See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/241701650

Doing research on education for sustainable development

Article  in  International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education · April 2011

DOI: 10.1108/14676371111118183

CITATIONS READS
32 4,911

2 authors:

Jyrki Reunamo Anita Pipere

University of Helsinki Daugavpils University
55 PUBLICATIONS   440 CITATIONS    67 PUBLICATIONS   323 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Norba-TM View project

Orientate project - Multicultural Children in Early Childhood Education View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Anita Pipere on 31 January 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1467-6370.htm

IJSHE
12,2 Doing research on education
for sustainable development
Jyrki Reunamo
110 Department of Applied Sciences of Education,
Faculty of Behavioral Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland, and
Received 29 April 2010 Anita Pipere
Revised 18 August 2010
Accepted 30 October 2010
Faculty of Education and Management,
Institute of Sustainable Education, Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, Latvia

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe the research preferences and differences of
education for sustainable development (ESD) researchers. A model with the continuums
assimilation-accommodation and adaptation-agency was applied resulting in quantitative,
qualitative, theoretic and participative research orientations.
Design/methodology/approach – Reunamo’s general model of agentive perception was used to
design the 32-item questionnaire, Research for ESD so as to reveal the degree to which the researchers
are accommodating their thoughts and actions to real phenomenon, and considering their research
as having theoretical or practical agency. The questionnaire was administered to 83 ESD researchers,
mainly from European countries.
Findings – The most valuable discovery was the desire of ESD researchers to contribute to societal
development. The results describe the first continuum of research activity with the need for opening
up to the requisites and possibilities of environmental change while applying the existing prerequisites
of scientific rigour and validity. The second continuum highlights the research as a knowledge
resource for just political or individual choices on the one hand, and the direct application of the
models and actions for needed change on the other hand.
Research limitations/implications – It would be difficult to create a reliable register of ESD
researchers worldwide. Thus, the opportunity sample of ESD researchers available to the authors was
used in the study.
Practical implications – The model, after adjustments, appears to be a promising tool in the study
of research orientations. To study complex and controversial subjects such as sustainable
development, the researchers need to be aware of their preferences and orientations.
Originality/value – The paper shows the possibilities of the agentive perception model in the case of
ESD researchers.
Keywords Education, Sustainable development, Researchers, Research methods
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
The principal motive for this study is the exploration of the nature of education
for sustainable development (ESD), which requires the comprehension of education
International Journal of Sustainability and sustainable development (SD) itself, learned, maintained and altered conditions
in Higher Education of these phenomena and, finally, the design of new educational approaches and
Vol. 12 No. 2, 2011
pp. 110-124
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1467-6370
The authors are grateful to Lisa Muszynski for her comments and suggestions. They would also
DOI 10.1108/14676371111118183 like to thank Liisa Suomela for her contacts.
tools to achieve SD. Therefore, the researchers of ESD need well-considered and Education
focused approaches. However, different research approaches have different criteria for for sustainable
valid research.
The lack of consensus as to what constitutes ESD can be partly explained by the development
complex, contested and constantly evolving nature of this concept (Landorf et al., 2008).
In the context of this article, we emphasize the agency-driven and change-oriented
nature of ESD, not just the knowledge on or awareness of SD. In ESD, the empowerment, 111
participation and the socio-cultural and economic dimensions of the environment
should come to the foreground. It is increasingly recognized that rather than focusing
on the transfer of knowledge, ESD needs to enhance the capacity of individuals and
organizations to confront change and transformation (Cantell, 2006; Landorf et al., 2008;
Sterling, 2001). Learning to influence systems and participate in decision making are,
moreover, the globally-recognized goals of ESD (UNESCO, 2009).
Educational research is a practice carried out by researchers who apply modern
scientific methods. These methods may accommodate the pursuit of truth, aiming to
specify the connections between models (theories), experiences (data), interpretation and
development ( Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2007). According to scientific logic, studies on
ESD supposedly should be balanced between fundamental research on ideas reflecting
the social, educational, and political development towards SD and applied research,
evaluation research and action research which is describing/assessing or changing the
real situation in the field (UNESCO, 2009).
The beginning of the new millennium saw the boom of ESD articles on developing
understandings of ESD definitions, policy, curriculum, and theory (Wright and Pullen,
2007) followed by the publications on global research agendas on ESD (Wright, 2007;
McKeown, 2007), summaries of ESD research approaches in different countries (Hansjörg
and Werner, 2006; Heimlich, 2007) and conceptual analysis of the ESD research (Breiting,
2009).
Regarding the specific themes of research, some empirical data have been collected
on the personal level. The situation and needs were defined through the exploration of
the perception, knowledge, understanding, beliefs of secondary and tertiary students
and teachers in relation to ESD (Winter and Firth, 2007; Corney, 2006; Salı̄te et al.,
2007). Evaluation research on the institutional level has been conducted assessing
the implementation of ESD at schools (Shallcross et al., 2006), and universities (Leal Filho,
2000).
However, the development of distinctive methodology for ESD research lags behind.
Since the research on ESD is a comparably new direction, scholars still probe for relevant
approaches, trying to adapt and design the research instruments. An analysis of
publications proves the assumption that the lack of coherent key concepts, pronounced
contextuality and urgent need for social and individual changes could lead to the
dominance of qualitative approach using interviews, case studies, and action research,
etc. (Salı̄te et al., 2007; Winter and Firth, 2007; Tormey et al., 2008).
Therefore, on the one hand, ESD research shares the issues typical for educational
research in general, and on the other hand, there is a need for synergy between the
methodology of educational research and distinctive orientation of ESD research. This
inevitably evokes the need for deep and thoughtful reflection on the research related to
ESD. Besides, the analysis of available literature did not reveal the quantitative studies
involving ESD researchers themselves.
IJSHE Since the researchers’ experience of personal engagement and situated relations may
12,2 influence not only the generated knowledge, but also the cultural process under
investigation, the researchers of ESD cannot separate their research from their influence
on their environment, and sometimes they would not even want to. They thus need to
consider both adaptation to the situation and the agentive nature of their conceptual
tools (Salı̄te et al., 2007). In this situation, they find themselves on the continuum of
112 adaptation and agency.
The construct of two dichotomies – accommodation/assimilation and
adaptation/agency – form the theoretical foundation for the current research and
article. The intention of the study is to locate the stance of ESD researchers on these
two continuums. The principal model, underlying the research, aims to clarify the basic
human orientations and their philosophical connections. The traditional dichotomy of
quantitative and qualitative research (with mixed methods in between) does not
consider the agentive nature of the researcher, which may be an important issue
especially in the field of ESD, focusing on the very questions of how, why and in which
direction the cultural changes should be directed (Reunamo, 2007b).
At first, we need to ask: do the researchers try to accommodate the ideas to reality or the
ideas are assimilated and applied by them? Piaget (1978) describes knowledge processing
as an equilibrium between these two processes. In other words, do the researchers focus
more on opening up to reality (that is out there) or are they interested more in applying
their own hypotheses and models? Furthermore, can researchers maintain a balance
between these exploratory and confirmatory tendencies (Leech et al., 2007)?
Also, do we think about the research as a means for exploring the environment as
an existing entity or as a source of possible changes? In other words, is the research
mirroring the environment as it is or does it focus on the attributes of possible change?
These two continuums constitute Reunamo’s general model of agentive perception
(Reunamo, 2007a, c; Pipere and Reunamo, 2008) that can be used to describe different
research orientations. The degree to which the researchers are:
(1) accommodating their thoughts and actions to real phenomenon; and
(2) considering their research as having theoretical or practical agency, results in
different relations between researchers and the environment.

Cross-tabulating these two continuums we get four distinctive views on research. The
model’s implementation in the area of ESD research is shown in Figure 1.
Four sectors that appear on the two continuums of the model presuppose different
orientations of research practice and relationships between the ideas and events:
(1) in adaptive and accommodative (qualitative) research the researcher is
interested in the phenomenon as an experience of something real and seeks to
adapt to it;
(2) in adaptive and assimilative (quantitative) research the researcher applies
predefined assumptions to an existing environment;
(3) in agentive and assimilative (theoretic) research a theory is built or applied to
describe the dynamics of the phenomena in order to find ideas that contribute
to environmental change; and
(4) in agentive and accommodative (participative) research the research itself is
seen as a possible vehicle for environmental change.
 3. Theoretic 4. Participative
Education
• ESD is the relationship between • ESD is what we make of it. ESD is for sustainable
present and future. We need a a cultural product. development
model or a theory to combine them.
Agency, the • To study ESD is to take part in the
• To study ESD is to define the environment development of the society and the
objectives and tools (models, environment.
theories and motifs) for guiding us
changes 113
• By studying ESD we are able to
towards a better future.
make new discoveries and create
• Theoretic clarity and power help us new understanding and tools for it.
in defining the processes of • Our way of doing ESD research
development. describes our criteria for good ESD
• There is an important philosophy or research.
methodology behind the perceived
process.

Assimilation, idea is Accommodation, idea is

applied influenced by action

2. Quantitative 1. Qualitative

• There is an existing ESD. Itmust be • ESD is what people believe or think

understood and exposed. We need a it is. Different beliefs must be
connection to ESD. interpreted.
• To study ESD is to find out the • To study ESD is to study people’s
structureand functions of ESD. beliefs and the discourse related to
ESD.
• The criterion for good ESD research Adaptation,
is a valid picture of the phenomenon the environment • ESD is a culture-specific
and its mechanisms. does not phenomenon. Different times and
change different situations produce different
• We need to model, test our criteria for good ESD research.
hypothesis and generalize our
• Understanding the motifs and beliefs
results based on careful sampling.
of people in a natural setting is
important. Figure 1.
A preliminary model
Note: Adaptation of Reunamo’s model of agentive perception for ESD research

The model shown in Figure 1 has served as the background for the creation of the
instrument used in this study. This model anticipates a framework for the
operationalized statements (see the Appendix). Our intention is to describe the ESD
researchers’ orientations in relation to the model and get insight for the needed
enhancement of the model. As this research has exploratory tendencies, we do not go any
deeper with the theoretical assumptions of the model at this point of the article; rather, we
will try to connect the empirical outcomes and theoretical reflections in the results section.

Research method, participants and procedure

The 32-item questionnaire Research for Education for Sustainable Development
was designed drawing upon the preliminary model for ESD research (Figure 1) with
IJSHE the statements (see the Appendix) describing the four research orientations. In the
12,2 Appendix, to make the connections between the statements and the model more accessible,
the statements are grouped in their respective part of the model. The number in the
parenthesis indicates the position of statement in the questionnaire. The five-point Likert
scale varying from disagree strongly to agree strongly was offered for the respondents.
Since the researchers in ESD could be viewed as a specific hard-to-reach population,
114 a purposive, opportunity sampling strategy was used. It was decided to collect the
answers from the international community of researchers, mainly from Europe, so as to
ensure the relative similarity in the research culture and meaning of ESD.
In spring of 2008, the respondents were recruited through the authors’ contacts within
the academic community in Eastern and Western Europe. To ensure the appropriate
sampling, the respondents represented the Editorial board and contributors of the
Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability as well as the members of the Baltic and
Black See Circle Consortium on Educational Research and presenters at conferences
on ESD established and co-organized by Institute of Sustainable Education at the
Daugavpils University in different European countries since 2003. The majority of
data were collected contacting the researchers by e-mail and a smaller part of data was
obtained approaching participants directly at ESD conferences. Participation in the
study was voluntary and anonymous and was based on informed consent. It also
included feedback on the conclusion of the study.
While aiming for at least 200 respondents, there were 83 responses (41.5 percent).
Regarding the national affiliation of the respondents, there were people from 19 countries
including five Eastern-European countries (n ¼ 38), seven Western European countries
(n ¼ 21), three Scandinavian countries and The Netherlands (n ¼ 18); and other
non-European countries (Australia, Taiwan, and the USA) (n ¼ 6).
Of the researchers, 59 (64 percent) were female. The age of respondents varied
between 24 and 74, the average age being 47 years. There were 37 (47 percent)
participants having doctoral degree (PhD), 24 (29 percent) professors (highest academic
rank), 18 (22 percent) postgraduate students and 3 (4 percent) graduate students. A total
of 41 researchers (49 percent) conducted ESD research as part of their work, for 23 (28
percent) respondents research was a full-time job, 8 (10 percent) researchers were
students and 4 (5 percent) considered their research as a hobby. The background for 50
(60 percent) of the respondents was in education and teaching, 27 (33 percent) in natural
sciences, 15 (18 percent) in social sciences and 9 (11 percent) in humanistic sciences (the
total number adds up to 101 because some respondents gave two or more options for
background).
The data concerning the research methods show that 42 (47 percent) respondents
were using qualitative methods, 27 (30 percent) mixed methods and 21 (23 percent)
quantitative methods. Thus, we can affirm that 77 percent of the researchers were using
qualitative methods and 53 percent quantitative methods. On average, the researchers
had been engaged in ESD research for 5.9 years while the average time of their
engagement in research in general has been 14 years.
Therefore, considering the urgency, importance and novelty of research topic –
namely, the methodological approaches used by ESD researchers – the given study
aims to pilot the questionnaire, to approbate the theoretical model and to provide
an illustrative and illuminating insight into a process of ESD research in European
context, although by means of non-generalizable results.
 The research questions guiding the process were: Education
RQ1. What kind of research preferences and differences do the researchers of ESD for sustainable
display? development
RQ2. Do the four orientations of the proposed model prove to be reliable and
consistent descriptors of ESD research orientations?
RQ3. What are the relationships between the research orientations and the
115
researchers’ background?
RQ4. What are the correlations between the different research orientations?
Consistent with the research questions, statistical data analysis included the
calculation of:
.
means and standard deviations for questionnaire statements;
.
reliability coefficients (Cronbach alphas) to determine the reliability of
questionnaire statements (Pallant, 2007), as well as;
.
analysis of variance (ANOVA) with post hoc comparison (Tukey HSD) for
assessing the differences between group means; and
.
correlation coefficients (Spearman’s rho) for measuring the association between
pairs of variables.

Results
Preferences and differences in research
It seems clear that the central reason for doing ESD research is the desire to contribute to
societal development. The statement was agreed to strongly by 50 (60 percent) and
agreed by 31 (37 percent) respondents. The other striking phenomenon is the strong
emphasis on the theoretical aspects of research, as three of the five statements having the
highest scores (most agreed with) stress different theoretical preferences. Researchers
find it important to relate the process to an underlying theoretical framework. The
research is not just a simple study, rather, it has deep philosophical and paradigmatic
connections although not everyone is concerned with them (SD ¼ 0.93).
The gap between quantitative and qualitative research has raised concerns already
for a long time (Leech et al., 2007), but the differences seem to persist. Of the ten most
disparately evaluated statements, five were describing quantitative methods and four
described qualitative methods. Seeking the statistical significance of obtained results
and addressing social reality constructed by the participants seem to rule each other out.
The gap between paradigms is of course understandable: what is the relevance of testing
a hypothesis if the phenomenon describes only a specific historical situation? The
objective for a unitary construct of validity for both the quantitative and qualitative
paradigms (Niglas, 2007) still seems to be beyond reach.

The reliability of research orientations

Further, the reliability of questionnaire’s statements in each of four research orientations
was considered. For theoretic research the average reliability coefficient for all eight
statements was 0.695. By discarding the statement describing the interest in studying
how people’s ideas change the environment, the Cronbach’s alpha co-efficient could be
IJSHE raised to 0.722. To find out how people’s ideas change the environment does not seem
12,2 to be a theoretical question; rather, it seems to better describe the empowering and
agentive character of people’s ideas.
The initial Cronbach’s alpha for participative orientation was 0.619. The researchers
were not ready to sacrifice the general criteria for scientific quality to reach a more
sustainable future and the statement was discarded. According to the researchers, the
116 reforms need to be based on a sound scientific basis. It appeared that the tools for reforms
did not include scientific predictions and preparations; therefore, the statement “My study
is about predicting, preparing and working for the future now” was also discarded. On the
other hand, the statement about the people’s ideas changing the environment (originally
classified as belonging to theoretical orientation) was included in the participative
dimension and it added to the final summary factor, Cronbach’s alpha ending with 0.704.
By eliminating three variables the alpha coefficient for quantitative statements
could be heightened from 0.683 to 0.751, ending as the most consistent among the
orientations. The dynamics of development or learning were not of interest for
quantitative researchers. Neither were the quantitative researchers consistent in their
efforts for time and space independency in their research. The general unifying feature
among quantitative researchers seems to be the statistical tools and inferences.
Average Cronbach’s alpha for all eight qualitative statements was only 0.512. There
seems to be more variation among qualitative research preferences than among the
quantitative researchers. This indicates that qualitative methods are even more varied
than quantitative methods. The role of statistics, the concern about randomness of the
sample, the intentionality of the research objects and the importance of doing research in
a natural setting varied far too much among researchers to add to the consistency of
qualitative research. By removing these five statements Cronbach’s alpha increased
to 0.722. The unique and situation-specific meanings and motives seem to be tightly
interwoven in qualitative research.
Final coefficients for all research orientations meet the generally accepted level of
0.700 for Cronbach’s alpha (Pallant, 2007) thus confirming the consistency of statements
in each of research orientations. The alpha coefficients cannot be used to confirm the
original model in Figure 1, however, they can be used to describe the results of given
research. Cronbach’s alphas for research orientations as well as the statements that were
left after the elimination of statements hampering the reliability are following:
.
theoretic (a ¼ 0.714): 2, 8, 13, 21, 23, 26;
.
participative (a ¼ 0.704): 1, 7, 9, 12, 25, 29, 30 (originally a theoretic statement);
.
quantitative (a ¼ 0.751): 5, 11, 15, 24, 28; and
. qualitative (a ¼ 0.722): 10, 16, 18.

Research orientations and researchers’ background

In Table I, the characteristics of researchers are connected with the four research
orientations derived from the analysis.
The significant criterion of difference among researchers seems to be quantitative and
qualitative methods and it shows in their research preferences. The qualitative aspects
did not divide researchers significantly. The participative aspects of research were
important and almost as important were the theoretical aspects of research. Researchers
who used mixed methods valued both quantitative and qualitative methods.
 Education
Research orientations
Characteristics for sustainable
of researchers Quantitative Qualitative Theoretical Participative development
Methods
Qualitative 3.09 3.64 3.86 4.06
Quantitative 4.03 3.29 3.90 4.12 117
Mixed 3.76 3.63 4.11 4.03
F ¼ 13.2, p , 0.005 F ¼ 1.08, p , 0.343 F ¼ 1.31, p , 0.277 F ¼ 0.15, p , 0.857
Work status
Full time 3.54 3.70 4.07 4.05
Part time 3.49 3.58 3.85 4.05
Student 3.88 3.85 3.94 4.04
Hobby 2.45 4.05 3.82 4.14
F ¼ 2.90, p , 0.042 F ¼ 0.50, p , 0.668 F ¼ 0.80, p , 0.469 F ¼ 0.00, p , 0.988
Discipline
Natural sciences 3.73 3.37 3.86 4.14
Educational Table I.
sciences 3.27 3.75 3.96 4.01 The differences in
Humanitarian research orientations
sciences 4.09 3.19 4.05 3.88 depending on
Social sciences 3.33 3.44 3.76 4.12 the characteristics
F ¼ 3.20, 0.029 F ¼ 1.30, p , 0.285 F ¼ 0.50, p , 0.714 F ¼ 0.70, p , 0.584 of researchers

There were also some differences when the work status was considered (Table I).
Students valued most the quantitative aspects of research and those doing research as a
hobby valued them the least, with post hoc comparisons (Tukey HSD) indicating almost
statistically significant ( p ¼ 0.025) difference between them. The four researchers doing
research as a hobby did not agree with the quantitative aspects of research.
The differences in the research orientation between the researchers from various
disciplines were not statistically significant (Table I). The most significant difference
between these groups was that the researchers in humanistic sciences valued
quantitative aspects of research more than researchers in educational sciences, with
post hoc comparison (Tukey HSD) indicating only tentative ( p ¼ 0.072) significance.

Correlations between qualitative orientation and other research orientations

Those researchers who prefer the qualitative orientation are also in favour of the
participative orientation: there were four statistically significant correlations (using
Spearman’s rho) with distinct statements describing participative research. Researchers
with qualitative orientation even tend to see the objectives for a sustainable future as
being more important for their research than the general criteria for scientific quality
(r s ¼ 0.34, p ¼ 0.003). Qualitative researchers probably tend to adapt the methods to the
situation. Maybe the reason for using qualitative methods is that they are flexible.
Qualitative researchers more often consider their research as a social or cultural
reformer (r s ¼ 0.32, p ¼ 0.003), whereby their studies are more often about predicting,
preparing and working for the future now (r s ¼ 0.31, p ¼ 0.005), and they want to
contribute to societal development more often (r s ¼ 0.28, p ¼ 0.009).
IJSHE A qualitative orientation was also connected with the theoretical orientation.
12,2 Qualitative researchers tend to consider it as being important to find a good construct
which explains the events (r s ¼ 0.36, p ¼ 0.001), and they are interested in finding out
how processes evolve according to the underlying theoretical framework (r s ¼ 0.30,
p ¼ 0.006).

118 Correlations between participative orientation and other research orientations

The participative research orientation was strongly connected with the length of ESD
research experience (r s ¼ 0.50, p ¼ 0.0005). The connection has not been found, though,
with a long-standing research experience as such, because the connection between the
length of experience in other sciences was negative (r s ¼ 2 0.11, p ¼ 0.378).
Researchers with a Participative orientation tend to think that the social reality
they are studying is constructed uniquely by the participants (r s ¼ 0.31, p ¼ 0.005).
If the participants are constructing the social reality, perhaps the researcher is also
constructing the social reality she or he is studying, thus influencing the process.
Researchers oriented toward participation assume that it is important to do their
research in a natural setting (r s ¼ 0.30, p ¼ 0.006). This may indicate to the general
tendency to participate in the tangible processes. Possibly, considering participation as an
essential element describing interaction, the participation cannot be separated from the
natural setting. Participation is inclusive, though, being an insider is a challenge for
the researcher. Nevertheless, being an outsider no longer means a neutral stance any more
than when coming from the inside (Kuusisto, 2005). Approaches of applied social research
such as action research and evaluation research regard supporting and engineering
change and participation as an integral part of the research process (Robson, 2002).

Correlations between theoretic orientation and other research orientations

The theoretic orientation is connected with some aspects of quantitative research.
Researchers with a theoretical orientation often want to objectively explain in their
research how the social or physical environment works (r s ¼ 0.38, p , 0.0005).
Researchers with a theoretical orientation also tend to test hypotheses and models in
order to construct a valid picture of reality (r s ¼ 0.34, p ¼ 0.002). Theory is needed in
identifying or devising some manner of representing the construct under investigation
( Johnson and Christensen, 2004). This demonstrates the case of construct validity,
having a good definition and explanation of the meaning of the construct of interest
( Johnson and Christensen, 2004).
Researchers with a theoretical orientation view their research as a tool that contributes
to a sustainable environment (r s ¼ 0.29, p ¼ 0.008). There may be a science-politics
dichotomy assuming that “science” is uncontaminated by power, whereas the term
“politics” implies competing interests and power dynamics. A good scientific theory may
be a good tool for political change. Perhaps the idea of theory as a tool describes the power
of language or models. This approach displayed by the respondents of current research
also could be referred to the post-modern idea of mediating interpretations (Cosgrove and
McHugh, 2008).

Correlations between quantitative orientation and other research orientations

Compared to the qualitative orientation statements related to the general summary
variable described above, the general summary variable describing quantitative
orientation had only one statistically significant connection with specific statements. The Education
connection was again with theoretical aspects of research. Quantitative researchers tend to for sustainable
consider it important to implement or test a certain model in their research (r s ¼ 0.43,
p , 0.0005). The researchers can be interested to ensure validity, having a good definition development
and explanation of the meaning of the construct of interest. The multiple features of any
construct and the lack of a clear explication of the prototypical features of a construct
create difficulty for researchers when they try to represent constructs of their interest in a 119
research study (Johnson and Christensen, 2004). Quantitative research seems to be a more
clear-cut research orientation with fewer connections to other orientations.

Discussion
This study is the first attempt to find out the methodological preferences and
orientations of those doing research on ESD using quantitative approach in
international context.
Concerning the two dimensions shown in Figure 1, we have to admit that the division
between accommodative and assimilative dimensions is not going to be solved anytime
soon. The division between quantitative and qualitative methods seems to be persistent.
What is needed is an opening up to the environmental phenomenon, exploring boldly, but
also humbly listening to the weak signals that the data whispers to us. On the other hand,
quantitative methods with their more rigorous conducting ability, with an eye towards
reliability and operationalism conjointly tie the definitions to the processes under
scrutiny. Mixed methods serve as an important bridge across disciplines providing a
synergistic approach to research design in which the different methods inform one
another. Moreover, mixed methods can be used to compare quantitative and qualitative
results, validate and explain quantitative data, enhance an experimental study, explain
how a mechanism worked within a correlational design, select participants for in-depth
study, develop a suitable instrument and to generalize qualitative findings (Clark and
Creswell, 2008).
Almost a third of the researchers in this study identified their research as a
mixed method study. Mixed methods are not, in any case, an easy way out of the
dichotomy. Teddlie et al. (2008) describe that the persistent well-worn incompatibility
thesis between quantitative and qualitative methods is still alive. Mixed methods
require versatile research skills and often require greater resources (Clark and Creswell,
2008). The results describe the first continuum of research activity with the need for
opening up to the requisites and possibilities of environmental change, on the one hand,
and applying the existing prerequisites of scientific rigour and validity, on the other.
The other dimension in Figure 1 is the continuum of adaptation agency. The
first agentive aspect of research is that it is used as a justification, basis or reasoning
for societal choices. Nevertheless, scientific criteria are not value-free. Contextual values,
including, for example, issues of gender, bias not only the scientific research of individuals
but also what is accepted as valid science by the entire scientific community (Rosser, 2008).
Thus, the scientific results and theories used for political or individual choices carry the
bias, traditions and values of the scientific community. Second, the situated and discursive
nature of identities anticipates the situated and discursive nature of the researchers,
where both the researchers and their research subjects produce new cultural content along
the research process (Kwan, 2008). Third, as the results of this research show, ESD
researchers share a commitment to progressive social change. The longer the researcher
IJSHE has studied ESD, the more important the motives are for environmental and societal
12,2 change. Kwan (2008) argues that researchers should scale their personal/local level studies
(including emotions, feelings, values and ethics) to power relations and political processes
to truly address the problem at hand. A specific case of this agency is action research
where specific objectives, improvement and involvement are essential.
The important participative aspects of ESD research can be located on any point on
120 the adaptation – agency continuum. The research can best serve SD by giving objective,
precise and timely information to be used as the tools for cultural change and personal
choices. On the other hand, the very process of studying SD carries agency. The results
of this research indicate that the emergent fourfold model of research orientations is a
promising way to describe both the research process and the results alike. The different
degrees of accommodation and agency need to be acknowledged.
The model also could be used as a tool for a larger audience to evaluate SD
addressing four orientations:
(1) understanding of the motifs and discourse of SD (qualitative);
(2) obtaining a valid and generalized picture of SD and its mechanisms
(quantitative);
(3) creating tools to connect past and future (theoretic); and
(4) deepening the awareness of our role as the producers of cultural content and
ingredients of SD (participative).

Acknowledging the agentive and adaptive tendencies in their work, the researchers
may get a more realistic view on their identity and importance as the dynamic factors
in the emerging future. However, the impact of the research is impossible to measure
right away. It can hide within the theoretic models, methods selected, results obtained,
forum discussed or in the context developed.
The model and questionnaire could be of use not only for the self-reflection of
experienced researchers but also for undergraduate and graduate university students
and for university teachers involved in implementation of ESD in their universities.
Also, well-informed political decisions regarding the research and its implementation
are impossible without the objective and precise profile of research orientations.
Setting the directions for the future research, the model needs further refining,
support from the qualitative research, and the questionnaire requires the improvement
of psychometric standards and the data collection from larger sample for a greater
degree of validity.

References
Breiting, S. (2009), “Issues for environmental education and ESD research development: looking
ahead from WEEC 2007 in Durban”, Environmental Education Research, Vol. 15 No. 2,
pp. 199-207.
Cantell, H. (2006), “Sustainable education, learning processes and environmentally responsible
behavior of students”, in Pipere, A. (Ed.), Education and Sustainable Development:
First Steps toward Changes, Vol. 1, Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, pp. 90-100.
Clark, V.L. and Creswell, J.W. (2008), “Mixing quantitative and qualitative approaches.
An introduction to emergent mixed methods research”, in Hesse-Biber, S.N. and
Leacy, S.N. (Eds), Handbook of Emergent Methods, Guilford, New York, NY, pp. 363-87.
Corney, G. (2006), “Education for sustainable development: an empirical study of the tensions Education
and challenges faced by geography student teachers”, International Research in
Geographical and Environmental Education, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 224-40. for sustainable
Cosgrove, L. and McHugh, M. (2008), “A post-newtonian, postmodern approach to science: new development
methods in social action research”, in Hesse-Biber, S.N. and Leacy, S.N. (Eds), Handbook of
Emergent Methods, Guilford, New York, NY, pp. 73-87.
Hansjörg, S. and Werner, R. (2006), “Research in environmental education and education for 121
sustainable development in Germany: the state of the art”, Environmental Education
Research, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 47-63.
Heimlich, J.E. (2007), “Research trends in the United States: EE to ESD”, Journal of Education for
Sustainable Development, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 219-27.
Johnson, B. and Christensen, L. (2004), Educational Research, Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed
Approaches, Pearson, Boston, MA.
Johnson, R.B. and Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (2004), “Mixed methods research: a research paradigm
whose time has come”, Educational Researchers, Vol. 33 No. 7, pp. 14-26.
Kuusisto, A. (2005), “Methodological issues and challenges in studying young people’s religious
identity”, in Helve, H. (Ed.), Mixed Method in Youth Research, Finnish Youth Research
Network, Helsinki, pp. 197-212.
Kwan, M-P. (2008), “Emergent methods in feminist geography”, in Hesse-Biber, S.N. and
Leacy, S.N. (Eds), Handbook of Emergent Methods, Guilford, New York, NY, pp. 613-24.
Landorf, H., Doscher, S. and Rocco, T. (2008), “Education for sustainable human development:
towards a definition”, Theory and Research in Education, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 221-36.
Leal Filho, W. (2000), “Dealing with misconceptions on the concept of sustainability”,
International Journal of Sustainability Education, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 9-19.
Leech, N.L., Onwuengbuzie, A.J., Murtonen, M., Mikkilä-Erdmann, M. and Tähtinen, J. (2007),
“Researcher workshop for student teachers – an example of a mixed methods learning
environment”, in Murtonen, M., Rautapuro, J. and Väisänen, P. (Eds), Learning and
Teaching of Research Methods at University, Finnish Educational Research Association,
Turku, pp. 205-26.
McKeown, R. (2007), “Setting the stage for a strategic research agenda for the UNDESD:
a joint UNU-UNESCO workshop”, Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, Vol. 1
No. 1, pp. 91-6.
Niglas, K. (2007), “Introducing the quantitative-qualitative continuum: an alternative view on
teaching research methods courses”, in Murtonen, M., Rautapuro, J. and Väisänen, P. (Eds),
Learning and Teaching of Research Methods at University, Finnish Educational Research
Association, Turku, pp. 185-204.
Pallant, J. (2007), SPSS Survival Manual, McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead.
Piaget, J. (1978), Behavior and Evolution, Pantheon Books, New York, NY.
Pipere, A. and Reunamo, J. (2008), “Exploring the research for ESD: agency of perception”,
paper presented at the 6th JTET Conference Sustainable Development, Culture, Education,
June 4-7, at Anadolu University, Turkey.
Reunamo, J. (2007a), “Adaptation and agency in early childhood education”, European Early
Childhood Education Research Journal, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 365-77.
Reunamo, J. (2007b), “Children’s agency: imperative in education for sustainable development”,
in Pipere, A. (Ed.), Education and Sustainable Development: First Steps toward Changes,
Daugavpils University Academic Press Saule, Daugavpils, pp. 20-37.
IJSHE Reunamo, J. (2007c), Tasapainoinen varhaiskasvatus – erilaisia tapoja suhtautua muutokseen
(A Balanced early Childhood Education – Different Orientations to Change), WSOY, Helsinki.
12,2
Robson, C. (2002), Real World Research, Blackwell, Malden, MA.
Rosser, S.V. (2008), “Gender inclusion, contextual values, and strong objectivity”, in Hesse-Biber, S.N.
and Leacy, S.N. (Eds), Handbook of Emergent Methods, Guilford, New York, NY, pp. 53-72.
Salı̄te, I., Mičule, I., Kravale, M., Iliško, D. and Stakle, A. (2007), “Toward the sustainability in
122 teacher education: promise of action research”, in Pipere, A. (Ed.), Education and
Sustainable Development: First Steps toward Changes, Vol. 2, Daugavpils University,
Daugavpils, pp. 263-92.
Shallcross, T., Loubser, C., Le Roux, C., O’Donoghue, R. and Lupele, J. (2006), “Promoting
sustainable development through whole school approaches: an international, intercultural
teacher education research and development project”, Journal of Education for Teaching,
Vol. 32 No. 3, pp. 283-301.
Sterling, S. (2001), “Sustainable education: re-visioning learning and change”, Schumacher
Briefing No. 6, Green Books, Dartington.
Teddlie, C., Tashakkori, A. and Johnson, B. (2008), “Emergent techniques in the gathering and
analysis of mixed methods data”, in Hesse-Biber, S.N. and Leacy, S.N. (Eds), Handbook of
Emergent Methods, Guilford, New York, NY, pp. 389-413.
Tormey, R., Liddy, M., Maguire, H. and McCloat, A. (2008), “Working in the action/research
nexus for education for sustainable development: two case studies from Ireland”,
International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 428-40.
UNESCO (2009), “Monitoring and evaluation of ESD”, Proceedings of the UNESCO World
Conference on Education for Sustainable Development, March 31-April 2, Bonn, Germany,
Workshop 17.
Winter, C. and Firth, R. (2007), “Knowledge about education for sustainable development:
four case studies of student teachers in English secondary schools”, Journal of Education
for Teaching, Vol. 33 No. 3, pp. 341-58.
Wright, T. (2007), “Higher education for sustainability: developing a comprehensive research
agenda”, Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 101-6.
Wright, T. and Pullen, S. (2007), “Examining the literature: a bibliometric study of ESD journal
articles in the education resources information center database”, Journal of Education for
Sustainable Development, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 77-90.

Appendix. The operationalized statements in the questionnaire

Theoretic
.
I am interested in finding how processes evolve according to the underlying theoretical
framework (2).
.
The philosophical or paradigmatic aspects of ESD are important in my research (8).
.
I consider it important to implement or test a certain model in my research (17).
.
In my research it is important to find a good construct which explains the events (26).
.
It is important that I carefully implement the methodology and methods that I have
chosen in my research (21).
.
The value of my research is in its theoretic clarity and power (13).
.
In my research I want to find out how peoples ideas change the environment (30).
.
I am applying a specific theory in my research (23).
Participative Education
.
I want to contribute to societal development with my research (1). for sustainable
. I am conducting applied research with practical relevance (7). development
.
I try to provide concrete tools to work within ESD (9).
.
I see my research as a tool that contributes to sustainable environment (25).
.
I consider my research as social or cultural reformer (12). 123
.
The objectives for a sustainable future are more important for my research than the
general criteria for scientific quality (14).
. I study the objectives of ESD and how to reach them (29).
.
My study is about predicting, preparing and working for the future now (20).

Quantitative
.
I try to make my research as time and space independent as possible (19).
.
I want in my research to objectively explain how the social or physical environment
works (32).
.
My research tests hypotheses and models to construct a more valid picture of reality (11).
.
I try to exclude intervening variables and control the research situation (15).
.
I use numerical data in my analysis to estimate statistical significance and reliability in
evaluating the research results (24).
.
I am concerned about my sample representing the population (28).
.
I am testing the changes in peoples’ motives and attitudes (5).
.
I am assessing the dynamics (or reorganization/or transformation) of people’s learning or
development (3).

Qualitative
.
My research focuses on specific social or historical situations which are connected to
specific times and places (10).
.
I have chosen my topic or data intentionally, keeping my research objectives in mind (6).
.
I am not concerned about the statistical randomness of sample selected for my research (4).
.
I presume that the social reality I am studying is constructed uniquely by the
participants (16).
.
If I use numbers or statistics they are used only to help in understanding or description (31).
.
Understanding the meanings and motives constructed by people are my main research
interests (18).
.
I think it is important that I do my research in a natural setting (27).
. I do holistic interpretations to present the whole situation with all the ambiguities and
complexities involved (22).

Note: Number indicates the order of the statements in the questionnaire.

About the authors

Jyrki Reunamo, PhD is a Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Behavioural Sciences at the University
of Helsinki, Finland, where he teaches research methods and supervises Master students.
IJSHE Other courses include pedagogic subjects and information technology. He has published articles in
international journals, written a book Tasapainoinen varhaiskasvatus (A Balanced Early Childhood
12,2 Education) and presents papers at national and international conferences. In Jyrki Reunamo’s
present main research topic, the development of young children’s orientation process, he tries to
expose the ways children’s constructs are changing the environment. A compilation of his
publications can be seen at www.helsinki.fi/,reunamo/article/lto-art.htm
Anita Pipere, Doctor of Psychology, is a Professor of the Institute of Sustainable Education
124 (ISE) at the Faculty of Education and Management at Daugavpils University, Latvia, where she
teaches undergraduate and graduate courses on educational psychology, philosophy of
education, qualitative research methods, researchers’ identity, and supervises Master and
doctoral students. She has published articles in national and international journals, written two
books and presents papers at national and international conferences. From 2002 to 2009 she
served as the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability. She was an
editor of two volumes of Education and Sustainable Development: First Steps toward Changes,
Daugavpils University; currently she is an Editorial Board member of Eurasian Journal of
Educational Research, Acta Paedagogica Vilensia and several other national journals and
collections. Anita Pipere is an expert in the Evaluation Commission at the Higher Education
Quality Evaluation Centre of Latvia. Anita Pipere is the corresponding author and can be
contacted at: anita.pipere@du.lv

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com

Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

View publication stats