Lesson 1: Overview of Culture and

Popular Culture Culture consists of patterns, explicit and

implicit, of and for behavior acquired
Overview of Culture and Popular and transmitted by symbols, constituting
Culture the distinctive achievement of human
groups, including their embodiments in
What is Culture? artifacts; the essential core of culture
consists of traditional ideas and
Culture refers to the cumulative deposit especially their attached values; culture
of knowledge, experience, beliefs, systems may, on the one hand, be
values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, considered as products of action, on the
religion, notions of time, roles, spatial other hand, as conditioning influences
relations, concepts of the universe, and upon further action.
material objects and possessions
acquired by a group of people in the THEORY OF CULTURAL
course of generations through individual DETERMINISM
and group striving.
The position that the ideas, meanings,
Culture in its broadest sense is beliefs and values people learn as
cultivated behavior; that is the totality of members of society determines human
a person's learned, accumulated nature. People are what they learn.
experience which is socially transmitted, Optimistic version of cultural
or more briefly, behavior through social determinism place no limits on the
learning. abilities of human beings to do or to be
whatever they want. Some
A culture is a way of life of a group of anthropologists suggest that there is no
people--the behaviors, beliefs, values, universal "right way" of being human.
and symbols that they accept, generally "Right way" is almost always "our way";
without thinking about them, and that that "our way" in one society almost
are passed along by communication and never corresponds to "our way" in any
imitation from one generation to the other society. Proper attitude of an
next. informed human being could only be
that of tolerance.
Culture is symbolic communication.
Some of its symbols include a group's The optimistic version of this theory
skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and postulates that human nature being
motives. The meanings of the symbols infinitely malleable, human being can
are learned and deliberately choose the ways of life they prefer.
perpetuated in a society through its
institutions.
The pessimistic version maintains that dealings when a company or an
people are what they are conditioned to individual is imbued with the idea that
be; this is something over which they methods, materials, or ideas that
have no control. Human beings are worked in the home country will also
passive creatures and do whatever their work abroad. Environmental differences
culture tells them to do. This explanation are, therefore, ignored. Ethnocentrism,
leads to behaviorism that locates the in relation to global dealings, can be
causes of human behavior in a realm categorized as follows:
that is totally beyond human control.
● Important factors in business are
CULTURAL RELATIVISM overlooked because of the
obsession with certain
Different cultural groups think, feel, and cause-effect relationships in
act differently. There is no scientific one's own country. It is always a
standards for considering one group as good idea to refer to checklists of
intrinsically superior or inferior to human variables in order to be
another. Studying differences in culture assured that all major factors
among groups and societies have been at least considered
presupposes a position of cultural while working abroad.
relativism. It does not imply normalcy for
oneself, nor for one's society. It, ● Even though one may recognize
however, calls for judgment when the environmental differences
dealing with groups or societies different and problems associated with
from one's own. Information about the change, but may focus only on
nature of cultural differences between achieving objectives related to
societies, their roots, and their the home-country. This may
consequences should precede judgment result in the loss of effectiveness
and action. Negotiation is more likely to of a company or an individual in
succeed when the parties concerned terms of international
understand the reasons for the competitiveness. The objectives
differences in viewpoints. set for global operations should
also be global.
CULTURAL ETHNOCENTRISM
● The differences are recognized,
Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's but it is assumed that associated
own culture is superior to that of other changes are so basic that they
cultures. It is a form of reductionism that can be achieved effortlessly. It is
reduces the "other way" of life to a always a good idea to perform a
distorted version of one's own. This is cost-benefit analysis of the
particularly important in case of global changes proposed. Sometimes a
 change may upset important are considered as socially
values and thereby may face essential. They are therefore
resistance from being carried out most of the times for
implemented. The cost of some their own sake (ways of
changes may exceed the benefits greetings, paying respect to
derived from the implementation others, religious and social
of such changes. ceremonies, etc.).

● The core of a culture is formed by

MANIFESTATIONS OF CULTURE values. They are broad
tendencies for preferences of
Cultural differences manifest themselves certain state of affairs to others
in different ways and differing levels of (good-evil, right-wrong,
depth. Symbols represent the most natural-unnatural). Many values
superficial and values the deepest remain unconscious to those who
manifestations of culture, with heroes hold them. Therefore they often
and rituals in between. cannot be discussed, nor they
can be directly observed by
● Symbols are words, gestures, others. Values can only be
pictures, or objects that carry a inferred from the way people act
particular meaning which is only under different circumstances.
recognized by those who share a
particular culture. New symbols ● Symbols, heroes, and rituals are
easily develop, old ones the tangible or visual aspects of
disappear. Symbols from one the practices of a culture. The
particular group are regularly true cultural meaning of the
copied by others. This is why practices is intangible; this is
symbols represent the outermost revealed only when the practices
layer of a culture. are interpreted by the insiders.

● Heroes are persons, past or

present, real or fictitious, who
possess characteristics that are
highly prized in a culture. They
also serve as models for
behavior.

● Rituals are collective activities,

sometimes superfluous in
reaching desired objectives, but
LAYERS OF CULTURE The modern Filipino culture developed
through influence from Chinese traders,
People even within the same culture Spanish conquistadors, and American
carry several layers of mental rulers. Filipino people tend to be very
programming within themselves. hospitable, especially to Western visitors
Different layers of culture exist at the (1). Because of their strong ties to
following levels: Spanish culture, Filipinos are emotional
and passionate about life in a way that
● The national level: Associated seems more Latin than Asian (1). This is
with the nation as a whole. easily seen in the works of
contemporary artists such as Rody
● The regional level: Associated Herrera in his painting Unahan Sa
with ethnic, linguistic, or religious Duluhan.
differences that exist within a
nation. The family is the basic and most
important aspect of Filipino culture.
● The gender level: Associated Divorce is prohibited and annulments
with gender differences (female are rare (2). The family is the safety net
vs. male) for indivuduals, especially older people,
during difficult economic times. Children
● The generation level: will often stay with their parents into
Associated with the differences adulthood, only leaving when they get
between grandparents and married (2). Political and business ties
parents, parents and children. are often influenced by family
relationships (2).
● The social class level:
Associated with educational Two traits that many foreign visitors
opportunities and differences in often have a difficult time understanding
occupation. are Pakikisama and Utang na Loob.
Pakikisama roughly means "getting
● The corporate level: Associated along" and requires individuals overlook
with the particular culture of an slight improprieties or indiscretions for
organization. Applicable to those the sake of preserving peace within the
who are employed. family, personal, or business
relationship. Utang na Loob refers to the
The Culture in the Philippines custom of paying back one favor with
another (2). These traits emphasize the
The Philippines is a culture in which importance that Filipino people place on
East meets West. The Filipino people maintaining pleasant interpersonal
have a distinct Asian background, with a
strong Western tradition.
relationships and puting the needs of The Rise of Popular Culture
the group ahead of the individual.
Scholars trace the origins of the rise of
More than 80% of the population of the popular culture to the creation of the
Philippines is Roman Catholic. Fiestas middle class generated by the Industrial
in honor of the patron saint of a town are Revolution. People who were configured
quite common. Criticism of the Catholic into working classes and moved into
church is not taken lightly - and should urban environments far from their
be avoided (2). traditional farming life began creating
their own culture to share with their
In the Philippines, people greet each co-workers, as a part of separating from
other with a handshake. A smile or their parents and bosses.
raised eyebrows can mean "Hello" or
"Yes". Someone can be summoned with After the end of World War II,
a downward wave of the hand (3). innovations in mass media led to
significant cultural and social changes in
What is Pop Culture? the west. At the same time, capitalism,
specifically the need to generate profits,
pop culture refers to cultural products took on the role of marketing: newly
such as music, art, literature, fashion, invented goods were being marketed to
dance, film, cyberculture, television, and different classes. The meaning of
radio that are consumed by the majority popular culture then began to merge
of a society's population. Popular culture with that of mass culture, consumer
is those types of media that have mass culture, image culture, media culture,
accessibility and appeal. and culture created by manufacturers
for mass consumption.
The term "popular culture" was coined in
the mid-19th century, and it referred to Different Definitions of Popular
the cultural traditions of the people, in Culture
contrast to the "official culture" of the
state or governing classes. In broad use In his wildly successful textbook
today, it is defined in qualitative "Cultural Theory and Popular Culture"
terms—pop culture is often considered a (now in its 8th edition), British media
more superficial or lesser type of artistic specialist John Storey offers six different
expression. definitions of popular culture.

1. Popular culture is simply culture

that is widely favored or well-liked
by many people: it has no
negative connotations.
2. Popular culture is whatever is left manufactured content, alter it for
after you've identified what "high their own use, or reject it entirely
culture" is: in this definition, pop and create their own.
culture is considered inferior, and
it functions as a marker of status
and class. Lesson 2: Overview of Cultural
Development in the Philippines
3. Pop culture can be defined as
commercial objects that are
produced for mass consumption Introduction
by non-discriminating consumers.
In this definition, popular culture The Philippines is the only country in
is a tool used by the elites to Southeast Asia that was subjected to
suppress or take advantage of Western colonization before it had the
the masses. opportunity to develop either a
centralized government ruling over a
4. Popular culture is folk culture, large territory or a dominant culture. In
something that arises from the ancient times the inhabitants of the
people rather than imposed upon Philippines were a diverse
them: pop culture is authentic agglomeration of people who arrived in
(created by the people) as various waves of immigration from the
opposed to commercial (thrust Asian mainland and who maintained
upon them by commercial little contact with each other. The people
enterprises). of the Philippine archipelago, unlike
most of the other people of Southeast
5. Pop culture is negotiated: partly Asia, never adopted Hinduism or
imposed on by the dominant Buddhism.
classes, and partly resisted or
changed by the subordinate Pre-Colonial Period
classes. Dominants can create
culture but the subordinates The following are the notable
decide what they keep or discard. achievements of the natives of the
pre-colonial archipelago between the
6. The last definition of pop culture 16th century to the 19th century, and
discussed by Storey is that in the most likely even farther. Many of the
postmodern world, in today's achievements have been lost or
world, the distinction between retrofitted due to more than three
"authentic" versus "commercial" centuries of colonial rule beginning in
is blurred. In pop culture today, the middle of the 16th century and
users are free to embrace some ending in the middle of the 20th century.
● Development of indigenous equal suitability of any work for
culinary and healing arts, any gender
including medicinal practices and
its associated objects and ● Development and expertise in
ingredients that were indigenous martial arts and
sustainably-sourced due to warfare
respectful cultures directed to the
natural world ● High respect for the natural
world, including the spiritual
● Enhancement of the fine arts realms and its beings, which are
focusing on folk literature, all seen as part of all the affairs of
calligraphy, performing arts, and every life on earth, thus
craft arts, among many other envisioned as an interconnected
forms web, where one action affects the
other, whether directly or
● Widespread literacy in the indirectly
indigenous Baybayin writing
system, by both men and women. ● Development of an organized
system of communities, with laws
● Sociable culture based on peace enacted to promote social welfare
pacts, maritime and land and to protect nature, the spirits,
journeys, communal gatherings, and the people
and respect towards ethnic
differences ● Expansion of indigenous
educational systems and writing
● Solving problems and wars systems through focusing on
through a variety of mediums belief systems, epics, and other
such as divine intervention, mediums that exhibit good values
sacred peace pacts, public of an egalitarian society
consultations, and community
interference ● Development of craft innovations
used for non-agricultural and
● High respect for equal rights, non-martial tasks such as
notable in the matriarchal textiles, pottery and ornaments,
societies of pre-colonial ethnic with respect to the sustainability
groups, which includes the of sources and the environment
legality of divorce, equal stand on and its wildlife
decision-making from any
gender, retention of names after
marriage whether women or men,
Lesson 3 Framing the Popular ⊳ Frames inevitably highlight some
issues but downplay others.

Framing Theory ⊳ Journalists frame stories in particular

ways in order to get people to either
“The action, method, or process, of read or view.
constructing making or shaping anything
whether material or immaterial”. ⊳ These important factors influence how
a frame is built.
⊳ In the 1930s, the media was viewed
as having the ability to directly persuade
and influence audiences. Frame-Setting

⊳ The audience was viewed as passive, ⊳ “The interaction between Media

simply allowing the media to inject it with frames and individuals’ prior knowledge
ideas. As time passed and research and dispositions.
grew, scholars took a more view of the
media. Agenda-setting research began ⊳ What scholars are concerned with
to be studied. studying, focusing most on the
consequences of framing.
⊳ Framing comes from the word frame,
two main ways- frame-building and ⊳ Research has shown that frames do
frame-setting. affect how viewers view stories.

⊳ In particular, the way a story is framed

Frame-Building can affect what appears as most
important, who the victim appears to
⊳ The term frame-building refers to “the who is to blame, etc.
factors that influence the structural
qualities of news frames”. Framing is ⊳ Research has shown that political and
applied to how journalists select stories, election stories are framed in an
facts, etc. episodic way, focusing on winning and
losing, using a game or competition
⊳ News frames are formed through schema, emphasizing candidates’ style,
internal factors like occupational and highlighting polls.
constraints of journalists, particularly
editorial policies and news values and
also through external factors like
interactions between journalists and
elites.
How the Internet Change Framing language evokes frames — moral and
conceptual frames.
⊳ With the advent of the internet, people
can be exposed to many different For Example
frames because of the infinite amount of
information available online. ⊳ When a journalist selects a topic that
he or she is going to write about, they
⊳ These frames may compete with each are inevitability drawing the audience’s
other giving a more holistic view of a attention to a particular topic, which is
story or issue. the original concept behind the agenda
setting theory.
⊳ The audience also plays a greater role
in selecting media and which frames ⊳ However, the way or the frame in
they are exposed to when using the which the information is presented to the
internet which could result in exposure audience is also decided by the media
to similar frames and attitude practitioners or the gatekeepers.
reinforcement.
⊳ The framing theory refers to not only
⊳ More research is needed on this issue. how the audience is influenced and
interprets what is presented to them by
the media, but also refers to the media’s
George Lakoff About Framing Theory ability to persuade its audiences to
accept one meaning of a concept over
George Lakoff, a professor at another.
UCBerkeley makes the following points
about frames and framing:
Erving Goffman
⊳ “Communication itself comes with a
frame. (11 June 1922 – 19 November 1982),
a Canadian-born sociologist and writer,
⊳ The elements of the Communication was considered "the most influential
Frame include: A message, an American sociologist of the twentieth
audience, a messenger, a medium, century". In 2007 he was listed by The
images, a context, and especially, Times Higher Education Guide as the
higher-level moral and conceptual sixth most-cited author in the humanities
frames. and social sciences, behind Anthony
Giddens.
⊳ The choice of language is, of course,
vital, but it is vital because
Goffman was the 73rd president of the
American Sociological Association. His Framing deals with Expectations
best-known contribution to social theory
is his study of symbolic interaction. This 1. Expectations based on previous
took the form of dramaturgical analysis, experiences, whether derived from
beginning with his 1959 book, The media messages or direct personal
Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. experience.
Goffman's other major works include
Asylums (1961), Stigma (1963), 2. Expectations can be quite resistant to
Interaction Ritual (1967), Frame change, even when they are
Analysis (1974), and Forms of Talk contradicted by readily factual
(1981). His major areas of study information.
included the sociology of everyday life,
social interaction, the social construction 3. Expectations can arouse strong
of self, social organization (framing) of emotions such as hate, fear or love.
experience, and particular elements of
social life such as total institutions and 4. Expectations often get applied by us
stigmas. without our conscious awareness, when
strong emotions are aroused that
interfere with our ability to consciously
Framing interoperate new information available in
the situation.
Definition:

“ A theory which explains the set of Social Cues

Expectations used to make sense of a
Social situation at a point in time called According to Goffman we are always
Framing theory.” monitoring the social environment like;
When you view a play in a theater , you
⊳ Sociological - Outcome of news work rely on many conventional cues to
(The process of news production) determine when a shift on scenes takes
place , one of the oldest and most
⊳ Psychological - Categories of the mind obvious cues
(The process of audience consumption)
⊳ Involves the curtains , it rises when a
scenes begins and falls when a scene
ends.
⊳ Other cues are more subtle shifts in you told a joke and cued the other that
lighting and music tempo often signal you wanted to upshift and go back a
changes as lights dim and music more playful frame.
becomes ominous , we know danger
threatens. According to Goffman daily life involves
countless shift frames and these shifts
⊳ Movies employ many similar are negotiated using social cues , some
conventions Goffman believed we use cues are conventional and universal like
the same cognitive skills to make sense the curtain on a stage.
of daily life as we do to make sense of
plays or movies. For example, Couples often develop a
very complex set of cues to signal when
⊳ His theory implies that we learn social to upshift or downshift their interaction
cues through everyday interaction and during the course of a conversation
from observing how they are used in many upshifts and downshifts can occur
media content. based on subtle changes in voice tone
or body movement.

Upshift and Downshift

Representation of Women in Ads
When we moved from one set of frames
to another. We downshift or upshift, we How do media come into his theory?
reframe situations so we experience
them as more or less serious. ⊳ According to Goffman ads are hyper
Remember! ritualized representation of social
actions, they are edited to highlight only
⊳ When you were pretended to fight with the meaningful actions
a friend but one of got hurt and the
fight turned serious? ⊳ Advertising using the sex appeal to
women to attract the attention of man to
⊳ You both downshifted---------- suddenly teach or reinforce social cues that could
you no longer pulled punches but tried have serious consequences.
to make them inflict as much pain as
possible. ⊳ Goffman showed how women in many
ads are presented are less serious
⊳ Many of the fighting skills learned and more playful than man
during play were used but with a
different frame you were trying to hurt
your friend. Perhaps as u both tired of
⊳ They smile place their bodies in non
serious positions where playful clothing Primary, Dominant or Reality
and in various ways signal differences
and a willingness to take direction from ⊳ In frame analysis, the real world in
a man. which people and events obey certain
. conventional and widely accepted rules
⊳ They signal their desire for them. (sometimes referred to as the dominant
reality)
⊳ No wonder these ads attract that
attention of man. ⊳ We have the capacity to constantly
reframe our experience from
⊳ No wonder they are useful in positions
product but could these representations ⊳ Moment to moment, most of us can
of women be teaching or reinforcing maintain the impression that our
social cues that have problematic experiences are
consequences.
⊳ Quite consistent and routine.

Hyperritualization ⊳ According to Goffman, we do this by

firmly committing ourselves to live in
what we experience as the primary, or
⊳ Goffman’s theory provides an dominant, reality—a real world in which
intriguing way of assessing how media people and events obey certain
can elaborate and reinforce a dominant conventional and widely accepted rules.
public culture. Advertisers didn’t create
sex-role stereotypes, but, Goffman ⊳ In frame analysis, the real world in
argued, they have homogenized how which people and events obey certain
women are publicly depicted. conventional and widely accepted rules
(sometimes referred to as the dominant
⊳ Marketers routinely use powerful reality)
visual imagery to associate products
with women who explicitly and implicitly ⊳ We have the capacity to constantly
signal their willingness to be playful reframe our experience from
sexual partners. There are many subtle
and not-so-subtle messages in these ⊳ Moment to moment, most of us can
ads. “Consume the product and get the maintain the impression that our
girl”. experiences are

⊳ Quite consistent and routine.

⊳ According to Goffman, we do this by news that will be worth watching. That
firmly committing ourselves to live in one of the most important things news
what we experience as the primary, or does for average readers or viewers is
dominant, reality—a real world in which to offer them ritualized messages
people and events obey certain providing reassurance that the world will
conventional and widely accepted rules. go on as it always has.

People Make Framing Mistakes Culture and Commodities by John

Fiske
⊳ Now-a-days, if we watch TV we will
see that our main-stream media shows Formations of the People
us that suicide bombings and terrorism
is being done by Muslims but in reality ⊳ Culture is a living, active process: it
that number is far less. The viewers can be developed only from within, it
than perceive that all the Muslims are cannot be imposed from without or
violent psychopaths but reality is very above.
different than that.
⊳ - Popular culture is made by the
⊳ The social constructionist view that people
social institutions and the elites who
lead them are able to dominate the ⊳ - "The people" is not a stable
social world by propagating frames sociological category; it cannot be
serving their interests. identified and subjected to empirical
study, for it does not exist in objective
reality.
Frame Violations
⊳ - A shifting set of social allegiance, felt
⊳ This says that if a newscaster tells us connectivity rather than external
that the dog ha bitten a man that is not a sociological factors
news but if man bit the dog than that is
the news.

⊳ We see the news daily and what we

see are most of the news about murder,
rape etc. If something out of ordinary
happens in the world like if some meteor
strikes the earth or aliens invade us than
that is the
 ⊳ Here the audience, from being a
commodity, now becomes a producer, a
People-social allegiances cont’d producer of meanings and pleasures
within the capitalist society.
⊳ Such allegiance may coincide with
classes or other social categories, but ⊳ The original commodity (television
not necessarily. program) is, in the cultural economy, a
text (symbol), and a loose structure of
⊳ - People realign their social allegiance potential meanings and pleasures that
according to their best interest or constitutes a major resource of popular
convenience of the moment. culture.

⊳ - The various formations of the people ⊳ In this economy there are no

move as active agents, and are capable consumers, only circulators of
adopting apparently contradictory meanings, for meanings are the only
positions alternately or simultaneously elements in the process that can be
without any sense of strain. neither commodified nor consumed:
meanings can be produced, reproduced
⊳ - Very difficult to study, as they are and circulated only in that constant
made from within by the people in process that we call culture.
specific context and time.

⊳ - All allegiances have not only a sense The Production Studios:

of with whom, but also against whom.
⊳ The production studios produce a
- In pop culture, there must be a commodity, a program and sell it to the
dominant ideology and the opportunity distributors, the broadcasting or cable
to speak against them. networks, for profit.

- evade from subordinated, but not ⊳ Simple financial exchange common to

totally disempowered position. all commodities.

⊳ The economic function of a television

Two Economies of Television program is not complete once it has
been sold, for in its moment of
The Consumer Society: consumption it changes to become a
⊳ We need to extend the idea of an producer, and what it produces is an
economy to include a cultural economy audience, which is then sold to
where the circulation is not one of advertisers.
money, but of meanings and pleasures.
⊳ The audience “the producers” in the ⊳ Different advertisements of products
cultural economy produces cultural are aired during commercials, because
industries. they are set up by the cultural industries
from the television programs that the
audiences consume, while watching
Television & Advertising certain television programs that are
found interesting by the viewers.
⊳ - The audience is known as the mode
of production, they are the producers of Example of Commercials:
popular culture, such as television
programs and advertisements ⊳ After watching the World Cup or the
(commercials). Super Bowl, during the halftime, all the
commercials the audience get to
observer are the Chevy, Dodge/Ram
Examples of Cancelled Television Truck commercials, different beer
Programs brands, other sports, etc. The
commercials are focused on the male
⊳ Turn On (1969) – Comedy series, the consumers.
show alarmed broadcast officials and
sponsors who immediately perceived ⊳ While watching a soap opera for
the show as offensive due to its strong example, the commercials are focused
sexual and political humor. on the female consumers, because
everything in the commercials are home
⊳ Proving Ground (2011) – Popular based commodities like; food,
science reality show, in which stunts detergents, cleaning supplies, makeup,
from video games, films and comic shampoos, etc.
books are tested in the real world.

⊳ Ford Nation (2013) – Talk show Everyday Life, Commodities and

hosted by Mayor Rob Ford of Toronto Culture
and his brother, Doug Ford. The Ford
brothers had been in the news at that ⊳ In the consumer society of capitalism,
time, due to an ongoing scandal everyone is a consumer. Consumption
involving a video allegedly showing the is the only way of obtaining the
mayor smoking crack cocaine. resources for life, whether these
resources be material-function or
semiotic-cultural.
⊳ All material-functional resources are
Television & Advertising imbricated with the semiotic-cultural.
⊳ Example: a car is not just a form of ⊳ - “The Popular", then is determined by
transportation; it is also a speech act. the forces of the domination to the
Cooking a meal is not just providing extent that is always formed in reaction
food, but a way of communicating. to them; but the dominate cannot control
totally the meanings that the people may
⊳ All commodities of capitalism are construct and the social allegiances that
“goods to speak with” may form.

⊳ The basis of the theory of everyday life Conclusion

is not the products, the system that
distributes them, or the consumer ⊳ Pleasure is what keeps the consumer
information, but the concrete specific entertained and not money.
uses they are put to, the individual acts
of consumption-production, the ⊳ Commodification in television
creativities produced from commodities. programs is in cultural economy

⊳ John Fiske writes, “We construct our ⊳ Culture can be produced, reproduced
space within and against their place, of and circulated
speaking our meanings with their
language.” ⊳ Profits are made by the production
studio
⊳ An example: The Shopping Center.
What is this place within society? ⊳ Once television becomes
consumption, it changes to a producer,
⊳ The Shopping Center is a place of producing the audience, eventually sold
commerce, a place where merchants to advertisers
sell their products to consumers. Is this
space assigned other meanings in our ⊳ The audience is the producer, we
culture, outside of what it was originally decide what becomes popular and not.
intended for?
⊳ Audiences decide what becomes
Defining the Popular popular culture

⊳ Everyday life is constituted by the ⊳ During commercials different products

practices of popular culture, and is are advertised which are geared
characterized by the creativity of the towards the type of viewer that is
consumer in using the resources interested in the show
provided by the cultural industry while ⊳ Everyone is a consumer in our culture
refusing to submit to that power. of capitalism
⊳ Culture and commodity are intertwined are then presented as universal truths
and as serving the general public
interest. As a result, ideas that reinforce
Ruling class and ruling ideas by and justify the ruling class’s positions
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels appear as though they have naturally
developed within the society.

Ruling class and ruling ideas ⊳ Marx (1976) stresses that it is not the
dominant ideas of a particular time that
⊳ In “The Ruling Class and the Ruling determine its social system, but the
Ideas “(1970), Marx and Engels argue economic production (or the “base”) that
that the prevailing ideas of a particular shapes the prevailing ideas (or the
society are formed by the ruling class to “superstructure”) which in turn reinforce
express and justify their position. This this system and give it meaning. For
contrasts the view that ideas and values example, in the feudal medieval society
within a society exist separately from in Europe a theological worldview
political or economical leadership. Marx asserted by aristocracy and
and Engels propose that the class in disseminated by the church gave
control of the material production also meaning to feudalism. The peasants
controls the “mental production”. While came to believe one’s place in the class
regular citizens are busy with their system was God’s will and obeying
day-to-day tasks, part of the ruling class authority would be rewarded after death.
take on the function of the “thinkers”, According to Marx, as the economy
those whom we see as subject matter develops, the superstructure needs to
experts, and actively develop and be adjusted and as the economic base
promote those values and messages. changes, social revolution occurs (either
The ruling class also has some control gradually through reform or quickly as
over the dissemination of these ideas. an uprising). For example, the growing
industrialisation and international trade
⊳ In modern times for example, by in England resulted in the middle-class
financing blockbuster films that to a playing a more important part in the
larger or lesser extent reinforce the economy and thus becoming more
ruling ideas. Marx and Engels also powerful. With that a new ideology of
argue that these “illusions” about society liberty and self-profit started to develop,
are upheld by detaching them from the eventually leading to a revolution and
ruling class, as propagation of new ruling ideas by a
if they exist independently in a particular new ruling class.
time (mainly because the ruling class
itself believes these ideas are relevant
to all their contemporaries). The ideas
⊳ Marxist theory about the economic
base as the key driving force of society
is particularly fascinating in explaining
how the ruling class ideas work. It also
emphasizes the importance of
considering popular culture in relation to
its context. However, Marx’s writing has
several key limitations. Firstly, it
presents the public as passively
accepting the ruling ideas. In reality
people are active participants in popular
culture, and individuals may choose to
accept or reject these ideas and some
may also promote or contest them.
Secondly, Marx’s writing does not
acknowledge the existence of
alternative ideas, which may not
dominate, but are still present in most
societies. Gramsci’s reflections on
hegemony (1971) and its dependence
on consent help to fill these gaps in the
study of popular culture – a contested
area shaped by “contradictory pressures
and tendencies” (Bennett, 1986) arising
from competing interests of different
groups within society.