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Module 2 - Electromagnetic Waves

Principles of Electromagnetics MNO Sadiku → problems on gradient of scalar field

Physics of Gradient, Divergence and Curl

What is a field?

A field is a region of space in which a physical quantity (scalar or vector) varies from point to point

State and describe the 2 types of field

Scalar Field → A scalar quantity (ex: temperature) is assigned to each point in the region in space

Only the magnitude of a quantity will may or may not change at the different points

Vector Field → A vector quantity (ex: electric, velocity field) is assigned to each point in the region in
space

The magnitude of the quantity might not be changing but the direction is changing from point to
point

Or, the magnitude is changing and the direction is the same from point to point

Or both magnitude and the direction is changing from point to point

Explain how a vector field is plotted

Vector field can be a 2 or 3 dimension and given by the equation like: yi − 2xj ( i and j with cap)

By substituting different coordinates (x,y) it will give a vector for each coordinate

The vector will show the direction and magnitude of the quantity at each point

Then plot each point as arrow vectors at its direction and magnitude (by length)

What is a uniform field?

The vectors at each point on the field will be parallel and equidistant to each other and have the same
magnitude

This means the magnitude and direction of the vector quantity will be the same at every point in the
field

In a non-uniform field, either the magnitude or direction or both changes from point to point

State what the Del Operator is equivalent to

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 It is a vector differential operator

This means it allows the partial derivative to be done on scalar or vector quantities

State the 3 way in which the Del Operator is operated on scalar and vector fields and their significance

Multiplying the Del Operator with Scalar quantity

This is give the Gradient of the scalar field → result is a vector

Dot Product of the Del Operator with a Vector Quantity

This gives the Divergence of the vector field → result is a scalar

Cross Product of the Del Operator with a Vector Quantity

This gives the Curl of the vector field → result is a vector

Derive the equation to show the total change in a scalar quantity (T) from one point to another in that
scalar field

Index 1

dT → total change in T

dL → displacement from one point to another

How can be Gradient of the Scalar Field ( ∇T) be used?

Using the dot product identity: dT = ∣∇T ∣∣dl∣cosθ
We can see that the maximum change in T happens when cosθ = 1, when θ = 0 → dT = ∣∇T ∣∣dl∣
Since both ∇T and dL gives a direction, we can say that when both the gradient of T and
displacement are parallel, then dT will be maximum

∇
So direction of T at any point on the scalar field will be in the direction in which the magnitude of
the scalar quantity is changing by a maximum amount

So to move from a point P to a new point where T changes by a maximum amount, the direction to
∇
that new point will be the direction of the gradient of T ( T) at P → direction will then be the unit
vector of ∇T after substituting point P into in
If we displace from P in direction of ∇T there will be max dT → this is like saying we can reach
the new point in the least possible time as the change in value of T is maximum

State the significance of gradient of a scalar field

So direction of ∇T at any point on the scalar field will be in the direction in which the magnitude of T
is changing by a maximum amount

∇
State the significance of the magnitude of the Gradient of the Scalar Field (| T|)

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 This will give the actual value of the slope at a particular point on the scalar field

It gives the gradient of the tangent to that point on the field

Derive the formula to find the Divergence of a Vector Field

Index 2

When the del vector operator operates on a vector field it produces a scalar field giving the quantity of
the vector field's source at each point

What is the significance of divergence?

By calculating the divergence of a vector field with a function (x,y,z), we are finding out the location of
the points where the field has a positive negative or 0 divergence

i.e we are trying to find how many sources and sinks are present in a vector field

Describe the divergence of a positive and negative point charge

A positive point charge has a positive divergence as its electric field lines are radially spreading out →
it is referred to as a source

A negative point charge has a negative divergence as its electric fields are radially going in towards
the point charge → it is referred to as a sink

When is the divergence 0

The divergence is zero in a uniform electric field

The strength of the field is same at every point and the direction of the field is same

∇ x F = 0 → When the divergence of a field is equal to 0, it is called as a Solenoidal Field

What is an Electric Field?

A region of space around a charged particle where another charged particle will experience a force

What are the 2 ways of producing an electric field

When the charges are at rest → it produces an Electrostatic Field

When the charges are in motion → it produces an Electrodynamic Field (commonly said as
Electric field)

For a positive point charge at the origin, write the equation to find its electric field strength

Derive the formula to find the Curl of Vector Field

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 Index 2

What is the significance of curl of a vector field?

By calculating the curl of a vector field with a function (x,y,z), we are finding out whether this vector
field is able to produce rotation at a point on the field

When the curl is positive, we say there is a positive curl or rotation

When the curl is negative, we say there is a negative curl or rotation

When the curl is zero, we say there is zero curl

State the formula for the force acting on a moving charge in a magnetic field (application of curl)

F = q(v x B)
F = q∣v∣∣B∣sinθ x n
F, v and B are vector quantities

n is the direction vector of F

Find the magnitude of the force

∣F ∣ = q∣v∣∣B∣sinθ
Describe the direction of this force and its effect on the moving charge particle

The force will be perpendicular to the plane of the vector v and B

The force will go into the plane

Therefore, this force along with its velocity will cause the charged particle to move in a helical path
into the page

What does the say about the magnetic field B

It shows that the magnetic field is a curling field as it is able to produce rotation on the charged
particle

Describe the motion of a charged particle in a uniform electrostatic field

The charged particle will move in a straight line along the electrostatic field lines

Therefore, the electrostatic field E is not a curling field as it does not cause rotation (irrotational field)

∇ x E = 0 → Electrostatic Field has zero curl

Describe the motion of a charged particle in an electrodynamic field

The charges are moving in an electrodynamic field producing current

When current is present, there is a magnetic field

So a charged particle with velocity in the magnetic field will cause rotation or curl

So an Electrodynamic Field has a non-zero curl

Line, Surface and Volume Integral

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 State the 2 broad classes of charges

Point Charges

A charge is located at a single point

Continuous Charge Distribution (Index 3)

Charge is distributed over a line, surface or volume

Line Charge Distribution

Charge (+ve or -ve) is distributed over a line/wire where the total charge is Q

Let a small segment of the wire be dL and the charge on the segment be dq

Line Charge Density (λ) = dq/dl → charge per unit length (Cm^-1)

Write the formula to find the total charge on the wire for uniform and non uniform distribution
of charge

Surface Charge Distribution

Charge is distributed over a 2D surface where total charge is Q

Let a small patch/area of the surface be dS and the charge on the small patch be dq

Surface Charge Density (σ ) = dq/ds → charge per unit area (Cm^-2)

Write the formula to find the total charge on the surface for uniform and non uniform
charge distribution

Volume Charge Distribution

Charge is distributed over a 3D volume where total charge is Q

Let a small volume of the whole volume be dv and the charge on the small volume be dq

Volume Charge Density (ρ) = dq/dv → charge per unit volume (Cm^-3)

Write the formula to find the total charge on the whole volume for uniform and non uniform
charge distribution

What does Line Integral mean?

It is the integration of a physical quantity over a line or a path

This will give another meaningful physical quantity

Derive the equation to find the work done when moving a box from one point to another (explanation)

A non-linear path is split into very small segments

At each segment find the dot product of the force vector and displacement vector on the box and
add up the values to give total work done

So overall, the line integral of the force applied on the box over a path gives the total work done to
displace the box

What physical quantity is given when the line integral of an Electric Field (E) over a path is done?

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 The electric potential

The electric potential (also called the electric field potential) is the amount of work/energy needed
to move a unit of electric charge from a reference point to the specific point in an electric field

What physical quantity is given when the line integral of a Magnetic Field (B) over a path is done?

μ0 I → Ampere’s Law
Derive the equation for the line integral of a an Electric Field over a path A to B

Index 4

What is the significance of this?

It shows the work done required to move a test point charge from point A to point B in that
electric field

State the significance when point B is at infinity

The equation will shows the electric potential of a point charge in the electric field

The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done in
moving a test positive charge from infinity to that point along any path when the electrostatic
forces are applied.

Derive the equation for the line integral of a an Electric Field over a path A to B and back to A

Index 5

What is the significance of this?

It shows that line integral of an electrostatic field over a closed path is always equal to 0

This means that the electrostatic field is a conservative field

Work done by electrostatic force on a closed path is always 0

What does Surface Integral mean?

It is the integration of a physical quantity over a surface or area

Why is area a vector quantity?

Because every area has a particular orientation

To define this orientation, an area vector is used

An area vector of a surface will be a vector that is outward normal to that surface

So when orientation of this surface changes, area vector will change its direction

What physical quantity is given when the surface integral of an Electric Field (E) over an area is taken?

It gives the Electric Flux within that area → the number of field lines passing through an area

We take a small patch of the surface with area dS and find the dot product of the Electric Field with dS

Then integrate it to calculate the total electric field lines through that whole area (addition of dot
products of all the patches of that surface)

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 Derive the Surface Integral of an Electric Field

Index 5

Classification of Surfaces

By number of sides of that surface

2 - sided surface (Circle)

Can move from one side to the other by crossing 1 boundary

1-sided surface (Mobius Strip)

There is no boundary

In Electromagnetic Theory, only 2-sided surfaces is dealt with

Closed and Open Surface

Closed Surface

There is no open boundary like a ball where we physically can’t go from one side to another

It always encloses a volume → sphere (4/3 pi r^3)

Open Surface

There are open boundaries

It may or may not have a volume

Ex: A 2D disc has boundaries but doesn’t enclose a volume

Ex: A bowl has an open boundary (crossing from inside to outside of bowl) and it has volume

This is important as we have to know if we are integrating over a closed or open surface

What does Volume Integral mean?

It is the integration of a physical quantity over a volume

What physical quantity is given when the volume integral of varying density of a fluid over a volume

It gives the mass of the fluid in that volume

the density varies with volume

Second Derivatives with Del Operator

Derive the second derivative of Gradient of a Scalar

Gradient of a scalar gives a vector result, so we can find divergence and curl of result but not gradient
of it

1. ∇ ⋅ (∇T ) = ∇2 T → Divergence of Gradient of a Scalar

∇2 is the Laplacian Operator
2. ∇ x (∇T ) = 0 → Curl of Gradient of a Scalar

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 Gradient of a Scalar shows the direction in which the function changes by maximum

A direction can’t have a curl so result is always 0

Derive the second derivative of Divergence of a Vector

Divergence of a vector gives a scalar result, so we can only find the gradient of the result

3. ∇(∇ ⋅ F ) = ... → Gradient of Divergence of a Vector

This is rarely happens in electromagnetic waves

Derive the second derivative of Curl of a Vector

Curl of a vector gives a vector result, so we can find divergence and curl of result but not gradient of it

4. ∇ ⋅ (∇ x F ) = 0 → Divergence of Curl of a Vector

Curl of a vector field shows that a vector field has rotation around a point

If a vector field is curling, it can’t diverge so result is always 0

4. ∇ x (∇ x F ) = ∇(∇ ⋅ F ) − (∇2 F ) → Curl of Curl of a Vector

This results in a triple product so we can use BAC-CAB rule for result

Maxwell’s Equations
GAUSS LAW numerical not tested

What is the First Maxwell Equation

It is the Gauss’s Law in Electrostatics

Gauss’s Law states that the net electric flux passing through a closed surface = qe /ε0

Mathematical equation in index 6

THIS IS THE INTEGRAL FORM OF 1st ME (significance of it stated in bold)

CS → no open boundary like a ball where we physically can’t go from one side to another

Describe Gauss’s Law in Electrostatics

Inside a closed surface there are a lot of charges (+ve and -ve)

+ve charges have an outward flux of electric field lines while -ve charges have an inward flux
of electric field lines

So the Net flux = Outward flux - Inward Flux

And the qe will be the total charge inside this closed surface

State the Coulomb’s Law formulas to find electric field for a point, line, surface and volume charge

Index 6

Why was Gauss’s Law used to calculate electric field when Coulombs Law already there

Coulombs Law involve integrals which can be complicated to solve

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 and the relationship between each of the charge densities and r can be complex making the
integration complicated

So Gauss’s Law is used instead which exploits the symmetry of charge distributions (from
gaussian surface concept) to make calculations easier

By doing this, the electric field (E) will become a constant and taken out of the integral making
calculation easier

State the 3 types of Gaussian Surfaces and describe how they are used to find the electric field

Spherical Gaussian Surface

GS outside the sphere (derivation index 6)

To find the electric field due to a point charge or a sphere with uniformly distributed charge on
its surface

We have to assume that the point on the field where we want to calculate the electric field lies
on the imaginary spherical GS

This surface is concentric to the original sphere

Take the radius of the spherical gaussian surface as r and radius of the original sphere, R

Now apply Gauss’s Law, take a small area around the point of interest on GS with an area dS

The area vector (n cap) will be normal to this area and radially outward and dS will be
pointing it that direction

The electric field (E vector) of the sphere will also point it this direction

Now take the dot product of E and dS in Gauss’s Law (integration one)

The magnitude of the electric field (E) will be constant throughout this GS so it can be
taken out of the integration → now integrate over the surface to give surface area of sphere

Now rearrange the formula to give E in terms of radius of GS and substitute values to get
answer

GS inside the sphere (derivation index 7)

If we want to find the electric field inside the sphere with uniform charge on its surface, a GS
is taken inside

But the GS will not be enclosing any charge in it as all the charge is outside the actual sphere
→ qe = 0

So we can see that the electric field inside the metal sphere is 0

NOTE: if the sphere was a full solid sphere with charge distributed evenly throughout
the volume, then the previous method is used

Cylindrical Gaussian Surface

Derivation on Index 7

A charge is distributed over a wire/line with line charge density λ

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 The GS will be a cylinder of length L enclosing this line charge, and this line will be the axis of the
cylinder

The point of interest to calculate the electric field should be on the curved surface of the GS

distance r will be the perpendicular distance from POI to the line charge distribution

Now assume a small patch of area on the GS around the POI with area dS

The area vector (n cap) will be normal to this area and radially outward and dS will be pointing
it that direction

The electric field line of the line charge will also be pointing in the same direction

Now take the dot product of E and dS in Gauss’s Law (integration one)

The magnitude of the electric field (E) will be constant throughout the curved surface of GS so it
can be taken out of the integration → now integrate over the surface to give surface area of the
cylinder

Now rearrange the formula to give E in terms of radius and length of GS

But we don’t know the total charge (qe ) on the line, as it could be an infinite charge distribution

So total charge qe is found by λl where λ is line charge density and L is length of

line/cylinder

Pill Box Gaussian Surface

Index 8

For a surface with even charge distribution, the pill box GS will be in such a way that half the box
will be above the surface and the other half below the surface → sheet is passing through the pill
box

The top and bottom face of GS will be normal to the electric field lines as the normal vector of
these faces are parallel to the electric field lines

The normal vector of the 4 side faces are perpendicular to the electric field lines so electric flux
through these faces is 0

The POI will be on the top or bottom surface of the box

NOTE: The magnitude of electric field above and below the charged surface does not
depend on the distance of the POI from the sheet.

State the 2 theorems of Vector Calculus

Gauss Divergence Theorem (Statement)

This theorem states that if V is the volume bound by a closed surface S, the volume
integral of divergence of the vector function (F) over volume V is equal to the surface
integral of the vector function (F) over the closed surface S that surrounds that given
volume

Gauss Divergence Theorem (Explanation)

Formula in index 9

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 It shows that you can convert a surface integral into a volume integral or vice versa

The LHS closed integral of F ⋅ dS shows the flux of vector field F passing through a closed
surface S

The RHS shows the Divergence of F in volume V enclosed by the closed surface S

Shows the number of sources or sinks per unit volume so by multiplying with the volume total
source/sink is found

Stoke’s Theorem (Statement)

This theorem states that if S is the surface bound by the closed path P, the surface integral
of curl of a vector function (B) over the surface S is equal to the line integral of vector
function (B) over the closed path P binding that surface

Stoke’s Theorem (Explanation)

This theorem connects the line integral with a surface integral

The RHS shows the curl of the vector field over the surface (S) bound by the closed line path

Surface S is open surface

Derive the Differential Form of Gauss’s Law from the Integral Form → DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF
1st ME

Index 9

We apply Gauss Divergence Theorem to LHS of integral form of Gauss Law

Since the charge is enclosed by a volume, RHS can be written in terms of volume charge density

Now both sides of the equation will be a volume integral running over the same volume

So their integrands must be the same → equate them to get Differential Form of Gauss Law

If we know the electric field in a region then we can find its divergence to then find the volume charge
density in that region

Significance of Differential Form of 1st Maxwell Equation

Divergence of electric field is equal to the charge density inside of the closed surface of interest
multiplied by the constant 1/ε0

Divergence is how much the electric field spreads out from a given point

More charge in the closed surface means the divergence will be more

Describe the direction of magnetic field lines

Magnetic field lines always form closed loops

This is seen in bar magnets, a wire with constant current passing through, and a solenoid with
constant current passing through

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 Describe the magnetic field lines passing through a closed surface when a magnet is brought close to it

The number of magnetic field lines going into the closed surface is equal to the number of field lines
coming out of the surface

So the Net magnetic flux = 0

State the 2nd Maxwell Equation (with significance)

Formula in Index 10 → THIS IS THE INTEGRAL FORM OF 2nd ME

Closed surface integral of B ⋅ dS =0

Explanation: Magnetic field lines always form closed loops

This is because magnetic poles always exist in pairs → N and S pole always there

So net magnetic flux passing through a closed surface is always equal to 0

Derive the Differential Form of 2nd Maxwell Equation

We apply Gauss Divergence Theorem to LHS of integral form of Gauss Law

And this will equal to 0

Since the volume can’t equal to 0, we say that ∇ ⋅ B = 0 → differential form of 2nd ME
Significance of Differential Form of 2nd ME

This form’s equation indicates that there are no magnetic monopoles

The Divergence of B is equal to zero

The magnetic field lines have no beginnings or ends

There is no source for them unlike electric field which have a source and electric monopoles do
exist

State the 3rd Maxwell Equation (significance)

It is the Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

When a magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, then it induces an EMF in it

Module 2 - Electromagnetic Waves 12

 EMF is the electric potential

If the magnetic flux passing through a loop of wire can be changed with time, then the rate of
change of magnetic flux will give an induced EMF (e) and an induced current

And using Lenz’s Law, the induced EMF will oppose the change in flux (hence the -ve symbol
in the formula)

State the formula of the magnetic flux passing through an area

Index 10

Using this formula, state the 3 ways in which the magnetic flux can be changed

We can change the orientation of the area → rotate the area

We can change the magnetic field by using electromagnets

The wires are wound over material of high magnetic permeability

We can change the current or number of wire wound

Change the area of the loop of wire it self over time

This gives a motional EMF → e=Bvl

Derive the integral form of the 3rd Maxwell Equation

EMF is noting but the electric potential

So e can be substituted by the formula for electric potential using the LINE INTEGRAL (index 4)

Derive the differential form of 3rd ME

Use Stokes Theorem on LHS and leave RHS as it is

Now on both sides of equation, the integral is running over the same surface

So the integrant will be equal (equate)

But partial derivatives is used in RHS as B is a vector quantity...before derivative was taken for
the flux (Faraday Law) which is scalar

Significance of Differential Form of 3rd Maxwell Equation

This form’s equation shows that the curl of an electric field is equal to the negative of the change in
magnetic field over time

That means if the magnetic field is not changing over time, the electric field lines will be straight
(no/zero curl)

If it does change over time, the electric field lines will curl in the direction depending on if the curl
is positive or negative

What does Magnetostatics refer to?

The magnetic field is produced by a system at rest

Module 2 - Electromagnetic Waves 13

 Ex: The magnetic field produced when a steady current passes through a wire

Ex: Magnets which are at rest

What does Magneto dynamics refer to?

The magnetic field is changing with in terms of direction and/or magnitude

Ex: Magnetic filed produced by a non-steady current in wire

What is Volume Current Density and state its formula

J = dI/dA
J is the volume current density which is a vector quantity

Index 11 → finding the total current through volume

State Ampere’s Law and its formula

If you have a current distribution or current, the symmetry of the current can be used to
compute the magnetic field

This is similar to Gauss’s Law which uses symmetry of charge to find the electric field

Formula in index 11

The line integral of a magnetic field around a closed path is equal to μ0 times the net current
enclosed by that path

Net current is used as the current passing through this enclosed path can be in opposite direction,
which means there will be negative sign

This closed path is called an amperian loop

Explain how Ampere’s Law is used

The objective is to find the magnetic field of a the current about the circular path it is passing through

Take a small segment of of this circular path called dL

This segment is called the line element

The direction of the line element will be in the direction we are traversing along the circular path

The current passing through the circular path is I

The magnetic field lines are in concentric circles going in anticlockwise direction (right hand thumb
rule)

So the magnetic field at the line element of the circular path will be pointing in the same direction as B
vector

So they are parallel → B x dL cos O now...

Now since, magnetic field is constant throughout this circular path, it can be taken out of the integral
to them compute B → magnitude of magnetic field at r distance away from the wire

State the Differential Form of Ampere’s Law

Index 12

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 State the flaw that was in Ampere’s Law

When taking divergence of D.E form of Amperes Law, the LHS equal to 0 while RHS is a non-zero
value

This is mathematically wrong

After using Equation of Continuity it is shown that Ampere’s Law is valid for only steady current

But if there is non-steady current, it violates the universal law of conservation of charge

Local Conservation of Charge (Index 13)

If a positive charge is leaving a point in a conductor, it leaves a negative charge at that point → when
volume charge density is not constant → happens with non-steady current

If a positive charge is leaving a point, the same amount of positive charge will enter and compensate
→ when volume charge density is constant → happens with steady current

Explain Displacement Current Density JD

When ampere law was taken on either side of a charging capacitor, what evert current is entering the
amperian loop, also leaves the loop

But when taking the amperian loop diagonally across a plate of the capacitor, there was a current
leaving the loop but not entering it

So Maxwell said that there is a current existing between the plates called the displacement current (
ID
It is called this due to displacement of charges

In a charged capacitor, the left plate is positively charged and the inner side of the left plat is
negatively charged

So the inner side of the right plate is also positively charged and the outer side is negatively
charged

So there is a displacement of positive and negative charges

This creates a time varying electric field across the capacitor plates (as the plates get charged
overtime and charge is proportional to electric field)

So this time varying field is due to the displacement of charges across the plate → reflecting in
formula for JD

State the 4th Maxell Equation

The line integral of a magnetic field B is equal to the Conduction current plus the displacement current
times a constant

It is derived from modifying Ampere’s Law from I enclosed to Ic + Id

Significance of Differential Form of 4th ME

The curl of the magnetic field is equal to the current density plus any change in electric field current
(which changes value of Jd)

Module 2 - Electromagnetic Waves 15

 State what the 3rd and 4th Maxwell Equation shows in general

In 3rd Maxwell Equation, the electric field and magnetic filed has been unified

So they are dependent on each other

In the 4th Maxwell Equation, the magnetic field has been linked with the displacement current which
creates an electric field

What are Electromagnetic Waves

EM waves are changing electric and magnetic fields, transporting energy and momentum through
space

EM radiation also exerts pressure (radiation pressure)

EM waves require no medium, they can travel through empty space.

Describe the electric field and magnetic field of EM waves

Both the field are oscillating perpendicular to the propagation of the EM wave as they are transverse
waves

The E and B fields are also perpendicular to each other and are in phase

State the equation for the electric and magnetic field of EM waves (in one dimension)

How are EM waves linked to Maxwell’s Equations?

EM waves are solutions of Maxwell's equations, which are the fundamental equations of
electrodynamics

Derive the equation of motion of Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space (vacuum) in terms of the electric
field

State the Classical Wave Equation in 3D

Describe what wave fronts are

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 Ex: A bulb at a point will give of light wave that starts at a point (source) and travels in all 3
dimensions

Assume, these waves are monochromatic → same wavelength and frequency

So if we join all the points of the first maximum amplitude of all the waves, a circle will be seen in 2D
and sphere in 3D

So this circle or sphere is locating all the point on the wave which are having same phase (pi/2 for this
example)

This circle or sphere is called the wave front

So wave front is the locus of all the points having the same phase (constant phase)

Describe what plane waves are

For a large spherical wave front (large radius from the source), if we take a small portion of the wave
front, it will appear like a plane

Ex: The light from the sun is coming in the form of spherical wave fronts, but what we are seeing is
plane wave fronts as we are only getting a small portion of the light

So for multiple sinusoidal waves travelling in the same direction, the planes will be passing through
the positive maximum amplitude points of each wave and the plane will be perpendicular to the wave

So multiple waves will generate a plane of constant waves

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