I PU PHYSICS

LABORATORY MANUAL
&
OBSERVATION BOOK

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

1
 CONTENTS
Sl Experiment name Page
no
no
1 Vernier calipers 4-15
2 Screw gauge 16-23
3 Spherometer 24-27
4 Spring constant 28-29
5 Resonance column 30-31
6 Parallelogram law of vector addition 32-33
7 sonometer 34-37
8 Limiting friction 38-39
9 Rolling friction 40-41
10 Simple pendulum 42-45
11 Newton’s law cooling 46-47
12 Physical balance 48-49
13 viscosity 50-51
14 Surface tension 52-53
15 Young’s modulus 54-57
16 Boyle’s law 58-59
17 Specific heat capacity 60-63

2
 I PUC PRACTICAL EXAMINATION
PHYSICS (33)
General instructions:
  Duration of practical examination: 2 hours. 
 Maximum marks allotted: 30 marks. 

 At least TEN (10) different experiments have to be set in the practical
Examination. 

Scheme of Evaluation
A. Weightage of marks
Sl. No. Particulars Marks
I Performing the Experiment 20
II Viva - Voce 04
III Practical Record 06
TOTAL 30

B. Distribution of marks
I. Performing the Experiment

Sl. No. Particulars Marks

1 Writing the principle of the experiment 2
2 Writing the formula and explaining the terms 2
Writing the diagram / figure / circuit with labeling
3 2
(At least two parts)
4 Writing the tabular column/ observation pattern 2
5 Constructing the experimental set up/ circuit 3
Performing the experiment and entering the readings
6 4
into the tabular column / Observation pattern
Substitution and calculation/plotting the graph and
7 3
calculation
8 Result with unit 2
Total 20
NOTE FOR SL.NO. 6:
  At least three (3) trials have to be taken in case of finding mean value. 
 At least six (6) readings have to be taken in case of plotting the graph. 

3
Diagram:

To find the least count(L.C ) of the given Vernier Calipers:

On the main scale, 1cm = 10 main scale divisions ( MSDs)

i.e, 1cm = 10 MSDs

or 10 MSDs = 1cm
1
∴ 1 MSD = 10 cm = 0.1 cm

Total number of vernier scale divisions (VSDs) = 10

Least count of the vernier calipers

1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
LC = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝐷𝑠

0.1 𝑐𝑚
= 10
= 0.01 cm

L.C =0 .01 cm

4
EXPERIMENT NO: 1 (a) DATE:

VERNIER CALIPERS

Aim: To determine the diameter of the given spherical bob.

Apparatus: Vernier Calipers, Spherical bob etc

Principle: The distance travelled by the moving jaw of the calipers is equal to the distance over which
the zero of the Vernier moves

Formula: The diameter of the given spherical bob,

D = MSR + (CVD ×L.C) cm

Where ,

MSR is main scale reading

CVD is coinciding vernier scale division
LC is the least count of the vernier

Procedure:
1. Least count (LC) of the vernier Calipers is determined.
2. The given spherical bob is placed between the lower jaws of the calipers.
3. Main scale reading (MSR) and coinciding Vernier scale division (CVD) are noted.
4. The diameter ‘D’ of the given spherical bob is calculated by using the formula.
5. The experiment is repeated for different positions of the bob.
6. The readings are entered in the tabular column as shown.
7. The average diameter of the bob is calculated.

5
Observation:

Trial no 1: Diameter, D = MSR+(CVD × LC) cm

Trial no 2: Diameter, D = MSR+(CVD × LC) cm

Trial no 3: Diameter, D = MSR+(CVD × LC) cm

Tabular column

L.C= 0.01 cm

Trial no MSR in cm CVD Diameter ‘D’ in cm

Mean, diameter , D =……………….cm

6
Result: The average diameter of the bob is D = …………………..cm= …………………m

7
Diagram

To find the least count of the vernier:

On the main scale, 1 cm = 10 MSDs
i.e, 1cm = 10 MSDs
or 10 MSDs = 1cm
1
∴ 1 MSD = 10 cm = 0.1 cm
Total number of vernier scale divisions (VSDs) = 10
Least count of the vernier calipers
1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
LC =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝐷𝑠
0.1 𝑐𝑚
= 10
= 0.01 cm
L.C =0 .01 cm
Observations:
To find the length ‘l’ of the slab
Trial no1:
length , l = MSR + (CVD ×LC) cm
=
=

Trial no2:
length , l = MSR + (CVD ×LC) cm
=
=

To find the breadth ‘b’ of the slab

Trial no1:
Breadth, b = MSR + (CVD ×LC) cm
=
=
8
EXPERIMENT NO: 1 (b) DATE:

VERNIER CALIPERS

Aim: To determine the density of the materials of the given slab

Apparatus: vernier calipers , the given glass slab etc.,

Principle: The distance travelled by the moving jaws of the calipers is equal to the distance over which
the zero of the vernier moves .
Formula:
The Density of the materials of the given slab,
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎
𝝆 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒍 𝒃 𝒉 kg/m3
Where,
m is mass
l is length
b is breadth and
h is height of the slab.

Procedure:
1. Least count of the vernier calipers is determined.
2. The length ‘l’, the breadth ‘b’, and height ‘h’ of the slab are determined by using the vernier
calipers.
3. The density ‘ 𝜌’ of the material of the slab is calculated by using the formula.

9
Trial no2:
Breadth, b = MSR + (CVD ×LC) cm
=
=

To find the height ‘h’ of the slab

Trial no1:
Height, h = MSR + (CVD ×LC) cm
=
=
Trial no2:
Height, h = MSR + (CVD ×LC) cm
=
=
Tabular column:

Dimension Trial MSR in cm CVD Dimension in cm Mean value in cm

no

Length (l) 1
l=
2

Breadth (b) 1
b=
2

Height (h) 1
h=
2

Length , l = …………………cm = ……………………….m

Breadth , b = …………………cm =………………………m

Height , h =…………………….cm =……………………….m

Calculations :

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
𝜌= = kg/m3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑏ℎ

=
10
Result: The density of the material of the given slab is ‘ 𝜌′ = kg/m3

11
Diagram :

Observations:
To find the internal diameter (D)
Trial no1:
Diameter , D = MSR + (CVD ×LC) cm
=
=

Trial no2:
Diameter , D= MSR + (CVD ×LC) cm
=
=

To find the internal depth (h)

Trial no1:
Internal depth, h = MSR + (CVD ×LC) cm
=
=

Trial no2:
Internal depth, h = MSR + (CVD ×LC) cm
=
12
EXPERIMENT NO: 1 (c) DATE:

VERNIER CALIPERS

Aim: To determine the internal volume of the given calorimeter.

Apparatus: vernier calipers, the given calorimeter, etc

Principle: The distance travelled by the moving jaws of the calipers is equal to the distance over which
The zero of the vernier moves .

Formula: The internal volume of the given calorimeter,

𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝒉 m3
V= 𝟒

Where,
D is the internal diameter and
H is the internal depth of the calorimeter.
Procedure :
1. The least count of the vernier calipers is determined.
2. The internal diameter of the calorimeter is determined by using upper jaws of the
calipers.
3. The depth of the calorimeter is determined by using movable jaw of the calipers.
4. The volume of the calorimeter is calculated by using the formula.

13
Tabular column:
Dimension Trial no MSR in cm CVD Dimension in cm Mean in cm

Internal 1
diameter(D) D=
2
Internal depth 1
(h) h=
2

Internal Diameter, D =…………………cm = ………………………….m

Internal depth, h = ……………………..cm =…………………………..m

Calculation:
Internal volume of the given calorimeter,

𝜋𝐷2 ℎ
m3
=V =
4
=
=

14
Result : The internal volume of the given calorimeter is V= ……………………….m3

15
Diagram:

To find zero error (ZE), Pitch, and Least count (L.C) of the screw gauge

Zero error, ZE = CSDs

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
Pitch = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝟓𝒎𝒎
= =1mm
𝟓

Pitch = 1mm

𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
Least count = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒐 .𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝑺𝑫𝒔

1𝑚𝑚
= 100
= 0.01 mm

L.C = 0.01 mm

16
EXPERIMENT NO: 2 (a) DATE:

SCREW GAUGE

Aim: To determine the diameter of the given wire

Apparatus: screw gauge, the given wire etc

Principle: It works on the principle of a screw. The linear distance covered by the screw is directly
proportional to rotations given to it. The distance travelled by the screw for one complete rotation is
called pitch of the screw.

Formula:

Diameter, d = LSR +[ ( CCSD - ZE ) L.C] mm

Where,

LSR is linear scale reading

CCSD is coinciding circular scale division
ZE is Zero Error and
LC is least count of Screw gauge.
Procedure:

1. Zero error, pitch, and least count of the given screw gauge are formed.
2. The given wire is placed between the screw and the stand. The screw head is rotated till the
wire is held tightly and the sound heard.
3. The linear scale reading (LSR) and the coinciding circular scale division (CCSD) are noted.
4. The value of the diameter (d)of the wire is calculated by using the formula.
5. The experiment is repeated to find the diameter of the wire at its different positions.
6. The readings are entered in a tabular column as shown.
7. The mean value of the diameter of the wire is calculated.

17
Observations:

Trial no 1: diameter, d = LSR +( CCSD –ZE ) L.C mm

Trial no 2: diameter, d = LSR +( CCSD –ZE ) L.C mm

Trial no 3: diameter, d = LSR +( CCSD –ZE ) L.C mm

Tabular column:

ZE = CSDs L.C= 0.01 mm

Trial no LSR in mm CCSD Diameter ‘d’ in mm

Average diameter, d = ………………………………..mm

d = ……………………………..m

18
Result: The diameter of the given wire is , d = …………………mm =…………………………..m

19
Observations:

Trial no 1: thickness, t = LSR +( CCSD –ZE ) L.C mm

Trial no 2: thickness, t = LSR +( CCSD –ZE ) L.C mm

Trial no 2: thickness, t = LSR +( CCSD –ZE ) L.C mm

Tabular column:

ZE = CSDs L.C= 0.01 mm

Trial no LSR in mm CCSD Thickness ‘t’ in mm

Average thickness, t = ………………………………..mm

t = ……………………………..m

20
EXPERIMENT NO: 2 (b) DATE:

SCREW GAUGE

Aim : To determine the thickness of the given sheet.

Apparatus : screw gauge , the given wire etc

Principle : It works on the principle of a screw. The linear distance covered by the screw is directly
proportional to rotations given to it. The distance travelled by the screw for one complete rotation is
called pitch of the screw.

Formula :

Thickness of the sheet, t = LSR +[ ( CCSD - ZE ) L.C] mm

Where,
LSR is linear scale reading
CCSD is coinciding circular scale division
ZE is Zero Error and
LC is least count of Screw gauge.
Procedure :

1. Zero error , pitch, and least count of the given screw gauge are formed.
2. The given thin sheet is placed between the screw and the stand. The screw head is rotated till
the wire is held tightly and the sound heard.
3. The linear scale reading (LSR) and the coinciding circular scale division (CCSD) are noted.
4. The value of the thickness (t) of the sheet is calculated by using the formula.
5. The experiment is repeated to find the thickness of the given sheet at its different positions.
6. The readings are entered in a tabular column as shown.
7. The mean value of the thickness of the sheet is calculated.

Result: The thickness of the given sheet, t =

21
Observations:
Trial no 1: thickness, t = LSR +( CCSD –ZE ) L.C mm
=
=
Trial no 2: thickness, t = LSR +( CCSD –ZE ) L.C mm
=
=

Trial no 2: thickness, t = LSR +( CCSD –ZE ) L.C mm

=
=
Tabular column:

ZE = CSDs L.C= 0.01 mm

Trial no LSR in mm CCSD Thickness ‘t’ in mm

Average thickness, t = ………………………………..mm

t = ……………………………..m

To find the area ‘A’ of the lamina

Area, A = mm2

Calculations:

The Volume of the Lamina,

V= t×A mm3
3
= mm mm3

V= mm3

22
EXPERIMENT NO: 2 (c) DATE:

SCREW GAUGE

Aim: To determine the volume of the given irregular lamina.

Apparatus: screw gauge, the irregular lamina etc

Principle: It works on the principle of a screw. The linear distance covered by the screw is directly
proportional to rotations given to it. The distance travelled by the screw for one complete rotation is
called pitch of the screw.

Formula:

1. Thickness of the lamina , t = LSR +[ ( CCSD - ZE ) L.C] mm

Where,
LSR is linear scale reading
CCSD is coinciding circular scale division
ZE is Zero Error and
LC is least count of Screw gauge.
2. Volume of the lamina,
V = thickness × Area mm3
V = t × A mm3

Where,
t =thickness of the given lamina
A =Area of the given lamina
Procedure:

1. Zero error , pitch, and least count of the given screw gauge are formed.
2. The given irregular lamina is placed between the screw and the stand. The screw head is rotated
till the wire is held tightly and the sound heard.
3. The linear scale reading (LSR) and the coinciding circular scale division (CCSD) are noted.
4. The value of the thickness (t) of the sheet is calculated by using the formula.
5. The experiment is repeated to find the thickness of the given lamina at its different positions.
6. The readings are entered in a tabular column as shown.
7. The mean value of the thickness of the lamina is calculated.

Result: The volume of the given irregular lamina, V = ………………………..m3

23
Diagram:

To calculate the pitch and the least count (L.C) of the Spherometer
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
Pitch =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝟓𝒎𝒎
= 𝟓
=1mm

Pitch = 1mm

𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
Least count = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒐 .𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝑺𝑫𝒔

1𝑚𝑚
= 100
= 0.01 mm

L.C = 0.01 mm

Observations:

I. To find ‘h’

With horizontal plane surface

Trial no:1

h1 = PSR + (CCSD × L.C) mm

Trial no:2

h1 = PSR + (CCSD × L.C) mm

24
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3 DATE:

SPHEROMETER

Aim: To determine the radius of curvature of the given spherical surface by using a Spherometer.

Apparatus: The given Spherical surface, Spherometer etc.

Principle: Spherometer works on the principle of a micrometer screw. It is used to measure very small
Thickness or radius of curvature of a spherical surface.
Formula: The radius of curvature of the given spherical surface,

𝑙2 ℎ cm
r = 6ℎ + 2
where ,

l is the average distance between two legs of the Spherometer.

h is the height of the central screw above the plane surface.

Procedure:

1. The pitch and the least count of the Spherometer are found.
2. The Spherometer is placed on a horizontal plane surface and the circular scale is rotated such
that the top of the screw and the three legs of the Spherometer just touch the surface.
3. The pitch scale reading (PSR) and the coinciding circular scale division (CCSD) are noted and the
value of h1 is calculated.
4. The experiment is repeated for the given spherical surface and the value of h2 is calculated.
5. The readings are entered in a tabular column as shown.
6. The value of ‘h’ is calculated by using the formula . h = h2 –h1.
7. The distance between the three pairs of the are measured and their average value ‘l’ is
calculated.
8. The radius of curvature ‘r’ of the given spherical surface is calculated by using the formula.

25
With the spherical surface

Trial no:1
h2 = PSR + (CCSD × L.C) mm
=
=
Trial no:2
h2 = PSR + (CCSD × L.C) mm
=
=
Tabular column

Trial Reading in Mean value in

Surface PSR in mm CCSD
no mm mm

Horizontal 1 h1 =
surface
2 h1 = h1 =

Spherical 1 h2 =
surface
2 h2= h2 =

h= h2 - h1 =

h =………………………….m

I. To find ‘l’
1cm = 10 mm
AB = ……………cm, BC = ………………………..cm, CA =………………..cm
𝐴𝐵+𝐵𝐶+𝐶𝐴
𝑙=
3

l = …………………..m

Calculation:

The radius of curvature of the given spherical surface is

𝑙2 ℎ
r= + m
6ℎ 2

26
Result: The radius of curvature of the given spherical surface is ‘r’ = m

27
Diagram :

Tabular column

Trial Load ‘m’ in Time for 20 oscillations ‘t’ in Period of oscillation T2 in s2

no kg seconds 𝒕
T = in s
𝟐𝟎

1
2
3
4
5

From the graph

𝑇22 − 𝑇12 𝐵𝐶 𝑠2
( ) = slope = = ……………………………..
𝑚2 −𝑚1 𝐷𝐶 𝑘𝑔

Calculations:

The spring constant of the given spring ,

4𝜋2 ( 𝑚2 −𝑚1 ) 4𝜋2

K= = =
𝑇22 − 𝑇12 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

From the graph

The effective mass of the spring,

m0 = magnitude of the x – intercept

= |𝑂𝐴| =
28
EXPERIMENT NO: 4 DATE:

SPRING COSTANT
Aim: To find the spring constant and the effective mass of the helical spring by plotting “ T2 versus m”

graph by using the method of oscillations

Apparatus: Helical spring, clamp stand, weight hanger, stop clock, and heights.

Principle: within elastic limit, the extension in the string is directly proportional to the load applied.

Formula: The spring constant of the spring is given by

4𝜋2 ( 𝑚2 −𝑚1 ) 4𝜋2
K= = N/m
𝑇22 − 𝑇12 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

Where T1 and T2 are the periods of oscillations for the loads m1 and m2 respectively.

Procedure:

1. The given spring is suspended from a rigid support as shown in figure

2. A weight of some gram is added to the hanger and the spring in made to oscillate along a
vertical direction.
3. The time‘t’ for 20 oscillations is noted.
𝑡
4. The period ‘T’ of oscillations is calculated by using the formula T = 20
5. The experiment is repeated to find ‘T’ for different loads.
6. The reading is entered in a tabular column as shown.
7. A graph of T2 versus the load ‘m’ is plotted and the slope of the graph is calculated.
8. The spring constant of the given spring is calculated by using the formula.
9. The effective mass, m0 of the spring equal to the absolute value of X- intercept of the T2 Vs m0
graph is calculated.

Result:

1. The spring constant of the given spring, K = N/m

2. The effective mass of the spring, m0 = kg

29
Diagram:

Observation:

With first tuning fork

Frequency, f1 = ………………………..Hz
First resonating length, l1 = ……………….cm= m
Second resonating length, l2 = ……………cm = m
Velocity of sound in air
V = 2f1 ( l2 – l1) m/s
=
=
With second tuning fork
Frequency, f1 = ………………………..Hz
First resonating length, l1 = ……………….cm = …………………..m
Second resonating length, l2 = ……………cm = ………………….m
Velocity of sound in air

V = 2f1 ( l2 – l1) m/s

Tabular column:

Trial no Frequency of tuning First resonating Second resonating Velocity of sound in air
fork ‘f’ in Hz length ‘l1’ in m length ‘l2’ in m V= 2f (l2 – l1) in m/ s

1 f1 =

2 f2 =

30
EXPERIMENT NO: 5 DATE:

Resonance column
Aim : To determine the velocity of sound in air at room temperature by using resonance tube.

Apparatus : Resonance column apparatus , tuning forks of known frequencies, rubber pad,

thermometer, stand , water in a tube etc

Principle: when an excited tuning fork is placed at the open end of the pipe air column inside the pipe

vibrates . When the natural frequency of the air column matches the frequency of the tuning

fork, stationary waves are formed and the air column vibrates with maximum amplitude ( and

maximum sound is heard ). This is known as resonance.

Formula : Velocity of sound in air at room temperature,

V= 2 f (l2 –l1) m/s

Where, ‘ f’ is the frequency of the tuning fork

‘l1’ is the first resonating length

‘l2’ is the second resonating length

Procedure :

1. A resonance tube (open at its both ends) held vertically and immersed in water in a tube such
that its upper end is almost at level of the surface of water in the tube.
2. An excited tuning fork of known frequency f1, is brought near the upper open end of the
resonance tube and the height of the resonance tube is gradually raised until the maximum
sound is heard. The first resonating length ‘l1’ of the air column in the resonance tube is
measured.
3. The height of the resonance tube is raised further until maximum sound is heard once again.
The second resonating length ‘l2’ of the air column is measured.
4. The velocity of sound in air at room temperature is calculated by using the formula.
5. The experiment is repeated with some other tuning fork of frequency f2.
6. The readings are entered in a tabular column as shown.

Result : Average velocity of sound in air at temperature ………………………..0C is v = ……………………….m/s

31
Diagram:

Scale of lengths OA, OB, and OC per cm

S = …………………………….g/cm

Tabular column:

Trial Force ‘P’ Length Force ‘Q’ in Length Length Unknown

no in g. wt 𝑃 g. wt 𝑄 OC = L in weight
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑆 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑆 in cm
in cm cm W = L.S in
g. wt

Mean, W = ………………………………….g. wt

32
EXPERIMENT NO: 6 DATE:

Parallelogram law of vector addition

Aim: To determine the weight of the given body by using parallelogram of vector addition.

Apparatus: Grave sand’s apparatus, thread , slotted weights, white sheet of paper , etc

Principle: The principle of the experiment is the law of parallelogram of vector addition. It states that if
two forces acting at a point simultaneously are represented both in magnitude and direction by two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram then their resultant can be represented both in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.

Procedure:

1. A sheet of white paper is fixed to the board by using drawing pins.

2. One end of each of the three threads ①, ②and ③ are tied together to form a knot at point
‘O’ at the free end of the thread ①, after passing over the pulley P1, a load P is attached.
Similarly, at the free end of the thread ②, after passing over the pulley P2, a suitable load ‘Q’ is
attached. The given object whose weight ‘W’ is to be determined, is attached at the free end of
the thread ③ as shown in the diagram.
3. In the equilibrium of the three forces P, Q and W , the position of the knot ‘O’, a point A along
OP, a point B1 along OP2, and a point C1 along OW , are marked by a pen.
4. The sheet of white paper is taken out from the board.
5. The lines OA1 , OB1, and OC1 are drawn.
6. Point ‘A’ along OA, such that OA is proportional to load ‘P’ and points ‘B’ along OB1 such that OB
is proportional to load Q are marked.
7. A parallelogram OACB is constructed.
8. The weight ‘W’ of the given object, which is proportional to the diagonal ‘OC’ of the
parallelogram OACB is calculated.

Result: The weight of the given object is, W = g. wt

33
Diagram :

Tabular column (1) :

a) Variation of ‘l’ with ‘n’ at constant ‘T’.

Tension, T = M.g = ……………………………N =……………………………….N

Trial no Frequency ( n) in Hz Resonating 𝟏 ( n.l ) in Hz.m

( 𝒍 ) in m -1
length ( l ) in m
1
2
3
4
5

34
EXPERIMENT NO: 7 DATE:

Sonometer
Aim:

a) To study the relation between frequency and length of a wire under constant tension.
b) To study the relation between the length of a wire and tension for constant frequency using
sonometer.

Apparatus: Sonometer, tuning fork, movable bridges, hanger, weights, rubber pad, paper rider etc.

Principle:

A) The natural frequency of vibrations of a string is inversely proportional to vibrating length of the
string.
1
i.e n ∝ 𝑙
B) Resonance is observed when the natural frequency of the string is equal to the applied frequency.
C) The vibrations for fixed frequency , the tension is directly proportional to the square of the
resonating length.
i.e T ∝ 𝑙 2 .

Procedure :

a) Variation of frequency with length

1. With some known weights in the hanger , the sonometer is set as shown in the diagram.
2. An excited tuning fork of known frequency ‘n’ is placed on the sonometer board and the
distance between knife edges A and B is adjusted until the wire segment vibrated vigorously
and the paper rider flow off –which showed the resonance.
3. The resonating length l = distance between the knife edges is measured.
4. The experiment is repeated to measure the resonating length ‘l’ for tuning forks of different
frequencies, at constant tension(T).
5. The readings are entered in tabular column(1) as shown.
1
6. A graph of ( ) versus frequency (n) is plotted.
𝑙

35
Tabular column (2):

( b ) variation of ‘l’ with ‘T ‘ at constant ‘n’.

Trial no Tension Resonating length ( l 2) in m2 𝑻

( 𝒍𝟐 ) in N / m 2
T= Mg in N (l) in m

36
 b) Variation of resonating length ( l ) with tension ( T ) at constant frequency

1. A tuning fork of known frequency is selected with load, say 0.5 kg , the resonating length ‘l’ is
determined.
2. With the same tuning fork ( i.e , at constant frequency) , the resonating length ‘l’ is
determined for different loads, by increasing the load each time by 0.5 kg.
3. The readings are entered in tabular column (2).
4. A graph of l2 versus tension ‘T’ is plotted.

Result:
1
1. The graph of ( 𝑙 ) versus n, at a constant tension T , is a straight line
1
i.e n ∝ 𝑙
, at constant ‘T’
2. The graph of l2 versus T , at a constant n, is a straight line
i.e T ∝ 𝑙 2 , at constant ‘ n’

37
DIAGRAM:

GRAPH:

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Mass of the scale pan (m)=______kg

2. Mass of the wooden block(M)=______kg
3. Acceleration due to gravity (g)= 9.8 ms-2

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl Mass on Normal force Mass Force of Coefficient Mean

no. the due to mass on the limiting friction of friction, 𝝁𝑳
wooden (M+p)g in ‘N’ pan FL=(m+q)g ‘N’ 𝑭𝑳
𝝁𝑳 =
block (q) in g 𝑹
(p) in g
1

CALCULATION:

38
EXPERIMENT NO : 8 DATE:

LIMITING FRICTION

AIM: a) To study the relation between limiting friction and the normal reaction.

b) To find the coefficient of limiting between block and horizontal surface.

APPARATUS: Wooden block, a scale pan, thread, weight box, a horizontal plane.

PRINCIPLE: For two planes solid surfaces in contact the limiting friction is directly
Proportional to normal reaction which is given by the total weight of the
Body.
𝐹𝑙 ∝ 𝑅
𝐹𝐿 = 𝜇𝐿 𝑅

FORMULA: 𝑭𝑳
𝝁L= 𝑹
Where,
FL- limiting friction
R – Reaction force
𝜇𝐿 - Coefficient of friction
PROCEDURE:
1. Weigh the wooden block and the scale pan.
2. Tie a thread to one end of the wooden block and other end of the scale pan.
3. Place the wooden block on the horizontal plane and pass the thread over the pulley as
shown in the figure.
4. Put some mass(𝒒) in the pan. Tap the table and check for the sliding motion of the
block.
5. Increase the weights in steps and check for the same.
6. Put some mass (𝒑)on the block and adjust the mass in the pan till the block slides on
taping.
7. Repeat the step 6 for three trials and note down the values in the table.
8. Plot a graph of 𝑭𝑳 𝒗/𝒔 𝑹 to find the value of µ𝑳 graphically.

RESULT: The coefficient of limiting friction between the surface and the wooden block is found
to be
i) By calculation = 𝜇𝐿 =
ii) By graph = 𝜇𝐿 =

39
DIAGRAM:

Experimental set up of rolling friction.

GRAPH:

Observation:
Mass of the scale pan, m2 =
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8m/s2

TABULAR COLUMN:

Trial no 𝜽 Sin 𝜽 Mass added to Force W=(m2+m3) g

pan m3 in N
1 250

2 300
3 350
4 400
5 450

CALCULATION:

40
EXPERIMENT NO : 9 DATE:
ROLLING FRICTON

AIM: a) To find the downward force along an inclined plane acting on a roller due to
gravity.

a) To study the relation of downward force with angle of inclination by plotting a graph
of force and sin 𝜃.

APPARATUS: An inclined plane with protractor and pulley, roller, weight box, pan, thread,
and spring balance.
PRINCIPLE: The downward force along an inclined plane acting on a roller is directly
proportional to sin 𝜃.
i.e. 𝑊 ∝ sin 𝜃
𝑊 = 𝑚1 𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝑓𝑟

FORMULA: Force W=(m2+m3) g N

where,
W – downward force
m2 -Mass of the scale pan
m3 - Mass added to pan
g - acceleration due to gravity
PROCEDURE:

1. Test the pulley of the inclined plane and see that it is frictionless. Oil it, if necessary.
2. Arrange the inclined plane (30°), roller and the masses as shown in the figure.
3. Adjust the value of 𝑾 such that the roller stays at the top of the inclined plane at rest.
4. Start decreasing the masses in the pan until the roller just starts moving down with a
constant velocity.
5. Note the value of 𝜽 and the weight 𝑾 in the pan.
6. Repeat the steps 3, 4, 5 for different values of 𝜽. Record the observations n the tabular
column.
7. Plot a graph of force (𝑾) along y-axis and𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽x-axis which shows that they are
directly proportional.

RESULT: The downward force acting along a inclined plane is weight of the body is found to be
W= N

41
Diagram:

Tabular column :

Trial No Length of the Pendulum Time for 20 Period T2 in s2

oscillations (t) in s T = t/20 in s

42
EXPERIMENT NO: 10 DATE:

SIMPLE PENDULUM

Aim:

a) To determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) at the place and

b) To find the effective length of a second’s pendulum by plotting a graph of T2 versus L

Apparatus: A clamp stand, split cork, thread , bob , stop clock, meter scale etc.

Principle : The simple pendulum executes SHM as the acceleration is directly proportional to its
displacement from its mean position and is always directed towards the mean position.

Formula: The acceleration due to gravity at the place,

4𝜋2 𝐿 4𝜋2
g= = m/ s2
𝑇2 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

where, T is the period of oscillation of the pendulum corresponding to length L.

𝑇2
(𝐿 ) is the slope of the straight line graph of T2 verses L.

Procedure:
1. The experiment arrangement is made as shown in the diagram.
2. The length ‘L’ of the pendulum ( equal to the distance between the pivot point and the
centre of the bob) is adjusted to be equal to 80 cm.
3. Time ‘t’ for 20 oscillations is determined by using a stop clock. The corresponding period of
𝑡
oscillation ‘T’ is calculated by using the formula T = seconds.
20
4. The experiment is repeated to find the periods T for different lengths of the pendulum,
L = 90 cm, 100 cm , 110 cm , 120 cm.
5. The readings are entered in a tabular column as shown.
6. A graph of T2 verses L is plotted. The slope ( T2/L) of the straight line graph obtained is
calculated.
7. The acceleration due to gravity (g) at the place is calculated by using the formula.
8. From the graph of T2 versus L, the effective length L of second’s pendulum ( i.e T = 2 s and
T2 = 4 s2) is found.

43
Calculations:
𝑇2 𝐴𝐵 𝑠2
1) 𝐿
= slope = 𝐵𝐶 = ………………… 𝑚

2) The acceleration due to gravity (g) at the place is ,

4𝜋2 𝐿 4𝜋2
g= =
𝑇2 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
=
=

3) From the effective length ‘L’ of the second’s pendulum ( corresponding the T = 2 s and T2 = 4 s2 )
L = …………………………m

44
Result : 1) The acceleration due to gravity at the place, g =………………………m/s2
2) The effective length of second’s pendulum , L = ……………………….m

45
DIAGRAM:

GRAPH:

Observation:

Temperature of water in the enclosure,θ0 = 240c

Tabular column:

Time ‘t’ in min Temperature of hot Excess temperature Log10(θ – θ0)

water in θ0 c of hot water (θ – θ0)
0c

46
EXPERIMENT NO: 11 DATE:

NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

AIM: T o study the relation between temperature of a hot body and time by plotting a
Cooling curve.
APPARATUS: Newton’s law of cooling apparatus, two thermometers, clamp stand and stop
clock.
PRINCIPLE: The rate of cooling of a hot body is directly proportional to the difference between
the temperature of the hot body and that of its surrounding.
𝒅𝑸
 (𝜽 − 𝜽𝟎 )
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑸
= −𝑲(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟎 )
𝒅𝒕
PROCEDURE:

1. Fill the space between the double walls of the container with water insert a
thermometer in the container.
2. Place the calorimeter with hot water in the enclosure of the container along with a
stirrer and a lid.
3. Insert a thermometer 𝜽𝟎 in the calorimeter.
4. Note the initial temperatures in the thermometers 𝜽𝟎 and 𝜃
5. Keep on stirring the water and note down the temperatures in the thermometers
𝜽𝟎 and 𝜃for every 2℃ decrease in the temperature.
6. Find the value of 𝜽 − 𝜽𝟎 and 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟎 ) using log tables,
7. Plot a graph of 𝒕 along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟎 ) along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
8. Plot a graph of 𝒕 along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and (𝜽 − 𝜽𝟎 ) along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and interpret the graph.

RESULT:
Cooling curve is exponential decay curve and the graph between log(𝜃 − 𝜃0 )
and t is linear.

47
DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:

Mass of the first object:

Standard mass Mass of object Mean mass

Trial Gram weight,’ Milligrams X+Y in grams in grams
no X’ in grams weights, ‘Y’ in mg
1
2
3

Mass of the second object:

Standard mass Mass of object Mean mass
Trial Gram weight,’ Milligrams X+Y in grams in grams
no X’ in grams weights, ‘Y’ in mg
1

2
3

Calculation:

48
EXPERIMENT NO: 12 DATE:

PHYSICAL BALANCE

AIM: To determine the mass of two different objects using beam balance.
APPARATUS: Physical balance, weight box, forceps, spirit level, two objects.
PRINCIPLE:
Physical balance is based on the principle of moments.
When a body is in equilibrium,
The sum of clockwise moments =the sum of anticlockwise moments.
For a physical balance with both arms of equal lengths,
Weights on the left pan = weight of the standard masses in right pan
FORMULA: mass of the object, M = X+Y g
Where,
X- Gram weight
Y- Milligram weight
PROCEDURE:
Measurement of the object
1. Clean the pans of the physical balance.
2. Balance the physical balance by rotating the leveling screw and set the pillar.
3. Vertically by seeing the plumb line having vertically above the fixed mark.
4. Lift the beam gently up by using lever arrangement.
5. Check that the pointer should oscillate equally on both sides of the center of the scale.
6. Adjustment of the beam should be lowered by rotating the lever.
7. Place the body to be weighed in the left hand pan.
8. Add weights from the weight box in the right hand pan until the pointer moves equally
on the both sides of the center of the scale
9. Note the weights in the right hand pan and add them to find the mass of the body.
Repeat the steps 1 to 3 for finding the mass of the second object

RESULT:
Mass of the first object = _____ g
Mass of the second object = _____ g

49
DIAGRAM:

Forces acting on the

spherical body falling with Steel ball falling along the axis of the tube
terminal velocity. filled with viscous liquid

OBSERVATIONS:

Density of material of steel ball (𝝈) = Kgm-3

Density of the viscous liquid in the tube (𝝆) = Kgm-3
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 ms-2
TABULAR COLUMN:

Trial no Diameter of Radius of balls Time taken for Terminal velocity

spherical balls r= d/2 in m distance h= …..’m’ 𝒉
V= 𝟐
between rubber bands

CALCULATION:

50
EXPERIMENT NO: 13 DATE:

VISCOSITY

AIM: To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid by measuring the terminal velocity
of a spherical body.
APPARATUS: A graduated cylindrical glass jar, transparent viscous liquid, steel balls, screw
gauge, stop clock, clamp stand.
PRINCIPLE:
When a spherical ball falls freely in a viscous liquid with a terminal velocity ′𝑽′
then the sum of the upward buoyant force and the viscous force is balanced by
the downward weight of the ball.

2 𝑟2
FORMULA: 𝜂 = 9 𝑔(𝜎 − 𝜌) Nsm-2 (poise)
𝑣
Where,
𝜂- coefficient of viscosity
𝜎- Density of material of steel ball
𝜌 - Density of the viscous liquid in the tube
g- Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 ms-2

PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the glass jar with a transparent viscous fluid.
2. Mark two points 𝑨𝑩 on the jar such that𝑨𝑩 = 𝒙𝒄𝒎.
3. Take three steel balls of known diameters of different sizes.
4. Drop the balls gently and note the time taken by the balls to cross the points 𝑨and 𝑩.
5. Repeat the step 4 for the remaining balls.
6. Calculate the terminal velocity of the balls.
7. Calculate the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid using the formula.

RESULT:

The coefficient of viscosity of the given viscous liquid is ……. Nsm-2

51
DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of the microscope =_____mm

TABULAR COLUMN:
MEASUREMENT OF THE CAPILLARY RISE
Sl Reading of meniscus h1 in cm Reading of the tip of pin h = h1-h2
no touching the surface of water in cm
h2 in cm
M.S.R V.S.R h1=S1+(nxLC) M.S.R V.S.R h2=S2+(nxLC)
S1 (cm) n in cm S2 n in cm
(cm)

MEASURE OF THE DIAMETER OF THE CAPILLARY TUBE:

Sl Reading along the Diameter Reading along Diameter Mean

no. diameter in cm d1=(x2-x1) in perpendicular d2=(y2-y1) in diameter
cm diameter in cm cm D=d1+d2/2
One end Other One Other
X1 end end end
X2 y1 y2

CALCULATION:

52
EXPERIMENT NO: 14 DATE:

SURFACE TENSION

AIM: To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.

APPARATUS: Capillary tube, travelling microscope, beaker, and cork with pins, clamp and
stand, Water.
PRINCIPLE:
When a liquid rises in a capillary tube, the weight of the column of the liquid of
density 𝜌below the meniscus is supported by the points of contact.
FORMULA:
𝒉𝝆𝒈𝒓
Surface tension is given by 𝑻 = N
𝟐
where,
𝒉 −Height of the liquid column
𝒈 −Acceleration due to gravity
𝒓 −Inner radius of the capillary tube
PROCEDURE:
1. Least count of the travelling microscope is found.
2. A clean and dry capillary tube is dipped in a beaker of water as shown in the figure such
that its lower end is dipped.
3. Place a pin such that its tip just touches the water surface.
4. Focus the microscope on the meniscus of water such that the horizontal wire of the
cross mark is tangential to the meniscus. Note down the reading.
5. Remove the capillary tube from the beaker without disturbing the arrangement and
focus the microscope to the pin. Note down the reading.
6. Place the capillary tube horizontally and take the readings to measure the inner
diameter of the tube.
7. Calculate the surface tension using the given formula.

RESULT: surface tension of water is found to be T= ………………N

53
DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:
Length of the wire (L) = …….
Least count (L.C) of screw gauge =…….
Zero error of screw gauge = ……

TABULAR COLUMN:
Measurement of diameter of wire:
Trial Reading along perpendicular Mean
no Reading along any direction direction diameter
𝒅𝟏 +𝒅𝟐
d= 𝟐

cm

Main Circular Diameter Main Circular Diameter

scale scale d1=S+(n×L.C) scale scale d2=S+(n×L.C)
reading reading reading reading
‘S’ (cm) ‘n’ ‘S’ (cm) ‘n’
1

mean radius =--------

Measurement of extension:
Pitch of the micro meter screw =
No.of divisions on the circular scale =
Least count (L.C ) to the micrometer screw =
Acceleration due to gravity, g =

54
EXPERIMENT NO: 15 DATE:
YOUNG’S MODULUS

AIM: To determine the young’s modulus of the material of the given wire by using
Searle’s apparatus.
APPARATUS: Searle’s apparatus, slotted weights, screw gauge, two identical wires of same
materials.
PRINCPLE: The apparatus work on the principle of Hooke’s law i.e. within elastic limit, the
extension in the length of the wire is directly proportional to the load acting on
it.
FORMULA:
𝑴𝒈𝑳
Y = 𝟐 Nm-2
𝝅𝒓 𝒍
where, L- length of the wire
l- extension in the wire
r- radius of the wire
M-mass of the wire
g- acceleration due to gravity
PROCEDURE:
1. Suspend the Searle’s apparatus by two identical wires of same material attached to a rigid
support. where, A - reference wire, B – experimental wire.
2. Initially suspend some weights from both the hooks to remove the kinks.
3. After sometime remove the weights and measure the length of the experimental wire (L)
from the fixed point.
4. Determine the least count and pitch of the screw gauge and find the diameter of the
experimental wire.
5. Determine the least count and pitch of the micrometer screw of the frame. Adjust it to
bring the bubble of the spirit level to the center.
6. Place a load (0.5kg) on the hanger of the experimental wire and bring the bubble to the
center using micrometer screw. Note down the reading
7. Repeat the step 6 by increasing the load in steps of 0.5kg up to 3kg.
8. Decrease the load in steps of 0.5kg and note down the reading on micrometer screw as in
step 6.

55
 Measurement of extension with load :

Trial no Load on Micrometer reading Mean reading

experimental 𝑿+𝒀
in cm
𝟐
wire
Load Load
M in kg
increasing ‘X’ decreasing ‘Y’
in cm in cm
1 0.5 a=
2 1.0 b=
3 1.5 c=
4 2.0 d=
5 2.5 e=

CALCULATON:

Calculating extension for a given load:

Trial no Mean extension Load in kg Mean extension Extension for 1.5 kg

in cm
d-a

e-b

(𝑎−𝑑)+(𝑏−𝑐)
Mean l= 2
= ………….cm for 1.5 kg

CALCULATION:

56
RESULT: The young’s modulus of the material of the given wire ---------

57
DIAGRAM:

GRAPH:

OBSERVATIONS:
Room temperature =_____℃
Atmosphere pressure, H =_____cm of Hg
Diameter of the tube AB=d =_____cm
R =_____cm.

58
EXPERIMENT NO: 16 DATE:

BOYLE’S LAW

AIM: To study the variation in volume (V) with pressure (P) for a sample of air at constant
temperature by plotting graphs between (P) v/s (V) and between (P) v/s (1/V).
APPARATUS: Boyle’s law apparatus, for tin’s barometer, thermometer.
PRINCIPLE: At constant temperature, the pressure exerted by an enclosed mass of gas is
inversely proportional to its volume.
i.e. P α 1/V
PV= constant

PROCEDURE:
1. Note the atmospheric pressure using Fortin’s barometer. Note the room temperature
using a thermometer.
2. Set the apparatus vertically as shown in the figure.
3. Determine the diameter of the closed tube AB and hence find ‘r’.
4. Slide the tube CD to bring the mercury level same as in AB.
5. Note the values of X and A and measure the length l=XA.
6. Calculate the volume of the enclosed gas in the tube using the formula.
𝐫
𝐕=𝐥−
𝟑
7. Move the tube CD such that the mercury levels in AB and CD is different.
8. Note the values of X and Y in the tubes AB and CD. Measure the difference h in the
mercury level.
9. Repeat the adjustment of CD for 5 more values of h and note the observations in the
table.

RESULT: The variation in volume (V) with pressure (P) for a sample of air at constant
temperature by plotting graphs between (P) v/s (V) and between (P) v/s (1/V).

59
 OBSERVATION:
Mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer m1 = ___ kg.
Mass of the calorimeter with water m 2 =___ kg.
Mass of solid m 3 =___ kg.
Temperature of water in the calorimeter t1 = ___ ℃.
Temperature of the solid in boiling water t 2 =___ ℃
Temperature of the mixture t 3 = ___ ℃
Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter s1 = ___ Jkg −1 /℃.
Specific heat capacity of water s0 =___ Jkg −1 /℃.

CALCULATIONS:
Mass of the liquid in calorimeter (m2-m1) = ………….kg
Change in temperature of the liquid and calorimeter (t3-t1) = ……….C
Change in temperature of solid (t2-t3 ) = ……….C
Heat given by solid in cooling from t2 to t3 =

60
EXPERIMENT NO: 17 DATE:

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

AIM: To determine the specific heat capacity of a given solid liquid by the method of
mixtures.
APPARATUS: Copper calorimeter with lid, stirrer, insulating cover, solid, liquid, two beakers,
physical balance, two thermometers, heating device.
PRINCIPLE:
For a calorimeter: If two bodies at different temperature are brought in contact, the
amount of heat lost by the body at higher temperature is equal to the amount of
heat gained by the body at lower temperature.
For a given body: Amount of heat (Q) lost/gained is given by
∆Q = ms∆t
Where,
m- Mass of the body
s- Specific heat
∆t- Change in temperature.
FORMULA:
(𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏 )𝒔(𝒕𝟐− 𝒕𝟏) +𝒎𝟏 𝒔𝟏 (𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏)
a) For a solid: S0= = ………Jkg-1 C-1
𝒎𝟑 (𝒕𝟐− 𝒕𝟑)
(𝒎𝟑 𝒔𝟎 (𝒕𝟐− 𝒕𝟑) +𝒎𝟏 𝒔𝟏 (𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏)
b) For liquid: S= = ………Jkg-1 C-1
(𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏 )_(𝒕𝟐− 𝒕𝟏)

PROCEDURE: a)For a solid:

1) Weigh the empty dry calorimeter with stirrer lid using physical balance. Note it as m 1 .
2) Fill the calorimeter with water to submerge the solid completely. Weigh it again and note it
as m2.
3) Dip the given solid in to water and take it out. Now shake it to remove water sticking to its
surface. Weigh the wet solid and note it as m3.
4) Record the temperature of the water in the calorimeter as t1.
5) Tie the solid tightly with the thread and heat it in the beaker with boiling water for about 5
minutes and record the temperature of water as t2.
6) Transfer the solid from boiling water to the calorimeter quickly after shaking the solid.
Stir the water and record the equilibrium temperature of the mixture as t 3.

61
OBSERVATION:
Mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer m1 =___ kg.
Mass of the calorimeter with liquid m2 = ___ kg.
Mass of solid m 3 =___ kg.
Temperature of liquid in the calorimeter t1 =___ ℃.
Temperature of the solid in boiling water t2 =___ ℃.
Temperature of the mixture t 3 = ___℃.
Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter s1=___ Jkg −1 /℃.
Specific heat capacity of liquid so=___ Jkg −1 /℃
CALCULATIONS:

Mass of the liquid in calorimeter, (m2-m1) = ………..kg

Change in temperature of the liquid and calorimeter (t3-t1) = ……….C
Change in temperature of solid (t2-t3) = ………C

62
PROCEDURE: b) For liquid:

1) Weigh the empty dry calorimeter with stirrer lid using physical balance. Note it as m 1 .
2) Fill the calorimeter with liquid to submerge the solid completely. Weigh it again and note it
as m2.
3) Dip the given solid in to water and take it out. Now shake it to remove water sticking to its
surface. Weigh the wet solid and note it as m3.
4) Record the temperature of the water in the calorimeter as t1.
5) Tie the solid tightly with the thread and heat it in the beaker with boiling water for about 5
minutes and record the temperature of water as t2.
6) Transfer the solid from boiling water to the calorimeter quickly after shaking the solid.
7) Stir the water and record the equilibrium temperature of the mixture as t 3.

RESULT:
1. The specific heat of the given solid is =_______ Jkg −1 /℃
2. The specific heat of the given liquid is =______Jkg −1 /℃

63
64
65