of the fundamental frequency term
 THD is equivalently expressed as
 Another way to express the distortion factor is

 Since only non-zero term for reactive power is at the frequency of
voltage, the reactive power can be expressed as follows,
 With P and Q defined for the non-sinusoidal case, apparent power S

must include a term to account for the current at frequencies which
are different from the voltage frequency.
 The term distortion volt-amps D is traditionally used in the
computation of S
Note that, power triangle
is not valid for non-
sinusoidal signals!!!
 where
18
 Other terms that are sometimes used for non-sinusoidal current (or
voltages) are form factor and crest factor.
High crest factor AC input current

Average the absolute of signal
Exercise 13
 A sinusoidal voltage source of v(t)=100 cos(377t) V is applied to a
nonlinear load, resulting in a non-sinusoidal current which is
expressed in Fourier series form as
 Determine,
a) The power absorbed by the load
b) The power factor of the load
c) The distortion factor of the
load current
d) The total harmonic distortion
of the load current
19
Exercise 13 - Solution
a) The power absorbed by the load is determined by computing the
power absorbed at each frequency in the Fourier series
b) The rms voltage and rms current are
then the power factor is
Exercise 13 - Solution
c) The distortion factor is computed as
d) The total harmonic distortion of the load current is obtained as
Verify the all answers by using computer simulation!!!
20
Exercise 13: MATLAB simulation
v(t)=100 cos(377t)
100
50
Voltage [V]
-50
-100
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 2000
time [s]
1500
30
Power [W]
1000
20
Current [A]
500
10
0
0
-10 -500
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
time [s] time [s]
21
Power diodes
Power Diode
 It is a two-terminal pn-junction device
 Forward biasing: When the anode potential is

positive with respects to the cathode, the diode
conducts. It has a small voltage drop across it
which depends on manufacturing process and
junction temperature.
 Reverse biasing: When the cathode potential is

positive with respect to the anode, the diode is cut-
off. It has a small reverse current (leakage current)
which increases slowly in magnitude with reverse
voltage.
EE328 Power Electronics, Prof. Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2023 2
1
I-V characteristic of a power diode
 Schockley diode equation
 nV
VD

I D  I S  e T  1
 
 
 VD&ID= Diode voltage & current
 IS= leakage current, typically
mili- or micro-ampere
 n= Empirical constant,
diode factor, ranges from 1 to 2.
 VT= Thermal voltage
kT Thermal voltage at 25°C junction
VT  temperature
q
 k=1.3806x10-23 J/K, Boltzman’s constant, kT 1.3806x1023 273  25
VT  
 q=1.6022x10-19 C, Electron charge q 1.6022x1019
 T= Absolute temperature in K°  25.8mV
Reverse-biased region
 If VD<-0.1, the exponential term in
 nVVD 
I D  I S  e T  1   I S
diode equation becomes negligibly
small compared to unity.  
 The diode current flows in the  
reverse direction called as
leakage current
MBR20100CTG (100V, 20A)
In real diodes, the leakage current;

• is proportional to the reverse voltage
• substantially increases with temperature
2
Avalanche region
 The barrier of the diode breaks if the reverse voltage goes beyond
the breakdown voltage, VBR
 Reverse current increases rapidly with a small change in the reverse
voltage beyond VBR
 Zener diodes use this region!
 The operation of diode in this region is destructive!
Keep the operating point away from this region in rectifiers!
Repetitive Reverse Voltage
Forward-biased region
Case of VD < Vtreshold
 ID is still very small.
 Let’s assume VD=0.1V, n=1, VT=25.8mV.
Case of VD >> Vtreshold FFSH2065A

 diode conducts fully SiC Schottky
Diode current is much larger than Is
3
Exercise 1
 The forward voltage drop of a power diode is obtained from the
datasheet as VD=1.2V at ID=300A. Assuming that n=2 and
VT=25.8mV, find the saturation current IS.
Solution:
Using diode equation,  nVVD


I D  I S e T  1
 
 
 1. 2

300  I S  e 2 0.0258   1
 
 
 I S  2.38371x108 A
= 23.84 nA
Reverse recovery characteristics

 If the current in a fwd biased diode is reduced to zero, the diode continues
to conduct some time due to minority carriers which remains stored in the
PN-junction.
 It takes certain time to recombine and to be neutralized.
This time is known as reverse recovery time, trr
ta: is due to charge storage in the
t rr  t a  tb depletion region.
tb: is due to charge storage in the
bulk semiconductor material.
 Softness factor (SF) is defined for power diodes,
tb SF  1  "soft recovery diode"

SF  SF < 1  "fast/snappy/abrubt recovery"
ta
 Low S-factor implies high transient overvoltage
due to high di/dt at turn off the diode .
 Reverse recovery time depends on the temperature,
forward current (IF) and down-slope of the
forward current (di/dt)
4
Reverse recovery charge, QRR
 Peak reverse recovery current is
di QRR
I RR  t a
dt
 QRR is the amount of charge carriers
that flows through the diode in reverse
direction during recovery process.
 QRR is approximately equal to
1 1
QRR  I RR (t a  tb )  I RR t rr
2 2
 Substituting the IRR into the equation yields
1 di
QRR  t a t rr
2 dt
 If tb is neglected, that is usually the case,t rr  t a  tb  t a , then
2QRR di
t rr  I RR  2QRR QRR and di/dt are given in
di dt dt manufacturer datasheet!!
Sample Datasheet
1 1
QRR  I RRtrr   4  28  56 nC QRR 
1 1
I RRtrr   8  50n   200 nC
2 2 2 2
I RR 4A I RR 8A
ta    20 ns ta    40 ns
di / dt 200 A /  s di / dt 200 A /  s
tb  trr  ta  28ns  20ns  8ns
tb  trr  ta  50ns  40ns  10ns
SF  8ns / 20ns  0.4 SF  10ns / 40ns  0.25
5
1N540x vs. UF540x
1N540x UF540x
 Slow recovery (Not suitable  Fast recovery (trr=50ns)

for high switching frequency  Suitable for high frequency
applications. Use for line switching operations.
rectification purposes only!!)  Relatively low peak surge
 High peak surge current current capability
capability (IFSM=200A) (IFSM=150A)
Exercise 2
 The reverse recovery time of a power diode is trr=3us and the rate
of fall of the diode current di/dt=30A/s. Determine;
a) The storage charge QRR,
b) The peak reverse current IRR.
Solution:
a)
QRR 
2 dt
t rr  30 A / s  3 x106
1 di 2 1
2
 2
 135C
b)
di
I RR  2QRR  2  135 x106  30 x106  90 A
dt
6
Reverse recovery behavior of different diode technologies
 Note that the forward voltage drop increases as the reverse recovery
time decreases.
 Si and SiC
schottky
diodes
has the
smallest
reverse
recovery
time and
recovery
charge QRR.
Smallest QRR is better in practice
Watch this! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SBqLOrlA7QI

Effects of reverse recovery time

Ideal diode trr=35ns diode trr=35ns diode + 15 nH
Vd Vd Vd parasitic ind.
Q1 V Q1 V Q1 V
200u 200u 15n 200u
12 D1 0.5 12 D1 0.5 12 D1 0.5

10k 10k 10k
Vd Vd Vd
12 15 20
10 12.5
15
8 10
6 7.5 10
4 5 5
2 2.5
0 0 0
-2 -2.5 -5
I(Q1) I(Q1) I(Q1)

Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
7 12 10
6 10 8
5 8
4 6
6
3 4
4
2
1 2 2
0 0 0
I(D1) I(D1) I(D1)

7 8 8
6 6 6
5 4 4
4 2 2
3 0 0
2 -2 -2
1 -4 -4
0 -6 -6
0 0.4m 0.8m 1.2m 1.6m 2m 0 0.4m 0.8m 1.2m 1.6m 2m 0 0.4m 0.8m 1.2m 1.6m 2m
Keep wires&pcb traces as short as possible! Use fast diodes! Use snubber to suppress voltage spike!
7
Forward recovery time
 If a diode is in a reverse-biased condition, a leakage current flows
due to the minority carriers.
 When a fwd. voltage is applied,
the diode requires a certain time
to be turned on, known as
forward recovery
(or turn-on) time.
 During recovery time, majority
carriers are formed along the junction
 If the rate of rise of the forward
current is high and forward
current is concentrated to a
small area of junction, the
diode may fail.
 Thus the forward recovery time limits the rate of the rise of forward
current and switching speed.
Diodes in series
 In many high voltage applications (e.g. HVDC
transmission lines) single commercially
available diode can not meet the required
voltage rating.
 In this case diodes can be connected in
series in order to increase the reverse
blocking capability.
 However, in reality diodes do not have the
same characteristics due to tolerances in the
production process.
 This gives rise to problems when diodes are
connected in series, since the blocking
voltages will differ slightly.
 In the figure, each diodes has to carry same
leakage current, but blocking voltage would
differ significantly.
8
Diodes in series
 This problem is solved by forcing equal voltage sharing by connecting a
resistor across each diode
 In this arrangement, the total leakage current must be shared by a diode and
a resistor. Hence
I S  I S1  I R1  I S 2  I R 2
 We know
VD1 VD 2
I R1  I R2 
R1 R2
 Therefore we obtain,
VD1 V
I S1   I S 2  D2
R1 R2
Diodes in series
 We need to get VD1=VD2
VD1 V
I S1   I S 2  D2
R1 R2
 If VD1/R1>>IS1 and VD2/R2 >>IS2 then the
equation becomes
VD1 VD 2

R1 R2
 If R=R1=R2 the two diode voltages would be
slightly different depending on the dissimilarities
of the to v-i curves
 For transient conditions an RC can be used.
 Capacitor can be assumed as short circuit at
high frequency, and the equivalent resistance is
getting smaller.
9
Exercise 3
 Two diodes are connected in series to share a total voltage of 5kV. The
reverse leakage currents of the diodes are IS1=30mA, IS2=35mA
a) Find the diode voltages & powers if the voltage sharing resistances are
equal R1=R2=R=10k
b) Find the diode voltages & powers if the voltage sharing resistances are
equal R1=R2=R=100k
Solution:
a) VD21
V V
I S 1  D1  I S 2  D 2 VD1 
VD R
  I S 2  I S 1   2525V PD1   637.6W
R R 2 2 R
V2
VD 2  VD  VD1 VD 2  5000V  2525V  2475V PD 2  D 2  612.6W
R
V=50V (1%)
b) VD1  2750V PD1  75.6W In order to reduce power dissipation, resistor

value can be increased, but in this case
VD 2  2250V PD1  50.6W
voltage difference increases too!
V=500V (10%)
Diodes in paralel
 In parallel operation of diodes, current sharing
depends on the magnitude of their forward
voltage drops.
 Forward voltage drop is highly dependent to the
junction temperature, which should be as close
as possible between the diodes.
 If required, small series resistors can be added.
But remember that resistors dissipate power!
• Two diodes in single

package keeps the
junction temp same!
• Then, they can be
Dual diode in connected in parallel
single packet
10
Power diode types
 Reducing the reverse recovery time, increases the diode cost.
 If the reverse recovery time is not significant, use standard cheap diodes.
 Standard or general purpose diodes
– Relatively high reverse recovery time trr  25us
– Used in low speed (up to 1kHz) where the recovery time is not critical, e.g. Line
rectifiers etc.
 Fast-recovery diodes
– Low recovery time trr < 5us, Epitaxial diodes has trr<50ns
– Used in high speed dc/dc and dc/ac converters from 1A to hundreds of Amps,
from 50V to around 3kV
– Various market names; superfast diodes, ultrafast diodes etc.
 Schottky diode
– Metal-semiconductor junction (instead of semiconductor-semiconductor)
– Majority carrier device which results in no recovery effect due to minority carriers.
But junction capacitance is large and causes reverse recovery effect which is
much less than junction diodes.
– Maximum voltage is generally limited to 100V, and currents from 1 to 300A
– Ideal for high current and low voltage circuits.
– Forward voltage drop is considerable lower than junction diodes.
Power diode packages (1)

Through-hole Technology (THT)
DO-201
Cathode is marked by
a circular line
R-6 TO-220
Surface Mount DO-15
Technology (SMT)
SOD-123
Dual diode in
single packet
(Common cathode)
DPAK
glass
11
Power diode packages (2)
Chasis-mount Technology
Seramic Package
(Disc diode)
Rectifiers circuits
Single phase full wave
Single phase half wave
Three phase half wave and full wave
12
Power Diode Modules
Single Leg rectifier
_ _
Single phase bridge rectifier
~ + ~
+ ~
~ +_
3-phase
~ 3-phase bridge rectifier
~ ~
bridge
~ rectifier
~
_
+
Performance parameters of rectifiers
 The purpose of a rectifier  But in practice it has a dc

may be to produce an output component with a certain
that is purely dc. ripple.
Therefore we need some performance parameters to

evaluate the rectification performance
13
 The efficiency or rectification ratio of a rectifier
The rms output voltage Vrms
The rms output current Irms
 Pdc
Pac
The output ac power Pac = VrmsIrms
The average load voltage Vdc
The average load current Idc
The output dc power Pdc = VdcIdc
 The form factor is a measure of the shape of the output voltage
Vrms
FF 
Vdc

 The effective or (rms) value of the ac component of output voltage
Vac  Vrms
2
 Vdc2
 The ripple factor which is a measure of the ripple content is given by

Vac
RF 
Vdc
or, 2
V V 2 V 2 V 
RF  ac  rms dc   rms   1  FF 2  1
Vdc Vdc  Vdc 
 The transformer utilization factor
Pdc Vs and Is are the rms voltage and

TUF  rms current of the transformer
Vs I s secondary, respectively
14
Performans parameters of rectifiers
 The displacement factor (DF) or Displacement Power Factor (DPF) is
defined as
DF  cos
The displacement angle 

is the angle between
fundamental 
components of input
current and voltage.
vs is the sinusoidal input voltage

is is the instantaneous input current
is1 is the fundamental component of is
Performans parameters of rectifiers

 The harmonic factor (HF) also known as total harmonic distortion
(THD) is a measure of the distortion of a waveform.
2
I s2  I s21 I 
THD= HF  2
  s   1
I s1  I s1 
 The crest factor is a comparison of the
peak input current to its rms value.
Ideal rectifier parameters:
I s , peak
CF    100%, Vac  0
Is
RF  0, TUF  1
HF  THD  0
PF  DPF  1
15
Single Phase Rectifiers
Single phase half-wave rectifier
 It is the simplest type of rectifiers.

 During the positive half cycle D1 conducts
and the input voltage appears across
the load.
 During the negative half cycle Diode D1
is blocking condition, and output voltage
is zero.
 Note that there is a small forward
voltage drop across the D1.
 Disadvantages of half wave rectifier
– DC output voltage is discontinues and contains harmonics.
– Input current is not sinusoidal
– Transformer output current has dc component (saturation problem!)
1
Single phase half-wave rectifier
 Average output voltage

T T 2
1 1
Vdc  
T 0
vL (t )dt   Vm sin t dt
T 0
2
 Vm  T   Vm
  cos  1 
T
 Vdc 
T  2  
 Effective output voltage

T T 2
 V sin t  dt
1 2 1 Vm
T 0
Vrms  vL (t )dt   Vrms 
2
m
T 0
2
Exercise 4
 For half-wave rectifer, determine; a) efficiency, b) form factor, c)
ripple factor, d) TUF, e) PIV of D1, f) CF of input current.
 Solution:
V V
Vdc  m  0.318Vm Vrms  m  0.5Vm
 2
Vdc 0.318Vm Vrms 0.5Vm
I dc   I rms  
R R R R
Pdc  Vdc I dc 
0.318Vm 2 Pac  Vrms I rms 
0.5Vm 2
R R
P
a)   dc 
0.318Vm   40.5% 2
Low rectifier efficiency

Pac 0.5Vm 2
b) FF  Vrms  0.5Vm  1.57 or 157%
Vdc 0.318Vm
2
Exercise 4
c) RF  FF 2  1  1.572  1  1.21 or 121% Very high ripple factor.
d)
– Rms voltage of transformer V
Vs  m  0.707Vm
secondary is 2
0.5Vm
– Rms value of transformer secondary current Is 
is equal to rms value of the load current R
– The Volt-ampere rating (VA) 0.5Vm 0.3535Vm2
of transformer VA  Vs I s  0.707Vm 
R R
– Transformer utilization factor
Pdc 0.3182 Transformer should be 1/0.286=3.496
TUF    0.286 times larger than that when it
Vs I s 0.3535 delivers pure ac power to a load.
e) The peak reverse blocking voltage PIV  Vm
I s , peak Vm R
f) Crest factor, CF   2
Is 0.5Vm R
Exercise 5
 The source voltage is 120Vrms
at frequency of 60Hz. The load resistor
is 5 . Determine;
a) Average load current
b) Average power absorbed by the load
c) Power factor of the circuit
Solution:
2
Vrms 84.9 2
P   1441.6 W
R 5
3
Exercise 6
 In the circuit the battery voltage is 12V and its capacity is 100Wh.
The average current should be Idc=5A. The primary input voltage
Vp=120V, 60Hz, and the transformer turns ratio is n=2:1. Calculate;
a) the conduction angle of diode 
b) the current-limiting resistor R
c) the power rating PR
d) the charging time in hours
e) the rectifier efficiency 
f) the peak inverse voltage PIV of the diode
Solution
 E= 12 V
 Vp= 120 V
 Vm =2 Vs= 84.85 V
a) for Vs > E the diode D1 conducts

E
Vm sin   E    sin 1  
 Vm 
 12 
 sin 1    8.13
 84.85 
  180    180  8.13  171.87
The conduction angle
      171.87  8.13  163.74
4
Solution
b) The current limiting resistance R is

Vm sin t  E
d t 
1
I dc 
2 
 R
   

1
2Vm cos  2 E  E 
2R
which gives
R
1
2Vm cos  2 E  E 
2I dc
 284.85cos8.13  2120.1419   12

1
2 5
 4.26
Solution
c) The power rating of R is
PR  I rms
2
R
The rms current Irms is

1

Vm sin t  E 2 d wt 
 
2
I rms
2  R2
 Vm2  V2 
 E 2   2   m sin 2  4Vm E cos 
1
 
2R 2  2  2 
 67.4
I rms  67.4  8.2 A
The power rating is
PR  67.44.26  286.4W
5
Solution
d) The power delivered to the battery is
Pdc  EI dc  12x5  60W
Charging time is
Energy 100Wh
hour    1.667h
Pdc 60W
e) Rectifier efficiency
Pdc 60W
   17.32%
Pdc  PR 60W  286.4W
f) PIV =Vm+E=84.85+12=96.85V
Psim verification of Ex.6
Average current=4.995A
RMS current=8.204 A
=8.13°
See exercise2.psimsch file on course web page.
6
Half-wave rectifier with RL load
 Due to the inductive load the conduction
period of diode D1 will extend beyond
180° until the current is zero.
 Remember that the average inductor
voltage is zero.
 The average output voltage is
 
 sin t d t   2  cost 

Vm Vm  
Vdc 
2
0
0
Vm
1  cos   
Note that, the average
 output voltage decreases
2 with inductive load.
 The average load current is

Vdc
I dc 
R
Adding a freewheeling diode

 Freewheeling diode prevents negative
voltage appearing across the load.
 The magnetic energy stored in inductor
increased. Freewheeling
 The current transferred from D1 to Dm diode
this process is called as commutation.

 The load time constant is
L
 
R
 If the load time constant is large enough

the load current can be continues.
Note that, the average output voltage is

equal to the case of the resistive load
7
Exercise 7
In the circuit, R=2, Vm=100V, and the frequency is 60Hz. Determine ;

a) the average load voltage and current
b) the power absorbed by the resistor in the circuit.
c) Verify solution via PSIM simulation (Homework)
Solution (cont.)
a) Average load voltage Note that, the output voltage is
V 100 not negative due to the
Vdc  m   31.8V freewheeling diode
 
b) Average load current
V 31.8
I dc  dc   15.9 A
R 2
c) We need Irms to find power absorbed by the resistor. We can
calculate it by using integrals, but fourier series is another method.
8
Solution (cont.)
c) The fourier series of half-wave rectified sinewave
V0  Vdc  n1, 2...an sin nt  bn cos nt 



Vm Vm 2Vm
V0   sin t   cos nt
 2 n  2 , 4 , 6... ( n  1)
2
Solution (cont.)
c) Lets calculate the rms current for first 5 terms of fourier series
Vm Vm 2V 2V 2V
V0   sin t  m cos 2t  m cos 4t  m cos 6t  ...
 2 3 15 35
V0  31.8  50 sin t  21.2 cos 2t  4.24 cos 4t  1.82 cos 6t
the current for each term can be found using load impedance
Vn Vn
In  
Zn R 2  nL 
2
Resulting rms current

5.192 1.122 0.112 0.032
I rms  15.92      16.34 A
2 2 2 2
The resistor power
PR  I rms
2
R  16.342 x 2  534W
9
Single-phase center tap full-wave rectifier
 Each half of transformer constitutes

a half-wave rectifier.
 There is no dc current flowing through
the transformer (no dc saturation prob.)
T 2
2 2V
Vdc  
T 0
Vm sin t dt  m

 PIV of the diodes is 2Vm
Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier
 Full utilization of transformer

 Requires four diodes
 PIV of the diodes is Vm
T 2
2 2V
Vdc  
T 0
Vm sin t dt  m

10
Exercise 8
 A full wave center tap rectifier has a purely resistive load of R.
Determine; a) Efficiency, b) Form factor, c) Ripple factor,
d)Transformer utilization factor, e) Peak inverse voltage of the diode,
f) Crest factor of input current
 Solution: V
2Vm Vrms  m
 0.707Vm
Vdc   0.6366Vm 2

Vrms 0.707Vm
V 0.6366Vm I rms  
I dc  dc  R R
R R
0.6366Vm 
2
Pac  Vrms I rms 
0.707Vm 2
R R
a)   Pdc  0.6366Vm 2  81%

2
Pac 0.707Vm 
b) Vrms 0.707Vm
FF    1.11or 111%
Vdc 0.6366Vm
Exercise 8 (cont.)
c) RF  FF 2  1  1.112  1  0.482 or 48.2%
d)
– Rms voltage of transformer V
Vs  m  0.707Vm
secondary is 2
0.5Vm
– Rms value of transformer secondary current Is 
is equal to rms value of the load current R
– The Volt-ampere rating (VA) 0.5Vm 0.707Vm2
of transformer VA  2Vs I s  2  0.707Vm 
R R
– Transformer utilization factor
Pdc 0.63662 Transformer should be 1/0.573=1.74
TUF    0.573 (57.3%) times larger than that when it
Vs I s 0.707 delivers pure ac power to a load.
e) The peak reverse blocking voltage PIV  2Vm
I s , peak Vm R
f) Crest factor, CF    1.4142
Trans. input current
Is 0.707Vm R
11
Comparison of single phase rectifiers
Rectifier Full-Wave Transformer Rectifier

(R Load) (R Load)
Performance
Half-Wave Center-Tapped Bridge
Parameter
Efficiency () 40.5% 81% 81%
Form Factor (FF) 157% 111% 111%
Ripple Factor (RF) 121% 48.2% 48.2%
Transformer
Utilization Factor 28.6% 57.32% 81.1%
(TUF)
Peak Inverse Vm
Vm 2Vm
Voltage (PIV)
Crest Factor (CF) 2 1.414 1.414
Exercise 9
 A single-phase bridge rectifier supplies

power to a highly inductive load such as a
DC motor. The motor current is ripple-
free. Transformer turns ratio is 1:1.
Determine;
a) Harmonics factor (HF),
b) Input power factor (PF) of rectifier.
12
Solution
 The input current can be expressed
in a fourier series as

i1 (t )  I dc   a
n 1, 3,...
n cos nt  bn sin nt 
2
1
I dc 
2  i (t )dt  0
0
1
2
 i (t ) cos nt d t   0

1
an 
 0
1
2
 i (t ) sin nt d t   n

1 4I a
bn 
 0
1
4I a  sin t sin 3t sin 5t 

i1 (t )      ... 
  1 3 5 
Solution
4I a  sin t sin 3t sin 5t 
i1 (t )      ... 
  1 3 5 
 RMS value of fundamental component

4I a
I s1   0.90I a
 2
 RMS value of input current

2 2 2 2
4I a 1 1 1 1
Is  1              ...  I a
 2  3  5  7   9
a) Harmonic factor b) Displacement angle =0

and cos=1. Then Power
 1 
2 factor,
HF  THD     1  0.4843 or 48.43% I
 0.90  PF  s1 cos  0.90 lagging
Is
13
Single-phase Full-wave rectifier with RL load
 In practice, most loads are inductive
 A battery is added to develop
generalized equations.
 Input ac voltage source
vs  Vm sin t  2Vs
 The load current iL can be found from
diL
L  Ri L  E  2Vs sin t
dt
 The differential equation has a solution E
of the form
R
 t
sint     A1e L 
2Vs E
iL 
Z R
L
Z R 2  (L) 2   tan 1
R
Case 1: continues load current

 The constant A1 can be determined
from condition: at t=, iL=I1
 E 2Vs  R
A1   I1   sin  e L 
 R Z 
 Substituting of A1 to diff. equation yields,
  RL   t  E
sint      I1  
2Vs E 2Vs
iL  sin  e 
Z  R Z  R
 Under steady-state condition iL(t=0) = iL(t=) = I1. Applying this
condition,
R

2Vs 1 e L  E
I1  sin  R
 for I1  0
Z  R
1 e L
14
Case 1: continues load current (cont.)
 Substituting I1 and simplification gives
 R 
 t
sint    
2Vs  2 L 
E
iL  R
sin e  for 0  t   and iL  0
Z    R
 1 e L  
 RMS diode current can be found

 i d t 
1
Ir  2
2
L
0
 And the RMS output current can then be determined by combining

the RMS current of each diode
I rms  I r2  I r2  2I r
 Average diode current

 i d t 
1
Id 
2
L
0
Case 2: discontinues load current

 The load current flows only during the
period   t  . The diodes start to
conduct at t=  given by
E
  sin 1
Vm
 The constant A1 can be determined
from condition at t= , iL(t)= 0
E  R
sin    e L 
2Vs
A1   
R Z 
 Substituting it to diff. equation
E  R   t 
sint       sin   e L   
2Vs 2Vs
iL 
Z R Z 
15
Case 2: discontinues load current (cont.)
 At t= , the current falls zero, and iL(t=)= 0. That is,
E  RL    

sin       sin   e
2Vs 2Vs
0
Z R Z 
  can be found from this transcendental equation by using an
iterative (trial and error) method.
 After  found, the RMS diode current can be calculated as


 i d t 
1
Ir  2
2
L

Idc must be calculated by using
 The average diode current differential equation as shown above.

 i d t 
1 Vdc  E
Id 
2 DO NOT USE I dc 
L
 R !!!!!!
RL Load Example – Fourier series method (1/3)

 A bridge rectifier has an ac source with Vm =100 V at 60 Hz and
a series RL load with R =10 and L=10 mH.
(a) Determine the average current in the load.
(b) Estimate the peak-to-peak variation in load current based
on the first ac term in the Fourier series.
(c) Determine the power absorbed by the load and the power factor
of the circuit.
(d) Determine the average and rms currents in the diodes.
16
Fourier representation of full wave rectified sinusoidal signal
a)
b) For n=2 and n=4, the harmonic voltages and currents
I2 is much larger than I4, then I2 can be used for peak-to-peak

estimation Actual variation will be larger than this
due to higher order harmonics!

c)
d)
17
Three Phase Rectifiers
Multiphase star rectifiers

 Used in high power P>15kW
 Less filter requirement
 q single phase rectifier
 Conduction angle of each
diode is 2/q
 Secondary winding current is
unidirectional and contains
dc component.
 Therefore primary must be
connected in delta to eliminate
dc component in the input side
of T.F.
 This method minimizes the
harmonics content.
1
Multiphase star rectifiers (cont.)
 Output dc voltage
 q
cos t d t 
2q
Vdc 
2 V
0
m
q 
 Vm sin
 q
 Rms output voltage

 q
 1 2 
cos 2 t d t   Vm
2q q
Vrms  V   sin 
2
2 2
m
0 q 2 q 
Vm
 If the load is purely resistive, the rms current of a diode Im 
R
 q
 1 2  Vrms
cos2 t d t   I m
2 q
Is  I   sin  
2
2 2
m
0 q 2 q  R
Exercise 10
 A three phase star rectifier has a purely resistive load with R
Ohms. Determine; a) Efficiency, b) Form factor, c) Ripple factor,
f) the peak current through a diode if rectifier delivers Idc=30A at an
output voltage of Vdc=140V.
 Solution: q  1 2 
 Vrms  Vm   sin   0.841Vm
2  q 2 q 
q
Vdc  Vm sin  0.827Vm
 q
Vrms 0.841Vm
I dc 
Vdc 0.827Vm
 I rms  
R R R R
0.827Vm 2 Pac  Vrms I rms 
0.841Vm 
2
Pdc  Vdc I dc  R
R
a) Pdc 0.827Vm 
2
   99.77%
Pac 0.841Vm 2
b) Vrms 0.841Vm
FF    1.0165or101.65%
Vdc 0.827Vm
2
Exercise 10 (cont.)
c) RF  FF 2  1  1.01652  1  0.1824 or 18.24%
d) Rms voltage of transformer secondary is
V
Vs  m  0.707Vm
2
Rms value of transformer secondary current is equal to rms value of
the diode current
q  1 2  0.4854Vm
Is  Im   sin   0.4854I m 
2 q 2 q  R
The Volt-ampere rating (VA) of transformer
VA  3Vs I s  30.707Vm 
0.4854Vm
R
Transformer utilization factor
P 0.8272
TUF  dc   0.6643 (66.43%)
3Vs I s 30.7070.4854
Exercise 10 (cont.)
e) The peak reverse blocking voltage
PIV  3Vm
f)The average current through each diode is

 6

cost d t   I m
2 1
Id 
2 I
0
m

sin
q
For q=3, Id = 0.2757 Im. The average current through each diode is
30
Id   10 A
3
and this gives the peak current as
10
Im   36.27 A
0.2757
3
Three phase bridge rectifiers
 Commonly used in high power
 It is a full wave rectifier, and can operate with or without a
transformer
 Diodes are numbered in order of conduction sequences and each
one conducts for 120°
 Diode conductance sequence is 12,23,34,45,56,61,…
 Line-to-line voltage is 3 times of the line-neutral phase voltages.

12  6
3Vm cost d t 
2 0
Vdc 
3 3
 Vm  1.654Vm

 6
3Vm2 cos2 t d t 
12
Vrms 
2 
0
3 9 3
  Vm  1.6554Vm
2 4
4
 Average output voltage Rms output voltage
 6
3Vm2 cos2 t d t 
12
12  6
3Vm cost d t  Vrms  
2 0
Vdc  2 0
3 3 3 9 3
 Vm  1.654Vm   Vm  1.6554Vm
 2 4

 If load is purely resistive
3
Im  Vm
R
 Rms value of diode current
 6 1  1 2 
I m2 cos2 t d t   I m
4
Ir 
2 0
  sin
6 2
  0.5518I m
6 
 Rms value of transformer secondary current
 6 2  1 2 
I m2 cos2 t d t   I m
8
Is 
2 
0
  sin
6 2
  0.7804I m
6 
5
Exercise 11
 A three phase bridge rectifier has a purely resistive load of R.
Determine; a) Efficiency, b) Form factor, c) Ripple factor,
f) the peak current through a diode if rectifier delivers Idc=60A at an
output voltage of Vdc=280.7V. The source frequency is 60Hz.
 Solution: 3 9 3
3 3 Vrms   Vm  1.6554Vm
Vdc  Vm  1.654Vm 2 4

V 1.6554Vm
Vdc 1.654Vm I rms  rms 
I dc   R R
R R
1.654Vm 2
2
1.6554Vm 
Pdc  Vdc I dc  R
R
a) Pdc
 
1.654Vm   99.83% 2
Pac 1.6554Vm 2
b) V 1.6554Vm
FF  rms   1.0008 or 100.08%
Vdc 1.654Vm
Exercise 10 (cont.)
c) RF  FF 2  1  1.00082  1  0.04 or 4%
d) Rms voltage of transformer secondary is
V
Vs  m  0.707Vm
2
Rms value of transformer secondary current is
2  1 2  V
Is  Im   sin   0.7804I m  0.7804 3 m
6 2 6  R
The Volt-ampere rating (VA) of transformer
VA  3Vs I s  30.707Vm 0.7804 3

Vm
R
Transformer utilization factor
Pdc 1.6542
TUF    0.9542 (95.42%)
3Vs I s 3 30.7070.7804
6
Exercise 10 (cont.)
e) The peak reverse blocking voltage
V 280.7
Vm  dc   169.7V PIV  3Vm  3 169.7   293.9V
1.654 1.654
f)The average current through each diode is
 6

cost d t   I m
4 2
Id 
2 I
0
m

sin
6
 0.3183I m
The average current through each diode is

60
Id   20 A
3 Note that this rectifier has
and this gives the peak current as considerably improved
performances compared to that
20 of multiphase rectifier
Im   62.83 A
0.3183
Comparison of rectifier performances

Single Phase Full- Single Phase
Single Phase Half- Wave Center- Full-Wave Three-Phase
Performance
Wave Rectifier Tapped Transformer Bridge Bridge Rectifier
Parameter
(R Load) Rectifier Rectifier (R Load)
(R Load) (R Load)
Efficiency (h) 40.5% 81% 81% 99.83%
Form Factor (FF) 157% 111% 111% 100.08%
Ripple Factor (RF) 121% 48.2% 48.2% 4%
Transformer
Utilization Factor 28.6% 57.32% 81.1% 95.42%
(TUF)
Peak Inverse
Vm 2Vm Vm 3Vm
Voltage (PIV)
Crest Factor (CF) 2 1.414 1.414 1.047
7
12-pulse rectifier
 In order to obtain equal
secondary voltages, the number
of turns of the two secondary
windings must be in a ratio of
1:√3 (Turns ratio=4/7 or 7/12)
VRS(t)
VRDSD(t)
Rectifier circuit design

 The design of rectifiers involves determining the ratings of
semiconductor diodes.
– Average current
– Rms current
– Peak current
– Peak inverse voltage
 There are no standard procedure for design, but it is required to
determine the shapes of the diode currents and voltages.
Other dc filter types
8
Rectifiers with Capacitive Filter
 Half-wave
 Full-wave
Half-wave Rectifiers with Capacitive Filter (1/2)

 Output voltage
 Vm sin t diode on

v0 t     t  
 
Vm sin   e   RC  diode off
 At t=, the slopes (d/dt) of the

voltage functions are equal:
t  
Vm sin    RC
Vm cos t t    e
 RC t 
Vm sin 
Vm cos 
 RC
1 1
     tan 1  RC   
tan   RC
 In practical circuits, the time
constant is very large (<<1/RC), then:

 V  Vm sin   Vm
2
9
Half-wave Rectifiers with Capacitive Filter (2/2)
 At t=2+, the input voltage
equal to the output voltage

 2   
Vm sin  2     Vm sin   e  RC

 2     is solved
sin    sin   e  0 numerically.
 RC
 If  is known, the peak-to-peak

voltage ripple, V0, is found as
V0  Vm  Vm sin   Vm 1  sin  
 Alternatively, if time constant RC is large enough, /2 and /2


 2   
V0  Vm  Vm sin  2     Vm  Vm sin   e  RC
/2 , /2 2
2  2  2  Vm
    RC
1
V0  Vm 1  e  RC 
e
 RC V0  Vm  
    RC  fRC
Full-wave Rectifiers with Capacitive Filter

 Similar to half-wave, at t= diodes
become reverse biased and
at t=+ it is forward biased.
  and  are found as similar to the
half-wave operation.
 If  is known, the peak-to-peak
voltage ripple, V0, is found using
V0  Vm  Vm sin   Vm 1  sin  
 Alternatively, if time constant RC is large enough, /2 and /2


   
V0  Vm  Vm sin      Vm  Vm sin   e  RC
/2 , /2 
 
 

 e  RC
1   
V0  Vm 1  e  RC   RC V0  Vm  
Vm
    RC  2 fRC
10
Example - Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitance Filter
 A full-wave rectifier has a 120 Vsource at 60 Hz, R=500, and
C=100 uF. (a) Determine the peak-to-peak voltage variation of the
output. (b) Determine the value of capacitance that would reduce the
output voltage ripple to 1% of the dc value.
Vm  120 2  169.7V  RC   2 60  500 100u   18.85
   tan 1 18.85     1.62 rad  93  Vm sin   169.5V


  1.62 
sin 1.62  e 18.85
 sin   0 Numerical solution
  1.06 rad  60.6
(a) V0  Vm 1  sin    169.7 1  sin 1.06    22V

Verify all
(b) V these result
1 1
0
  0.01   C  1670 F using PSIM
Vm 2 fRC 2  60  500  C simulation
Voltage doubler
 For ideal diodes, C1 charges to Vm through D1(D1 for FB) when
the source is positive; C2 charges to Vm through D2(D4 for FB)
when the source is negative.
 The voltage across the load
resistor is the sum of the
capacitor voltages 2Vm.
 This circuit is useful when the
output voltage of a rectifier
must be larger than the peak
input voltage.
 With a voltage doubler, a
device can operate both
in 120V and 240V ac grid
by using a voltage selection
switch as shown in the figure.
11
Thyristors and
controlled rectifiers
Outline of lecture
 Thyristors

Principal of phase control

 Single Phase controlled rectifiers
 Three Phase controlled rectifiers
1
Thyristor
 Most important type of power semiconductor
device.
 They can operate as a bistable switch that can
be turned on by a gate signal, but can not be
turned off by the gate.
 Proposed in 1950s at Bell Lab.
 The first thyristor was developed in 1957 by
General Electric (GE)
 Have highest power handling capability up to
~4500 Volt, up to ~5000 Amperes
 Maximum switching frequency for typical
thyristors is around 1kHz. But it can rise up to
20kHz for some special types.
 It is inherently slow switching device
compared to BJTs or MOSFETs.
Structure
 It is a four-layer semiconductor device
of pnpn structure with three pn-junctions;
e.g. J1, J2 and J3.
 Terminals; Anode (A), Cathode (K)
and Gate (G)
 Forward blocking mode: When Anode
voltage is made positive with respects
to Cathode, the junctions J1 and J3
are forward biased, and J2 is reverse
biased, and therefore a small leakage current can flow through the
device.
 Reverse blocking mode: When Cathode has positive voltage than
the Anode, J1 and J3 are reverse biased, and J2 is forward biased,
and therefore a small leakage current can flow through the device.
 For both blocking modes the gate terminal is assumed as open
circuit.
2
Avalanche breakdown
 Forward leakage current is very small. I T
 If the VAK is increased to a sufficiently Latching

large value, the leakage current current
Forward
increases and the junction J2 breakdown
voltage
breaks down. I L
 This voltage is called as

forward breakdown voltage (VBO). V V
BO AK
 Since the other junctions J1 and J3 Forward leakage current
are already fwd biased, then the device

will be in conducting state or on-state.
 The anode current must be more than a value known as latching
current to keep the thyristor is on-state. Otherwise the device will
revert to the blocking condition as the VAK is reduced.
 Latching current is the minimum anode current to maintain the
thyristor in the on-state immediately after it is turned on (no gate
signal)
Holding current
 Once the thyristor conducts, I T
Forward voltage
it behaves as a conducting diode drop
Latching
and there is no control over the current
Forward
device. breakdown
voltage
 Therefore the device current I L
I H
must be limited by external Holding
current
components, such as resistors.
V V AK
 The forward voltage drop is due to
BO
the ohmic drop in the four layers and it is small, typically 1V.
 If the fwd anode current is reduced below a level known as holding
current IH, a depletion region is developed around junction J2 due to
the reduced number of carriers, and the thyristor will be in blocking
state.
 The holding current is very small in the order of milliamperes, and it
is less than the latching current.
3
Gate triggering
 A thyristor can be turned on by increasing forward voltage beyond
breakdown voltage VBO, but such a turn-on could be destructive.
 In practice, a positive gate-cathode voltage VGK, is applied to the
thyristor.
 As the gate current is increased, the forward blocking voltage is
decreased as shown in the figure
 Once the thyristor is turned on
by gating signal and its
forward current is greater
than the holding
current, the
device continues
to conduct.
 Thyristor is a
latching device.
Two-transistor model of thyristor

 The latching action due to positive feedback can be demonstrated
by using two-transistor model of thyristor.
I A  I C1  I C 2  1 I A  I CBO1    2 I K  I CBO2  ICBO1 and ICBO2 are
leakage currents.
 For a gating current I K  I A  I G and solving for IA
 2 I G  I CBO1  I CBO2
IA 
1  (1   2 )
4
Two-transistor model of thyristor
 2 I G  I CBO1  I CBO2
IA 
1  (1   2 )
 The constant 1 varies with the emitter current IA, and 2 varies with
IK=IA+IG.
 When gate current IG is increased, IA increases too.
 An increase in IG also increases 1 and 2.
 The increase in 1 and 2
causes further increase Typical variation of current
in IA, and go on… gain with emitter current in
thyristor
 If (1 + 2) tends to be unity
denominator approaches zero,
resulting in large current of IA.
 Therefore can be turned on
by a small gate current.
Gate drive
 The following points should be considered in designing the gate
control circuit;
– The gate signal should be removed after the thyristor is turned on. A
continues gate signal increases the power loss in the gate junction.
– While thyristor is reversed biased, there should be not gate signal;
otherwise, the thyristor may fail due to increased leakage current.
– The width of gate pulse tG must be longer than the time required for the
anode current reach to the holding current.
Opto isolated Pulse transformer

gate drive isolated gate drive
5
Thyristor turn-on
 Normally a thyristor is turned on by applying a small gate current:
 If a thyristor forward biased, a positive gate-cathode voltage would turn
on the thyristor.
However a thyristor can also be turned on by the following ways :
 Thermal: High temperature increases the number of electron-hole pairs

which leads to an increase in (1 + 2), and therefore if the temperature
is high enough the thyristor may turn on. This type of turn-on may cause
thermal runaway and must be avoided.
 Light: If light is allowed to strike the junctions, the electron-hole pairs

will increase; and the thyristor may be turned on.
 High voltage: If VAK is greater than the VBO, the thyristor turns on.
 dv/dt: If the rate of rise of anode-cathode voltage is high, the charging

current of the junction capacitance may trigger the thyristor and make it
turned-on. The device must be protected against dv/dt.
Principle of phase control

 Diode rectifiers produce a fixed output voltage.
 In order to control the output voltage of a rectifier, phase control
thyristors must be used instead of diodes.
 The output voltages of these rectifiers are varied by varying the
delay or firing angle of the thyristor.
 Phase controlled thyristors are turned on by the application of a
short pulse to the gate and they are turned off by the process of
natural or line commutation.
Vdc  m 1  cos 
V
2
6
Quadrants of converters
Quadrants
Converters can be divided into three categories:

 Semiconverter: one quadrant converter, having one
polarity of voltage and current
 Full converter: two quadrant device whose output

voltage polarity can be either positive or negative but
whose output current has one polarity.
 Dual converter: four quadrant device whose output

voltage and current can be of either positive of negative
polarity.
Single Phase Half-wave rectifier (R Load)
 For the positive half cycle of Vs, T1 is forward

biased and when the thyristor is fired at wt=
it conducts and input voltage appears across
the load.
 When the input voltage goes negative at wt=
thyristor is reverse biased and it is turned off.
 The firing angle (or delay angle) is defined as
the time after the input voltage starts to go
positive until the thyristor is fired at wt=.
 For this converter: 0180°
http://www.eng.uwi.tt/depts/elec/staff/rdefour/ee33d
7
Single Phase Half-wave rectifier (R Load)


Vm sin t dt  m  cost 
1 V
2 

Vdc 
2

Vm
1  cos 
2
 
Vm2
 1  cos 2t  dt
1
Vrms  
2 
Vm2 sin 2 t dt 
4 
Vm 1 sin 2 
     
2  2 
Exercise
 For single phase half wave thyristor converter with
R load, delay angle is =90°, determine,
a) rectification efficiency, b) FF, c) RF,
d) TUF, e) PIV
 Solution:
Vdc 
Vm
1  cos 90  0.1592Vm Vm 1  sin2  90 
2
Vrms     90  
2  180 2 
Vdc 0.1592Vm  0.3536Vm
I dc  
R R Vrms 0.3536Vm
I rms  
0.1592Vm 2 R R
R
0.3536Vm 2
a) Rectification efficiency R
Pdc 0.1592Vm 
2
   20.27%
Pac 0.3536Vm 2
8
Exercise (cont.)
b) Form factor
V 0.3536Vm
FF  ac   2.221or 222.1%
Vdc 0.1592Vm
c) Ripple factor
RF  FF 2  1  2.2212  1  1.983or 198.3%
d) VA power at transformer secondary is e) PIV=Vm

0.3536Vm Vm
I s  I rms  Vs   0.707Vm
R 2
 0.3536Vm 
 0.707Vm  
Vm
VA  Vs I s  
2  R 
TUF 
Pdc

0.1592Vm  R 2
 0.1014or (10.14%)
VA 0.707Vm 0.3536Vm  R
Diode vs SCR rectifiers
Uncontrolled SCR Controlled

Performance Parameter Half-Wave Rectifier Half-Wave Rectifier
(R load) (R load)
Efficiency () 40.5% 20.27%
Form Factor (FF) 157% 222.1%
Ripple Factor (RF) 121% 198.3%
Transformer Utilization
28.6% 10.14%
Factor (TUF)
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) Vm Vm
As delay increases, all performance indicators get worse.
9
Single Phase Half-wave (RL Load-Discontinues)
 SCR turns off when the current reaches to zero (at wt=).
 This is called as natural commutation.
 Conduction angle is defined as the time interval from  to .
Single Phase Half-wave (RL Load-discontinues)
 Load current equation (Similar method as diode rectifier)
V  t  

 m sin t     sin     e   for   t  
i t    Z  

 0 otherwise
10
Single Phase Half-wave rectifier (RL Load-discontinues)
Vo
 Extinction angle  can be

found numerically from
the equation below. Rms output current
   
Vm  
i   0  sin       sin     e   for   t   1 2

i   t  d  t 
2 
Z   I rms 
 Output dc voltage Avg output current

 
1 V
Vm sin t  d t   m  cos   cos  
1
i   t  d  t 
2  2 
V0  I0 
2
Example
Newton
raphson method
wt(k) f(wt) F'(wt) f(t)/f'(wt) wt(k+1)

2,7 5,977593 -3,1154 -1,91872 4,618722
Excel
4,618722 -5,01039 -4,56728 1,09702 3,521703

3,521703 1,772767 -6,53007 -0,27148 3,79318
3,79318 -0,04402 -6,77175 0,006501 3,786679
3,786679 2,61E-07 -6,77178 -3,9E-08 3,786679
0.94
11
Full Wave controlled rectifiers

Bridge rectifier Center-tapped transformer rectifier
Output waveform for resistive load Semi-controlled full wave rectifier

has same output waveform
12
Full-wave rectifier with resistive load


Vm sin t dt  m  cost 
2 2V
2 

Vdc 
2

Vm
1  cos 

 
Vm2
 1  cos 2t  dt
2
Vrms  
2 
Vm2 sin 2 t dt 
2 
Vm 1 sin 2 
     
2  2 
Example 4-6: Controlled Full-wave rectifier with resistive load
13
Exercise for semi converter
 Single phase semi converter is connected to a 120V 60Hz supply. Load
current Ia can be assumed continues and its ripple content is negligible.
Turns ratio is unity. Delay angle is =/2.
a) express the input line current in a Fourier series;
b) determine Vdc, Vrms, Harmonic factor, displacement factor, input power
factor
 Solution a)

1
2 
I dc  is (t ) dt  0
 2  2
1  1 
  
I a cos nt dt   I a cos nt dt 
  
an    bn   I a sin nt dt   I a sin nt dt 

     

2I a
sin n for n  1,3,5... 
2I a
1  cos n  for n  1,3,5...
n n
0 for n  2,4,6... 0 for n  2,4,6...

is (t )  I dc   a
n 1, 2...

n n
 2 I sn sin nt  n 
an 2 2I a
is (t )  n  tan 1  I sn  an2  bn2  cos
n 1, 3, 5...
bn 2 n 2
Exercise for semi converter (cont.)

b)
Vdc 
Vm
1  cos   54.02V

Vm 1 sin 2 
Vrms        84.57V
2  2 
2 2I a 
I s1  cos  0.6366I a
 4 2
I 
2

 HF   s   1  0.4835 or 48.35%
I rms  I dt  I a 1   0.7071I a
2
 I s1 
2 
a

  
1    DF  cos    0.7071
4  4
I s1 0.6366 I a
PF  DF  0.7071  0.6366(lagging )
Is 0.7071I a
14
Full wave, RL load (Discontinues current)
 The circuit solution is similar

to controlled half-wave rectifier
 The current function
V  t  

 m sin t     sin     e   for   t  
i t    Z  

 0 otherwise
The condition should be

satisfied for discontinues current
Full wave, RL load (Discontinues current)
Output voltage

2 V
Vm sin t  d t   m  cos   cos  
2 
V0 

Rms output current Avg output current

 
1
i   t  d  t 
2 
1 2
i   t  d  t  I0 
2 
I rms 
15
Full wave, RL load (Continues current)
 Average voltage
 
Vdc 
2
V sin t dt 
2Vm
 cost  
2 2
m

2Vm
 cos
 RMS output voltage
DC energy (i.e. PV,

wind) can be
transferred into grid
using inversion
mode
Full wave, RL load (Continues current)
 For continues current
 Fourier series method can be

used for determining output current
16
Example (1/2)
Example (2/2)
17
Single phase full converter
 Load current is assumed continues and

ripple free.
 During the positive half cycle, T1 & T2
are fwd biased, and when the SCRs
are fired at wt=, load is connected to
input supply.
 T1&T2 will continue to conduct beyond
wt= due to inductive load.
 At wt=+, T3&T4 are fired that makes
T1&T2 are reverse biased.
 For the period of   wt   the input

voltage and current are positive and
power flows from supply to load and
the converter is said to be in
rectification mode.
 For the period   wt  +, the input
voltage is negative, input current is
positive and power flows from the load
to the supply. The converter is said to
be operated in the inversion mode.
18

 
Vdc 
2
V sin t dt 
2Vm
 cost  
2 2
m

2Vm
 cos

Note that: For purely
resistive loads the output
voltage would be similar to
a semiconverter as there
would be no negative part!
Single phase full converters
19
Exercise
 Single phase full wave converter is

connected to a 120V 60Hz supply. Load
current Ia can be assumed continues
and its ripple content is negligible. Turns
ratio is unity. Delay angle is =/3.
 a) express the input line current in a
Fourier series;
 b) determine Vdc, Vrms, Harmonic
factor, displacement factor, input power
factor
Exercise (solution)
 a) Fourier series of supply
current
 
1
I dc 
2  i (t ) dt  0

s
  2 
1 
1
  2 

an    I a cos nt dt   I a cos nt dt 
 
 


bn  
   I a sin nt dt 

I
  
a sin nt dt 

4I a
 sin n for n  1,3,5... 4I
 a cos n for n  1,3,5...
n n
0 for n  2,4,6... 0 for n  2,4,6...

is (t )  I dc   a
n 1, 2...

 2 I sn sin nt  n 
an 2 2I a
is (t )  n  tan 1  n I sn  an2  bn2 
n 1, 3, 5...
bn n
20
Exercise (cont.)
b) 2Vm Vm
Vdc  cos  54.02V Vrms   Vs  120V
 2
2 2I a
I s1   0.90032I a 2
 I 
HF   s   1  0.4834 or 48.34%
 I s1 
I rms  I a
 
1    DF  cos    0.5
 3
cos    0.45(lagging)
I s1
PF 
Is
Single phase dual converter
 When two full converter are connected back to back, and the system
will provide four-quadrant operation and is called as dual converter.
 If 1 and 2 delay angles of converter 1 and 2 respectively, the
corresponding average output voltages are Vdc1 and Vdc2.
 The delay angles are controlled such that one converter operates as a
rectifier and the other converter operates as an inverter, but both
converter produce the same average voltage.
 Since the instantaneous voltage difference will result in circulating
current between converters, two circulating current reactor Lr/2 are
used .
21
Single phase dual converter
2Vm 2Vm
Vdc1  cos1 Vdc 2  cos 2
 
One converter is rectifying, the
other is inverting
Vdc1  Vdc 2
therefore
cos 2   cos1  cos  1 
 2    1
Circulating current
Assume circulating current İr is
discontinues (İr(0)=0)
t t
1

1
v  v dt
Lr 21 o1 o 2
ir  vr dt 
Lr 2 1
Vm  
t t
    sin t dt   sin t dt 
Lr  2 1 2 1 

2Vm
cost  cos1 
Lr
The circulating current depends on 1
The maximum value can be
4Vm
ir ,max 
Lr
If the peak load current is Ip, then the
converters should carry a peak current of
4Vm
I p  ir ,max  I p 
Lr
22
Circulating current
 The dual converter can be operated with or without a circulating current. If
only one converter operates at a time and carries load current, the other
converter is completely blocked by inhibiting gate pulses.
 However, operating with a circulating current has the following advantages;
– Both converters are in continues conduction, independent of the load
– Power flow in either direction at any time is possible.
– Time response for changing from one quadrant to another is faster
Exercise 5: Dual converter supplied from 120V, 60Hz source, resistive load
R=10 . Lr=40mH, 1=60°, 2=120°.
Peak circulating current
ir  m 1  cos1  
2V 2 2 120  
1  cos 60  11.25 A
Lr 3770.04
Peak load current
2 120
ip   16.97 A
10
Peak current of converter1 is 16.97+11.25=28.22A
Three phase half-wave converter
 Three phase converters provide

higher average output voltage
 Output voltage ripple frequency
is higher than single phase converters. Therefore filtering
requirement is simpler.
 For this reason 3-phase converters are used extensively in high-
power applications.
 Delay angle  is defined starting from natural commutation points
where phase voltages are equal.
23
 Load current is assumed
constant.
 When T1 is fired at wt=/6+, the
load voltage is Vo=Van, until T2
is fired at wt=5/6+.
 When thyristor T2 is fired,
thyristor T1 is reverse biased,
because line-to-line voltage Vab
is negative, and T1 is turned off.
 For resistive loads and when
/6, the load current will be
discontinues.
 The frequency of output ripple is
3fs
 This converter is not used
frequently in practice due to high
ripple content.

 For continues load current:
5 6 
3
Vdc 
2 V
 6 
m sin t dt
3 3Vm
 cos
2

5 6 
3
Vrms  V sin 2 t dt
2
2
m
 6 
1 3
 3Vm  cos 2
6 8
24
3-phase half wave converter with RL load
 Van Vbn Vcn

V0
=30
0
=300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
 Van Vbn Vcn

V0 =60
0
=600
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
3-phase half wave converter with RL load
=900
25
 For resistive loads:
Vbn Vcn Van
200
 For </6, the Vdc and Vrms are

100
same as continues current case.
 For /6: 0
 -100
3
2  6
Vdc  Vm sin t dt
-200

Vload
3Vm   200

2 1  cos 6   
   150

100

3
Vrms  V sin t dt
2 2
2
m 50
 6 
5  1   0
 3Vm   sin  2 
24 4 8
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33
3  Time (s)
3-phase half wave converter with R load

Van Vbn Vcn  Van Vbn Vcn
=0
=0° =30°
=300
Vs
V0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 30
0
60
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
0 0 0 0
 Van Vbn Vcn  Van Vbn Vcn
=600
=15
=150 ° =60°
V0
V0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t 0 t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 30
0
60
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
0 0 0 0
Negative voltage is not seen in the output!

26
Exercise 6
 3-phase half wave converter is operated from Y-connected 208V
60Hz supply. Load resistance R=10 . Half of the maximum
possible average voltage is requested at the output. Calculate
a)delay angle, b) rms and average output current, c)average and
rms thyristor currents, d) rectification efficiency, e)Transformer
utilization factor, f) input power factor
 Solution:
3 3Vm 3 3 169.83
The maximum output voltage is Vdc,max    140.45V
2 2
Desired output voltage, then 0.5*140.45=70.23V
a) For resistive load and </6,
3 3 169.83 
70.23  cos    60  thenit is not valid!
2 6
Therefore, the equation for >/6 should be used
3169.83   
70.23  1  cos       67.7
2  6 
Exercise 6
b) rms and average output current
Vdc 70.23
I dc    7.02 A
R 10

67.7
Vrms  3 169.83
5
 180  1 cos   2 67.7     94.74V
4 8 3 180  
24  
Vrms 94.74
I rms    9.47 A
R 10
c) average and rms thyristor currents

d) rectification efficiency
I 7.02 70.23 7.02
I A  dc   2.34 A P
  dc   54.95%
3 3 Pac 94.74  9.47
I rms 9.47
IR    5.47 A
3 3
27
Exercise 6
e)Transformer utilization factor
The rms line current is the same as the thyristor rms current
I s  I R  5.47 A Vs  120.1V
VA  3Vs I s  3 120.1 5.47  1970.84W
Pdc 70.23 7.02

TUF    0.25 or (25%)
VA 1970.84
f)
Output power is Po  I rms
2
R  9.472 10  896.81W
Then input power factor is
Note that due to the delay angle, ,
896.81
PF   0.455(lagging) the fundamental component of input
1970.84 line current is also delayed with
respect to the input phase voltage
Three phase full converters

 Known as a 6-pulse
converter, or 3 phase
bridge converter
 Used in industrial
applications up to 120kW
output power.
 Two quadrant operation
is possible.
 Output ripple frequency is 6fs
 Thyristor is fired at interval of /3
 Filtering requirement is less than semi- and half converters
 Firing sequence is 12,23,34,45,56,61,12…  
vba  vbn  van  3Vm sin   
van  Vm sin t  6
Line-neutral
 2   
vbn  Vm sin t   vbc  vbn  vcn  3Vm sin t  
Line-line
voltages
voltages
 3   2
 2   5 
vcn  Vm sin t   vca  vcn  van  3Vm sin t  
 3   6 
28
 The thyristors are triggered at an
interval of  / 3.
 When T1 is triggered at t = (/6
+ ), T6 is already conducting
when T1 is turned ON.
 During the interval (/6 + ) to
(/2 + ), T1 and T6 conduct
together & the output load voltage
is equal to vab = (van – vbn)
 T2 is triggered at t = (/2 + ),
T6 turns off naturally as it is
reverse biased as soon as T2 is
triggered.
 During the interval (/2 + ) to
(5/6 + ), T1 and T2 conduct
together & the output load voltage
vO = vac = (van – vcn)
Current waveforms for

thyristors and diodes
Line period 2
29
Output rms voltage Output dc voltage

 2 
3    2 

Vrms    3V sin 2  t   dt 3 
2
  6
m
 6 Vdc 
 

6
3Vm sin t   dt
 6
1 3 3
 3Vm  cos 2 3 3Vm
2 4  cos

Harmonic content of output voltage
 Three phase full converters for

continues load current (highly
inductive) without Dm
30
Exercise
Exercise (cont.)
31
Output
voltage for
various 
values
Maximum delay angle

max = 180°

for   /3
Both of the converter has same output voltage
for R load for RL load with Dm is used)
Dm
32
Three phase full converters for   /3 for R load
(also valid for RL load with Dm is used)
/3 
 For   /3, the
instantaneous
0
output voltage Vo
will not have a
negative part for
resistive loads and
for highly inductive Vab
load with
freewheeling diode.
Vab  Output rms voltage
 
3 3
Vdc 
 
 3
3Vm sin t d t Vrms 
   3V m
2
sin 2 t d t
 3
3 3Vm     3   1  
  1  cos      
   3   3Vm    cos  2   
3 2 4  6 
Three phase full converters for   /3 for R load

or Dm is used
Maximum delay angle

max = 120°
33
Exercise 9
 3-phase fullconverter is operated from Y-connected 208V 60Hz
supply. Load resistance R=10 . Half of the maximum possible
average voltage is requested at the output. Calculate a)delay angle,
b) rms and average output current, c)average and rms thyristor
currents, d) rectification efficiency, e)Transformer utilization factor, f)
input power factor
 Solution:
3 3Vm 3 3 169.83
The maximum output voltage is Vdc,max    280.9V
 
Desired output voltage, then 0.5*280.9=140.45V
a) For resistive load and /3,
3 3Vm
Vdc  cos

3 3 169.83   /3 OK!
140.45  cos    60

Exercise 9
b) rms and average output current
Vdc 140.45
I dc    14.05 A
R 10
Vrms  3 169.83
1 3 3
 cos 2  60  159.29V
2 4
Vrms 159.29
I rms    15.93 A
R 10
c) average and rms thyristor currents d) rectification efficiency
I dc 14.05
IA    4.68 A Pdc 140.4514.05
3 3    77.8%
Pac 159.29 15.93
2 2
I R  I rms  15.93  9.2 A
6 6
Thyristor conducts 1/3 of the line period
34
Exercise 9
e)Transformer utilization factor
Since a thyristor conducts during 4/6 of line period, then
4 4 Vs  120.1V
I s  I rms  15.93  13 A
6 6
VA  3Vs I s  3 120.113  4683.9W
Pdc 140.45  14.05
TUF    0.421or ( 42.1%)
VA 4683.9
f)
Output power is Po  I rms R  15.93 10  2537.6W
2 2
Then input power factor is

2537.6
PF   0.542 (lagging)
4683.9
Three phase dual converters
 For four quadrant operation in many industrial variable speed dc drives , 3

phase dual converters are used.
 Used for applications up to 2 mega watt output power level.
 Dual converter consists of two 3 phase full converters which are connected
in parallel & in opposite directions across a common load.
 The delay angles are controlled such that one converter operates as a
rectifier and the other converter operates as an inverter, but both
converter produce the same average voltage.
 Lr stands for the circulating currents
35
Three phase dual converters
 Converter1 delay angle
1
 Converter2 delay angle
2 =  - 1
 Operation of each
converter is identical to
3-phase full converter
 During the interval (/6
+ 1) to (/2 + 1), the
line to line voltage vab
appears across the
output of converter 1
and vbc appears across
the output of converter 2
 Circulating current
3Vm    
ir   sin t    sin 1 
Lr   6 
36
DC-DC Converters
Outline of lecture
 Introduction to voltage regulators
 Chopper classification
– Class A chopper
– Class B chopper
– Class C chopper
– Class D chopper
– Class E chopper
 Switching voltage regulators
 Buck converter analysis
 Buck converter design
 Boost converter analysis
 Boost converter design
EE328 Power Electronics, Prof.Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2023
1
Introduction
 In some industrial applications (dc motor control, battery chargers, etc.) a
controllable dc voltage is required.
 Switching mode converters are more efficient and lightweight than linear
topologies.
 Switching-mode regulators use DC choppers to obtain adjustable dc voltage
at output.
 Switching mode regulators consist of following blocks
a chopper, which convert the input a filter, which removes the ac

dc signal into a controllable component and pass only the dc
DC+AC signal component
DC-DC a control circuit, which

regulates the output voltage
converter
at desired reference value
Chopper classifications
Class A Class B Class C

• Single quadrant operation. • Single quadrant operation. • Two quadrant operation.
• Vo is always positive • Vo is always positive • Vo is always positive
• Io is always positive • Io is always negative • Io is either positive or negative
• Always Vs>Vo • Always Vs>Vo • Combines Class A & B
• Power flows to the load. • Power flows to the source. • Always Vs>Vo
• Bidirectional power flow.
2
Chopper classifications
Class D Class E
• Two quadrant operation. • Four quadrant operation.
• Vo is either positive or negative • Two class C choppers can be combined
• Io is always positive to form a class E chopper
• Always Vs>Vo • Vo & Io are either positive or negative
• Bidirectional power flow. • Always Vs>Vo
• Power flows from source to the load.
This chopper
is the basis
for the
single-phase
full bridge
inverters
Switching mode converters

 The output voltage is controlled by pulse-width
modulation at a fixed switching frequency.
 The switching device can be BJT, IGBT, or MOSFET.
 The ripple content is generally reduced by an LC filter.
 Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost, and Cuk converters are the
most known topologies.
 The switching regulators are
commercially available as
integrated circuits.
LC filter
3
BUCK TYPE DC-DC CONVERTER
Buck type dc-dc converter

 The objective is to produce a purely dc output voltage
 LC low-pass filter blocks the switching harmonics
 The diode provides a path for the inductor current when the switch is
opened and is reverse-biased when the switch is closed.
 This circuit is called a "buck converter" or a "step-down converter"
because the output voltage is always less than the input.
 If the low-pass filter is ideal, the output voltage is the average of Vx.
Class A Chopper LC filter
4
Analysis Method
The general assumptions for the switching converter analysis;
1. The circuit is operating in the steady-state.
2. The switching period is T; the switch is closed for the time DT and
open for the time (1-D)T.
3. The inductor current is periodic and continues
4. Average inductor voltage is zero (Remember Volt-second balance)
5. The capacitor is very large, and the output voltage is held constant
at voltage Vo.
6. The average capacitor current is zero (Remember charge-balance)
7. All components are ideal.
Input power is equal to
the output power
Analysis procedure:
• Obtain the equivalent circuit for all switch positions.
• Examine the inductor and capacitor energy for all equivalent circuits.
• Apply the volt-second balance and charge balance for a switching period.
Buck converter: Switch is ON

 The voltage across the
inductor is
Rearranging,
The change in current while the switch is closed is computed by modifying the
preceding equation.
5
Buck converter: Switch is OFF
 The voltage across the
inductor is
Rearranging,
The change in current while the switch is open is
Buck converter waveforms
6
Inductor current balance
 Steady-state operation requires that the inductor current at the end
of the switching cycle be the same as that at the beginning, meaning
that the net change in inductor current over one period is zero. This
requires
The buck converter produces an output

voltage that is less than or equal to the input
Alternative derivation of output voltage

(Inductor volt-second balance)
 Average inductor voltage is zero for a period in the steady-state
 Solving the preceding equation for Vo yields
Period, T
Equal
areas
7
The max.&min. values of the inductor current
 The average inductor current should be equal to the average load
current, since the average capacitor current must be zero for steady-
state operation
 Therefore, the max. & min. current for the inductor is
f=1/T is switching frequency
CCM: Continues conduction mode

Lmin for CCM mode DCM: Discontinues conduction mode
 For the preceding analysis to be valid, CCM

continuous current (CCM) in the Imin
inductor must be verified!
 If Imin>= 0 the operation mode is CCM
DCM
 Equation above can be used to determine the combination of L and f

that will result in continuous current. Since Imin= 0 is the boundary
between continuous and discontinuous current,
 If the desired switching frequency is established,
8
Determination of inductor value
 In the design of a buck converter, the peak-to-peak variation in the
inductor current is often used as a design criterion
 Inductor value is determined according to desired current ripple IL.

 In order to keep the size of inductor is small, the operating frequency
and the peak-to-peak current variation should be high.
DC transformer model
 Since all components are assumed as ideal, the power supplied by
the source must be same as the power absorbed by the load resistor.
Input port, Output port,

Vs, Is, Ps Vo, Io, Po
Buck converter
 Note that the preceding relationship is similar to the voltage-current

relationship for a transformer in ac applications.
Therefore, the buck converter circuit is

equivalent to a dc transformer.
9
Calculation of output voltage ripple
 In the preceding analysis, the capacitor was
assumed to be very large to keep the output
voltage constant.
 In practice, the output voltage cannot be kept
perfectly constant with a finite capacitance.
 by equating charges,
Output voltage ripple (cont.)
Minimum
capacitor
value
10
Exercise 1
Exercise 1 (cont.)
Since the output ripple is sufficiently small, the assumption of a constant output
voltage was reasonable.
11
Practical capacitors!!
Capacitor ESR & ESL

ESR: Equivalent Series Resistance
ESL: Equivalent Series Inductance
Effect of capacitor ESR & ESL on voltage ripple
Source: https://techweb.rohm.com/tech-info/engineer/3027
12
Capacitor ESR (cont.)
• Let's ignore the ESL
• Peaks of the capacitor ripple

voltage and ESR ripple voltage
will not coincide, therefore they
can not be added algebrically
• However, real value is always

lower than their sum.
• In practice, usually the ripple voltage due

to the ESR can be much larger than the
ripple due to the pure capacitance
Capacitor ESR (cont.)

 Capacitor ESR is inversely proportional to the capacitance value
 Larger capacitance results in a lower ESR.
 Manufacturers provide what are known as low ESR capacitors for
power supply applications.
Exercise 2:
In the circuit given in exercise 1, the 100 uF capacitor may have an
ESR of rc=0.1 . Estimate the ripple voltage due to the ESR.
The result is
without ESR
13
Measuring the output voltage ripple
 In order to
measure the
output voltage
ripple
accurately,
reduce the loop
area as much
as possible

 If loop is large
then the
magnetically
induced voltage
is also large

 Measure the
output cap.
Voltage
 Best way to use
the special tip of
probes
https://www.eetimes.com/power-tip-6-accurately-
measuring-power-supply-ripple/
Synchronous Rectification for Buck Converter

 A MOSFET can be used in place of the diode
 The advantage of this configuration is that the second MOSFET will
have a much lower voltage drop across it compared to a diode,
resulting in higher circuit efficiency
 This is especially important in low-voltage, high-current applications
 A Shottky diode would have a voltage of 0.3 to 0.4 V across it while
conducting, whereas a MOSFET will have
an extremely low voltage drop
due to an RDSon as low as
single-digit milliohms.
Also known as synchronous

switching, or synchronous
rectification
14
Buck converter design considerations
 Most buck converters are designed for continuous-current operation.
 If the switching frequency increases, the required values of the filter
elements L and C are both decrease.
 So, high switching frequencies are desirable.
 On the other hand, increasing the switching frequency, also
increases the switching loss, and then reduces the efficiency.
 Therefore a suitable switching frequency should be investigated for
the converter.
Switching losses
Switching frequency Filter L & C
Heatsink
Buck design considerations (cont.)

 Typical switching frequencies are above 20 kHz to avoid audio
noise, and they extend well into the 100s of kilohertz and into the
megahertz range.
 Some designers consider about 500 kHz to be the best compromise
between small component size and efficiency.
 Other designers prefer to use lower switching frequencies of about
50 kHz to keep switching losses small, while still others prefer
frequencies larger than 1 MHz.
 As switching devices improve, switching frequencies will increase.
 The inductor value should be larger than Lmin to ensure continuous
current operation.
 Some designers select a value 25 percent larger than Lmin.
 Other designers use different criteria, such as setting the inductor
current variation, iL to a desired value, such as 40 percent of the
average inductor current.
 A smaller iL results in lower peak and rms inductor currents and a
lower rms capacitor current but requires a larger inductor.
15
Buck design considerations (cont.)
 The capacitor must be selected to limit the output ripple to the
design specifications
 The switch (usually a MOSFETwith a low RDSon) and diode (or
second MOSFETfor synchronous rectification) must withstand
maximum voltage stress when off and maximum current when on.
 The temperature ratings must not be exceeded, often requiring a
heat sink.
 Assuming ideal switches and an ideal inductor in the initial design is
usually reasonable.
 However, the ESR of the capacitor should be included because it
greatly influences the choice of capacitor size.
Buck Converter Design #1

 Design a buck converter to produce an output voltage of 18 V
across a 10 Ohm load resistor.
 The output voltage ripple must not exceed 0.5 percent.
 The dc supply is 48 V.
 Design for continuous inductor current.
 Specify ;
– the duty ratio,
– the switching frequency,
– the values of the inductor and capacitor,
– the peak voltage rating of each device,
– and the rms current in the inductor and capacitor.
– Assume ideal components
16
Buck Converter Design #1 (2/5)
 The duty ratio for continuous-current operation is
 Let the switching frequency arbitrarily be 40 kHz, which is well

above the audio range and is low enough to keep switching losses
small.
 The minimum inductor size is
Let the inductor be 25 percent larger than the minimum to ensure that
inductor current is continuous.

 Average inductor current
 The change in current
 The maximum and minimum inductor currents
17
 The inductor rms current for the offset triangular wave is
 The capacitor value is
 Peak capacitor current is
 rms capacitor current for the triangular waveform is

 The maximum voltage across the switch and diode is Vs=48V
 The inductor voltage when the switch is closed is
 The inductor voltage when the switch is open is
 Therefore, the inductor must with stand 30 V.
 The capacitor must be rated for the 18 V output.
Verify the results using PSIM
18
Buck Converter Design #2
 Power supplies for telecommunications applications may require
high currents at low voltages.
 Design a buck converter that has an input voltage of 3.3 V and an
output voltage of 1.2 V.
 The output current varies between 4 and 6 A.
 The output voltage ripple must not exceed 2 percent.
 Specify the inductor value such that the peak-to-peak variation in
inductor current does not exceed 40 percent of the average value.
 Determine the required rms current rating of the inductor and of the
capacitor.
 Determine the maximum equivalent series resistance of the
capacitor.
 Because of the low voltage and high output current in this
application, the synchronous rectification buck converter is used.

 The duty ratio is
 Let the switching frequency arbitrarily be 500 kHz to give a good

tradeoff between small component size and low switching losses.
The average inductor current
For an output current of 4 A, For an output current of 6 A,
L=1 uH is selected
19
 Max. output current
 the variation in inductor current is 1.6 A for each output current.
 Inductor rms current is
 The minimum capacitance is (L=1uH)

 The allowable output voltage ripple of 2% is
 The maximum ESR is
 At this point, the designer would search manufacturer’s

specifications for a capacitor having 15-mOhm ESR.
 The capacitor may have to be much larger than the calculated value
of 15.9uF to meet the ESR requirement.
 Peak capacitor current is
 Rms capacitor current for the triangular waveform is
Verify the results using PSIM
20
BOOST TYPE DC-DC CONVERTER
Boost converter
The output voltage is always larger than the input voltage!
The analysis assumes the following:
1. Converter operates in steady-state.
2. The switching period is T, and the switch is closed for time DT and open
for (1-D)T.
3. The inductor current is continuous (always positive).
4. The capacitor is very large, and the output voltage is held constant
at voltage Vo.
5. All components are ideal.
21
Boost converter: Switch is ON
 The change in inductor current is
 Solving for iL for the switch closed
Boost converter: Switch is OFF
 The change in inductor current is
 Solving for iL for the switch open,
22
Boost converter waveforms
Output voltage
 Method #1: the net change in inductor current must be zero.
Solving for Vo,
 Method #2 (volt-second balance of inductor):The average

inductor voltage must be zero for a periodic.
23
Average inductor current
 Output power is
 input power is
 Equating input and output powers and using
 By solving for average inductor current and making various

substitutions, IL can be expressed as
Max. & Min. inductor current

 Maximum and minimum inductor currents are
 For CCM operation, Imin>0 . Therefore, the boundary between

continuous and discontinuous inductor current is
24
Minimum inductor value
 The minimum combination of inductance and switching frequency
for continuous current in the boost converter is therefore
 From a design perspective, it is useful to express L in terms of a

desired iL,
Output Voltage Ripple
An expression for ripple voltage is then
Alternatively,
25
 As with the buck converter, equivalent series resistance of the capacitor can
contribute significantly to the output voltage ripple.
 The peak-to-peak variation in capacitor current is the same as the maximum
current in the inductor.
 The voltage ripple due to the ESR is
Boost converter design #1

 Design a boost converter that will have an output of 30 Vdc from a
12Vdc source. Design for continuous inductor current and an output
ripple voltage of less than one percent. The load is a resistance of
50. Assume ideal components for this design.
 Solution:
Duty ratio is
If the switching frequency is selected at 25 kHz to be above the audio

range, then the minimum inductance for continuous current is
determined as
To provide a margin to ensure continuous current, let L =120 H. Note

that L and f are selected somewhat arbitrarily and that other
combinations will also give continuous current.
26
Boost converter design #1 (cont.)
 Average inductor current is,
 Max. & min. inductor currents;
 The minimum capacitance required to limit the output ripple voltage

to 1 percent is determined as follows,
Boost converter design #2

 A boost converter is required to have an output voltage of 8 V and
supply a load current of 1 A.
 The input voltage varies from 2.7 to 4.2 V.
 A control circuit adjusts the duty ratio to keep the output voltage
constant.
 Select the switching frequency.
 Determine a value for the inductor such that the variation in inductor
current is no more than 40 percent of the average inductor current
for all operating conditions.
 Determine a value of an ideal capacitor such that the output voltage
ripple is no more than 2 percent.
 Determine the maximum capacitor equivalent series resistance for a
2 percent ripple.
27
Boost converter design #2 (2/4)
 Solution:
 Somewhat arbitrarily, choose 200 kHz for the switching frequency.
 The circuit must be analyzed for both input voltage extremes to
determine the worst-case condition.
For Vs=2.7 V, For Vs=4.2 V,
L=13.1 uH is selected

 Using the maximum value of D, the minimum capacitance can be
calculated
 The variation in inductor current is 0.762 A for Vs =4.2 A, but it must

be recalculated for Vs =2.7 V using the 13.1H,
 Maximum inductor current for each case is then computed as
28
 The largest peak-to-peak current variation in the capacitor will be
3.30 A.
 The output voltage ripple due to the capacitor ESR must be no more
than (0.02)(8) =0.16 V. Then,
 Therefore the ESR value can be found,
 In practice, a capacitor that has an ESR of 48 m or less could have

a capacitance value much larger than the 20.7F calculated.
Effect of inductor resistance

 Inductors should be designed to have small resistance to minimize
power loss and maximize efficiency.
 The existence of a small inductor resistance does not substantially
change the analysis of the boost converter.
 However, inductor resistance affects performance of the boost
converter, especially at high duty ratios.
 Lets assume that inductor series resistance is rL
 The loss in this resistor can be estimated by neglecting the inductor
current ripple (IL,rms  IL,avg = IL)
 The power balance of the boost converter becomes
29
Effect of inductor resistance
 The diode current is equal to the inductor current when the switch is
off and is zero when the switch is on. Therefore, the average diode
current is
 Substituting for ID into power balance equation
 IL cancels in both sides,
Ideal Inductance
term loss term
Output voltage decreases by

increasing rL
Effect of rL on output voltage

 The boost converter
produces an output
voltage that is
greater than or
equal to the input
voltage.
Ideal gain for D=0.8
Non-ideal gain for D=0.8
30
Effect of rL on converter efficiency
 Note that, the efficiency increases if rL decreases.
31
DC-DC Converters
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mutlu BOZTEPE
EE328 Power Electronics, Prof. Dr.
Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, Spring
2023
Outline of lecture
 Buck-boost converter

Cuk converter
 SEPIC converter
 Interleaved converters
EE328 Power Electronics, Prof. Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, Spring 2023
1
BUCK-BOOST DC-DC CONVERTER
Buck-Boost converter
 The output voltage of the buck-boost converter can be either higher or lower
than the input voltage.
 But the output voltage has negative polarity with respect to input voltage.
 Assumptions for analysis:
– The circuit is operating in the steady state.
– The inductor current is continuous.
– The capacitor is large enough to assume a constant output voltage.
– The switch is closed for time DT and open for (1-D)T.
– The components are ideal.
2
Buck-boost converter: Switch is ON
Diode is OFF
the voltage across the inductor is
Buck-boost converter: Switch is OFF

Switch is OFF
the voltage across the inductor is
3
Output voltage calculation (Method 1)
 For steady-state operation, the net change in inductor current must

be zero over one period.
• Output voltage of the buck-
boost converter can be less
than or greater than the
source voltage, depending
on the duty ratio
• Output voltage is negative!
 Solving for Vo,
Note that
negative sign
Output voltage calculation (Method 2)
• Note that the source is never

connected directly to the load
in the buck-boost converter.
 Average inductor voltage is zero for
periodic operation. • Energy is stored in the
inductor when the switch is
closed and transferred to the
load when the switch is open.
 Solving for Vo,
• Hence, the buck-boost
converter is also referred to
as an indirect converter.
4
Buck-boost converter waveforms
Sketch the switch current &
switch voltage for one period?
Average inductor current

Power absorbed by the load must be the same as that supplied by the
source
Average source current is related to average inductor current by
resulting in
Substituting for Vo using and solving for IL, we find
5
Maximum and minimum inductor currents
Using the current ripple equation of
For continuous current, the inductor current must remain positive.

In boundary condition Imin=0. Therefore,
• As is the case with other converters, the equivalent series resistance of the
capacitor can contribute significantly to the output ripple voltage.
• The peak-to-peak variation in capacitor current is the same as the maximum
inductor current.
6
Example: Buck-Boost Converter
The buck-boost circuit has these parameters:
Determine ;
the output voltage,
inductor current average, maximum
and minimum values,
and the output voltage ripple.
Example: Buck-Boost Converter (cont.)

Output voltage is Inductor current is
7.73 A
7
CUK DC-DC CONVERTER
CUK Converter
 Output voltage magnitude can be either larger or smaller than that of the
input, and there is a polarity reversal on the output.
 The inductor on the input acts as a filter for the dc supply to prevent large
harmonic content.
 Unlike the previous converter topologies where energy transfer is
associated with the inductor, energy transfer for the Cuk converter depends
on the capacitor C1.
8
Assumptions
1. Both inductors are very large and the currents in them are constant.
2. Both capacitors are very large and the voltages across them are constant.
3. The circuit is operating in steady state, meaning that voltage and current
waveforms are periodic.
4. For a duty ratio of D, the switch is closed for time DT and open for (1-D)T.
5. The switch and the diode are ideal.
Operating modes
Cuk converter circuit
Equivalent circuit for

"switch is ON"
Equivalent circuit for

"switch is OFF"
9
Average voltage of capacitor C1
Node Node
voltage voltage
is Vs is Vo
VL1,avg=0 VL2,avg=0
The average voltage across the inductors is zero for steady-state operation,
resulting in
Inductor currents interaction
When switch is ON When switch is OFF
For periodic operation, the average current of C1 should be zero.
10
Input-output voltage relationship
The average power supplied by the source must be the same as the
average power absorbed by the load (Ideal converter, efficiency is 100%),
We already found the IL1/IL2 ratio
Then the relationship The negative sign

between the output and indicates a polarity
input voltages is obtained reversal between
output and input.
Output voltage ripple

Note that the components on the output (L2, C2,
and R) are in the same configuration as the buck
converter and that the inductor current has the
same form as for the buck converter.
Therefore, the ripple, or variation in output

voltage, is the same as for the buck converter:
11
Capacitor C1 voltage ripple
• The ripple in C1 can be estimated by computing the change in v C1 in

the interval when the switch is OFF and the currents iL1 and iC1 are the
same.
• Assuming the current in L1 to be constant at a level IL1
Note that
approximate equality
(Because IL1 current
ripple is ignored!)
The fluctuations in inductor currents
(switched is ON)
Voltage of L1 Voltage of L2
12
The fluctuations in inductor currents
Average current Average current
of L1 is input of L2 is output
current of Is current of Io
For continuous current in the inductors, the average current must be greater
than one-half the change in current.
iL1 iL 2
I L1,min  I L1  Ps  Po I L 2,min  I L 2 
2 2
Vs I s  Vo I o
V2 V D Vo VD
0 o  s 0  s
Vs R 2 L1 f R 2 L2 f
1  D 
2
R Minimum inductor
L2,min 
1  D  R
L1,min  values for continuous
2 Df current
2f
Cuk Converter Design Example

 A Cuk converter has an input of 12 V and is to have an output of
-18 V supplying a 40-W load.
 Select;
– the duty ratio,
– the switching frequency,
– the inductor sizes such that the change in inductor currents is no
more than 10 percent of the average inductor current,
– the output ripple voltage is no more than 1 percent,
– the ripple voltage across C1 is no more than 5 percent.
 Solution:
The duty ratio is
13
Cuk Converter Design (cont.)
The switching frequency.
Higher switching frequencies result
in smaller current variations in the inductors. Let f =50 kHz.
Inductor sizes:
The average inductor currents are determined from the power and voltage
specifications
Ripple current of inductors is required lower than 10% of average

Vs D Vs D
iL1   0.333 iL 2   0.222
L1 f L2 f
12  0.6  L2 
12  0.6 
L1 
 0.333  50k   0.222  50k 
 L1  432 H  L2  649 H
Cuk Converter Design (cont.)

output ripple voltage specification requires
Ripple voltage across C1:

Average voltage across C1 is Vs-Vo =12-(-18) = 30 V
so the maximum change in vC1 =(30)(0.05) =1.5 V
The equivalent load resistance is
C1 is computed from the ripple specification
14
SINGLE ENDED PRIMARY
INDUCTANCE CONVERTER (SEPIC)
SEPIC converter
 The SEPIC can produce an output voltage that is either greater or less
than the input but with no polarity reversal
 Assumptions
– Both inductors are very large and the currents in them are constant.
– Both capacitors are very large and the voltages across them are constant.
– The circuit is operating in steady state, meaning that voltage and current
waveforms are periodic.
– For a duty ratio of D, the switch is closed for time DT and open for (1-D)T.
– The switch and the diode are ideal.
15
SEPIC converter
 The average voltage of capacitor C1 is Vs
Node Node
voltage voltage
is Vs is zero
VL1,avg=0
VL2,avg=0
Switch is ON
 Inductor L1 voltage
16
Switch is OFF
 Inductor L1 voltage and its current variation
Output voltage
 the average voltage across an inductor L1 should be zero for
periodic operation
 Output voltage
 Duty value
17
Inductor voltages and their current variations
 When the switch is ON
Inductor average currents

 Average current of L1 is equal to the input current, then
Ps  Po VI V2
I L1  o o  o
Vs I L1  Vo I o Vs Vs R
 Average current of L2 is equal to output current, since the average

currents of capacitors C1 and C2 is zero, then
V
 I L2  o
R
18
Output voltage ripple
 It is similar to the boost converter
 Solving for C2,
Voltage variation in C1
 When switch is ON, the capacitor current iC1 is the opposite of iL2.
 iL2=Io is found previously, then
19
Waveforms
• Max. reverse bias voltage
across the diode is also Vs+Vo
• Max. switch voltage is Vs+Vo
SEPIC converter analysis

 A SEPIC circuit has the following parameters:
• Vs =9 V
• D=0.4
• f =100 kHz
• L1=L2=90uH
• C1=C2=80 uF
• Io =2 A
 Determine the output voltage; the average, maximum, and minimum
inductor currents; and the variation in voltage across each capacitor.
20
SEPIC converter design (cont.)
 The output voltage is
 Avg. current in L1 is
 Current variation in L1
 Max. and min. currents in L1
SEPIC converter design (cont.)

 Average current in L2 is equal to output current Io=2A
 Current variation in L2
 Max. and min. current in L2
 Ripple voltages in C1 and C2
21
INTERLEAVED CONVERTERS
Interleaved Buck converter

 Interleaving, also called
multiphasing, is a technique
that is useful for reducing
the size of filter components
 The switches are operated
180 out of phase
 In general, the phase shift
Output voltage is
between switch closing is
360/n, where n is the
number of converters.
 Each inductor supplies one-
half of the load current and
output power
 Interleaving is possible for
other converters
22
Interleaved bidirectional BUCK dc-dc converters
Each buck converter
produce 6 times smaller
 6 phase current than output current
Interleaved
bidirectional
48V to 12V
buck converter
 2 phase
bidirectional
interleaved
buck converter
2-phase Interleaved Boost Converter
Iinput I(L1) I(L2)
7.5
Ipv=0.47Ap-p
6.25
3.75
2.5
1.25
IL1=IL2=2.6Ap-p
0
29.2578m 29.2773m 29.2969m 29.3164m 29.3359m 29.3555m
1 2 Time (s)
23
Interleaved Boost Converters
 4-phase
unidirectional
 6-phase
Bidirectional
Inteleaved converter examples

 Two phase interleaved SEPIC dc-dc converter
 Interleaved
Buck-Boost
dc-dc
converter
24
TIDA-01168 reference design of Texas Instruments
 12V to 48V dc-dc bidirectional converter. Max. power is1968 W

 Vout=48V, Iout(max)= 41 A,  41/4=10.25A per converter
 Vin= 6-18V, Iin=328A for full load (assumed 100% eff.)
328/4=82A per converter.
25

Power Vize Öncesi

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Vize Öncesi

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Vize Öncesi

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction

EE328 Power Electronics

Recommended Course Books

“Power Electronics”  “Power Electronics Circuits,

Course web page

 University licence for MATLAB

 Free software: LTSpice SPICE circuit

 Install these softwares into your computer.

Design project of 2023

Course score 100%

Interdisciplinary nature of power electronics

power supply, Notebook chargers, Computer power supply,

Worlds smallest power converter, Murata Inc.

Microprocessor voltage regulator

Electric cars and its chargers

VESTEL 22 KW AC CHARGER INSTALLED IN

AC input DC output DC input AC output

Half wave, full wave Inverters, UPS, Electric Vehicle

DC input DC output AC input AC output

Voltage regulator, power

Generally power flows Power can flow in both ways

Power flow Forward

Inverter operation: The power

Source: "Power Electronics – Quo Vadis",

Power conversion concept (1/3)

 Problem 1 (regulation): Load voltage vary if

 Problem 2 : Low efficiency (33.3%).

 Method #2: Pass transistor

Power absorbed by the

Power conversion concept (3/3)

Output voltage regulation:

 The IGBT is a minority carrier device and have storage delays.

Wide Band-gap Materials:

1900 1957 Mid 1970s Late 1980s Early 2000s

Pre-history 1st phase 2nd phase 3rd phase 4th phase

Intelligent Power Modules (IPMs)

Notebook mainboard cooling

 An example to emphasize the importance of S.F..

 For all waveforms, we should

– RMS current & average current

 If the value of any electrical quantity vary with time periodically, it is

Average value is zero for an AC signal.

 This equation is valid for any device

EE328 Power Electronics, Prof.Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2023 4

Active sign convention

Only difference between the conventions are

EE328 Power Electronics, Prof.Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2023 5

Active sign convention Passive sign convention

EE328 Power Electronics, Prof.Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2023 6

a) Determine the instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by the device.

EE328 Power Electronics, Prof.Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2023 7

EE328 Power Electronics, Prof.Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2023 8

c) The average power is determined as follows;

EE328 Power Electronics, Prof.Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2023 9

Average Power of DC voltage source

 Bringing the constant Vdc outside of the integral gives

Therefore, average power absorbed by a dc voltage source is

 The average power delivered by this voltage source can be found as