Air Compressors

Source File
Introduction
Compressor is a mechanical device that is used to increase the pressure of air , It
compresses lower pressure gas and delivers it at a higher pressure , it does so either in
multiple stages or in a single stage.
1 Working Principle
-The air compressor has a prime mover which is generally an electric motor which can either
be single phase or 3 phase depending on torque required
-it increases the pressure of air by doing work on it.
-hence the reuired work is given by the prime mover such as electric motor, ic engine,
turbine
-normally after compression this pressurized air is stored in an air bottle , from where it is
used for various services such main engine starting system, OWS etc
2 Classification of Air Compressors
Broadly they are classified into 2 categories
1 positive displacement compressors
2 dynamic displacement compressors

3 Positive Displacement Compressors

These compressors work by first trapping the air in a compression chamber and then one of
the boundaries of compression chamber is provided with positive displacement to compress
the air
These normally include the reciprocating compressors
Normally they can be single or multi staged compressors
These are capable of producing highly pressurized air thus achieving high pressure ratios
Types
4 Dynamic Displacement Compressors
They are also known as steady flow or turbo compressors
They have a rotating impeller which facilitates compression of air
Here there is no closed compression chamber rather air is compressed whilst in motion
They provide continuous and uniform flow of compressed air although the pressure ratios
are not very high
Thus they can handle large quantities of air at low pressure

5 Reciprocating Compressors
It is widely used positive displacement compressor , its constructional details are somewhat
similar to an IC engine
Working
It comprises of a piston mounted on a crankshaft by means of a connecting rod placed
inside a cylinder
The piston reciprocates inside the cylinder, driven through the connecting rod via the crank,
which is rotated by the prime mover
There are inlet and delivery valves mounted on cylinder head that open according to the
differential pressure as they are spring loaded
Working
When the piton goes down at BDC it created vacuum which draws in air due to pressure
differential as compared to atmospheric pressure
As the atmospheric air pressure is higher than the pressure inside cylinder the inlet valve
will lift hence admitting in a freash charge of air
Its lift is limited by a stop which retains it in its valve seat
This is known as suction stroke
Then the piston starts moving upwards , since both inlet and delivery vlaves are closed now ,
pressure of air increases as it cant escape the cylinder
Eventually it reaches the required pressure and the delivery valve lift off from its seat thus
delivering the pressurized air to air bottle
The delivery valves lift is also limited by a retainer
The compression ratio achieved is limited by strength of the compressors parts , and the
torque delivered by motor
6 Single Stage Compressor
Thermodynamic processes
1) Process 4-1 volume v1 of air is aspirated into the cylinder at pressure p1 into the
cylinder

2) Process 1-2 polytropic compression – the air is compressed polytropically according

to the law PVn=C, the pressure increases from p1 to p2 and volume decreases from
v1 to v2
3) Process 2-3 air of volume v2 and pressure p2 and temp t2 is delivered to the storage
tank
The area under the graph represents work input into the compressor
On inspection it is clearly evident that area would be decreased if 1-2 is a isothermal
compression i.e. along 1-2’
Hence to decrease the work required by compressor to a minimum we should try to achieve
isothermal compression
Isothermal compression is impossible to achieve in normal practice , but an attempt is made
by trying to cool the compressor either by addition of fins or water jacket to compressor
cylinder
The comparison of actual work done and ideal isothermal work done is known as isothermal
efficiency
 isothermal work done
Thus; isothermal efficiency=
actual work done

Thus the total shaft work done/cycle, W= area 41234

W= area under 4-1 – area under 1-2 – area under 2-3
= P1V1 – ( P2V2 – P1V1)/(n-1) - P2V2
W = n/(n-1) (P1V1- P2V2)

This equation can be modifies as follows

W= n/n-1 P1V1(1-(P2V2/P1V1)) - (1)
Now, P1V1^n = P2V2^n
V2/V1 = (P1/P2)^(1/n)
Now substitute into (1)
W = n /n-1 ( p1v1( 1- P2/P1 (P1/P2)^(1/n)))
= n /n-1 ( p1v1( 1- (P1/P2)^(n-1/n)))
Now since soln to this eqn is -ve which iss not possible , since only magnitude of work is
required from this eqation then it is often written as
= n /n-1 ( p1v1( (P2/P1)^(n-1/n) -1 ))
= n /n-1 ( mRT1( (P2/P1)^(n-1/n) -1 ))

If req. to find temp T2 can be obtained bby

T2/T1 = (P2/P1) ^((n-1)/n)
7 Equation of work for compressor with clearance volume
Clearance volume – the volume left for clearance between TDC of piston and Cylinder head
Thus effective stroke volume = V1-V4
So the actual work = Wact = area 1-2-3-4
Wact= area 5-1-2-6 – area 5-4-3-6
So

Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency = effective swept volume / swept volume
= V1-V4/(V1-V3)
Clearance ratio = clearance volume / swept volume
=Vc/Vs = gamma (4-10 %)
( V 1−V 4 )
η vol =
( V 1−V 3 )
( V 1−V 3 )+ (V 3−V 4 ) V3 V4
=1+ −
( V 1−V 3 ) ( V 1−V 3 ) ( V 1−V 3 )
V3 V4 V3
¿ 1+( − )
( V 1−V 3 ) (V 1−V 3 ) V 3
V3 V4 V4
¿ 1+( − )
( V 1−V 3 ) (V 1−V 3 ) V 3
V3 V3
η vol ¿ 1+ (1− )
(V 1−V 3 ) (V 4 )
 1/ n
P3
η vol = 1- γ (( ) −1¿
P4

8 Reciprocating Compressor – Actual PV diagram

The irregularities at 4-1 and 2-3 are due to following reasons

1) The inlet valve doesn’t happen due to
 There must be sufficient pressure difference across the valve to force it out of
its seat
 Thus there should be a negative pressure/suction
 Inertial in the inlet valve
2) The delivery valve doesn’t happen due to
 There is valve bounce
 Due to this the pressure generally settles at a little bit higher pressure
9 Multistage Reciprocating Compressors
Series arrangement of cylinder where the compressed air discharged/delivered from one
cylinder becomes the intake for next cylinder
10 Intercooling & PV Diagram Multistage Reciprocating Compressors

Pressure developed = P3-P1

first stage cycle = 8-1-4-7
second stage cycle = 7-4-5-6

Without Intercooling :
L.P. : 8-1-4-7
H.P. : 7-4-5-6

With Intercooling :
L.P. : 8-1-4-7
H.P. : 7-2-3-6

As it clearly seen that the work required by compressor (area under graph) decreases due to
intercooling
hence making intercooling btw the cylinders desirable

Perfect Intercooling – it happens when the temp after compression is equal to the original
temperature before compression
Here in this diagram points 1 & 2 lie on the same isothermal line thus making intercooling
perfect
11 formulae for delivery temperatures
For single stage

P5 n−1
T5 = T1 ( ) n
P1

For 2 stage compressor (w no intercooling)

L.P. : 8-1-4-7
H.P. : 7-4-5-6

The equation of work is

n P4 n−1 n
W= P1V1 [1−( )¿ ¿ ]¿ + P4V4
n−1 P1 n n−1
P5 n−1
[1−( )¿ ¿ ]¿
P4 n

as it seems to be similar to single stage compressor

the delivery temperatures will also remain same

( )
n−1
P5
T 5=T 1 n
P1
For 2 stage compressor (w perfect intercooling)
With intercooling
L.P. 8-1-4-7-8
H.P. 7-2-3-6-7

n P4 n−1 n P3 n−1
W= P1V1 [1−( )¿ ¿ −1]¿ + P2V2 [( )¿ ¿ −1]¿
n−1 P1 n n−1 P2 n
–(1)
Delivery Temperature

P3 n−1 P3 n−1
T3= T2 ( ) n = T1 ( ) n , as T2 = T1
P2 P2

Now, T2 = T1, then

P2V2 = P1V1 -(2)
Also, P4=P2 -(3)
Inserting equation (2) (3) in eqn (1)
n
W= P 1V 1 ¿] -(4)
n−1

12 Conditions for Minimum Work

From the above equation it is evident that for minimum W

¿ must be minimum, while other parts of equation are constant and P2 is variable
Hence for minimum W ,
dW
=d ¿ ¿
dP 2
Differentiating with respect to P2 and simplifying, we get final result as
P2=√ P1 P 3 -(5)
P 2 P3
And, =
P1 P2
Or, Pressure Ratio per Stage is Equal
P2 obtained from above equation will give ideal intermediate pressure which, with
perfect intercooling will give minimum W.
Now assuming equal work per cylinder

[( ) ]
n−1
2n P2
W= P 1V 1 n
−1
n−1 P1

And putting the condition (5) in it we get

[( ) ]
n−1
2n P3
W= P 1V 1 2n
−1
n−1 P1

P3
Also we know that is the pressure ratio through out the compressor
P1

13 Actual PV Diagram for Two-Stage Compressor

  The wavy lines during induction (intake) and Delivery stroke are due to “Flatter”
of disc valves.
 The L.P. and H.P. diagrams overlap due to pressure drop in intercooler and
clearance effects are also visible
 The inertia & friction effect which cause valve flatter increase the area of diagram
slightly, and hence it increases the Total Work of Compression

14 Efficiencies of Compressor
isothermal horse power
Compressor efficiency =
indicated horse power

isothermal horse power

Isothermal efficiency =
shaft horse power

Adiabatic efficiency =
15 Ways to increase thermal efficiency
1) Spray Injection
Earlier water was sprayed into cylinder during compression stroke
Disadvantages
o Need of special equipment for water injection
o Water affects the cylinder lubrication and attacks cylinder walls and valves
o Water mixed with compressed air should be separated before using the air.
2) Water Jacketting
Consists of circulating water around through jacket spaces , commonly used in
reciprocating compressors
3) Inter Cooling
Consists of a heat exchanger with cools the compressed air in between the multiple
stages of a compressor, normally air is first compressed in HP cylinder then
intercooled to original temp and then compressed in LP cylinder
4) External Fins
Used to cool down the cylinder by increasing the surface area via fins and then those
fins undergoing forced convection of air by a fan or other arrangements.

16 Free Air Delivery (F.A.D.)

F.A.D. is the actual volume delivered at stated pressure reduced to intake temperature and
pressure, and expressed in m3/min
And displacement is the actual volume swept out per minute by the L.P. Piston during
suction stroke
Now , the F.A.D. is less than displacement for foll. Reasons
o Fluid resistance through intake valves prevents the cylinder from being fully charged
with air
o On entering the hot cylinder the air expands so the desity goes down and the mass
of air present in cylinder is reduced
o The pressurized air stuck in clearance volume must be expanded before suction can
occur thus a portion of suction stroke is wasted due to this expansion
o Certain loss caused by leakage

17 Air Compressor & Systems Onboard

- A starting air system onboard for marine diesel engine has 2 air compressors and 2
air reservoirs i.e., air bottles with sufficient capacity to crank the main engine 12
times without the need for any top up
- Safety valves are fitted to air reservoirs, and it is a requirement that if safety valves
can be isolated then there should be a fusible plug fitted to release air in event of fire
 - Air Reservoirs are built and designed and tested under similar regulations to those
for boilers
- Fire and explosions have occurred due to leaky air start valves which either leaked or
did not close after operation and allowed entry of combustion gasses and flames
from cylinder to air start system
- Carbon deposits from burning fuel and oily deposits from compressors are available
as substances which may be ignited and produce explosion in air start system
- If no explosion occurs, the flame from cylinder and high temperature air from
compression can cause carbon deposits in system to burn
- Also, the lubrication of parts is limited as excess lubrication can cause the air start
valves to be stuck by grease which gets hardened by heat and oil could accumulate
in pipes from this source
- Starting air for auxiliary engines may be taken either directly from main engine air
start receivers or from small auxiliary receiver.
- Low pressure control air system receiver is supplied either ideally from low pressure,
oil free compressor, or from main air start reservoirs with pressure reducing valves
18 Safety Requirements
- Fusible Plug –

fitted on the reservoir when the safety valve is either not directly mounted on reservoir
or can be isolated from the system, it can release the air in case of abnormal pressures
- Atmospheric relief Valve-

It is provided along with fusible plug to avoid over pressurization of reservoir. Its outlet
can be either outside engine room into funnel , and if inside it can feed the engine room
fires so CO2 stock is kept accordingly. Also, it has to opened before evacuating ER for CO 2
flooding in event of fire.

- Spring Loaded Safety Valve –

Designed to lift at 10% above normal working pressure of the reservoir. Again can be
mounted directly or with extension able to isolate it.
- Classification Societies require that compressor outlet to reservoir should not exceed
93°C
19 Air Compressors Onboard
- For diesel engine air start system, we require highly pressurised air
- In case of a single stage air compressor used to deliver high pressures, it would
generate very high temperatures, this heat can ignite vapourised oil, also the heat
would we wasted energy
 - This heat of compression adds extra energy and resultant rise in pressure of air apart
from pressure rise due to piston movement, the extra pressure due to heat demands
greater shaft power for upward movement of piston
- However, cooling of air can reduce the pressure due to heat energy

Cycle of Operation –
- as air is compressed to a pressure slightly above discharge temperature the
spring loaded non return discharge valve is lifted and compressed air passes to
the reservoirs at approximately constant pressure
- at the end of stroke due to differential pressure across the valve, aided by spring
force the discharge valve reseats and closes
- however, small amount of pressurised air is stuck in clearance volume and during
suction stroke the air in clearance volume expands and then only the suction
valve lifts and fresh charge of air is admitted into the cylinder
20 Cooling of Cylinder and Compressed Air
- during compression, subsequent rise in temperature of air will reduce the volumetric
efficiency of cycle.
- Now although we can remove the heat by cooling the cylinder walls, but the
relatively small surface area and time available limit the possible heat transfer and
hence heat removal

- For small air compressors, external fins with forced convection of air is used as an
arrangement for cooling
- Normally fresh water is used for jacket cooling of cylinders and intercooling in
compressors
 - Although sea water can also be used but it will cause heavy scale formation

21 Two Stage Air Compressor Onboard

- Construction -
 Crankcase is a rigid casting which supports a spheroidal graphite cast iron
crankshaft
 3 bearings support crankshaft, and the crankshaft has integral balance
weights and carries 2 identical forged steel connecting rods.
 First and second stage pistons are of aluminium allow with cast iron
compression ring and scraper ring
 Scraper rings return the lube oil from cylinder walls back to crankcase
 Cylinders are lubricated by lube oil being splashed onto the cylinder walls
from the bottom ends
 Pistons have fully floating gudgeon pins, and the connecting rod top end
house phosphor bronze bushes
 Steel backed white metal lined thin shell main & crankpin bearings are used
and all bearings are pressure lubricated by chain driven gear pump.
 Air suction and discharge valves are located in pockets in cylinder heads
 Normally, the valves are of Hoerbiger type, its moving discs have low inertia
to permit rapid action
 Ground landings are provided in pockets in which the valve bodies seat, the
valve body is held in place by set screws which pass through valve box covers,
capped nuts fitted to end of set screws.
 Normally, the intercooler is of single pass type shell type heat exchanger, the
shell forms an integral part of cylinder block casting, the air passes through
the tubes, while cooling water surrounds the tubes
 Aftercooler can be of double pass U tube type.
 Relief valves fitted to air outlets of each stage and set to lift at 10% above
normal stage pressure.
 To protect the water side from over pressurizing in event of tube leakage in
intercooler or aftercooler, a bursting diaphragm or relief valve is fitted on
cylinder jacket space.
 Fusible plug on aftercooler discharge head to protect against overheating

- Operation and Maintenance

 Compressors should always be started in unloaded condition, to avoid high

starting torques
 Compressor is unloaded before stopping also by opening first and secong
stage drains
 During running, oil from cylinders and water from moisture get accumulated
and precipitated in coolers, the emulsion is collected in separators at cooler
outlets and these must be drained off regularly to avoid carry over.
  Otherwise the emulsion can get carried over to either to subsequent
compression stage and causing damage to it, or it can get carried over to air
reservoirs and starting air lines , resulting in corrosion
 Thus proper working of cooler drains should be ensured, large amount tends
to collect in humid conditions or wet engine rooms
 It is a good practice to air reservoir drains regularly and assess the quantity of
liquid present
 In extreme conditions drains may have to be used daily to remove
accumulated emulsion
 This is important to protect the reducing valves, there are moisture traps to
protect control air systems and they should be checked regularly.

- Lubrication

 Light oil is used for crankcase and cylinder lubrication

 Diesel engine crankcase oil tend to produce deposits
 Oil is bound to emulsify over time and should be changed at frequent
intervals

- Faulty Valves
 Excessive operation of compressor could be a sign, as air is getting leaked
more than its use.
 Usually this means that valves require frequent cleaning and maintenance
 Faulty valves can cause result in valve leakage and overheating with
accumulation of carbon on valves in valve pockets.
 Combination of carbon, excessive temperature and high concentration of
oxygen in compressed air can result in fire or explosion in discharge pipe
 Fire in compressor discharge can cause weaking of pipe causing a split
through which flame supported by comp. air can propagate in engine room
 Poor valve condition can be detected by observation of stage pressures and is
accompanied by excessive discharge temperature
 Excessive discharge temp. can also be due to faulty aftercooler.

- Cooling Systems
 Overcooling can cause condensation on cylinder walls, affecting lubrication
 Poor cooling can be due to scale formation in sea water cooled machine
 Poor cooling will cause fall in volumetric efficiency and rapid valve
deterioration
 inter and after cooler should be periodically cleaned to remove scale's and
oily deposits from air side
 according to classification societies, discharge to reservoir should not exceed
93 degree Celsius.
- Automatic Operation

 Quiet Frequently there are 2 compressors present on board a ship

 They are arranged for automatic start and stop system as dictated through
pressure variations controlled by a pressure switch on air reservoir
 One machine is the ‘Lead Machine’, this preferentially runs during
manoeuvring and other times
 Other one is ‘Follow Machine’ it is arranged to back the Lead Machine during
manoeuvring, cutting in after the lead machine, when receiver falls below
pre-set value
 When pressure switch stops compressor, then drain valves open for
unloading
 First and second stage cooler drains are operated by solenoids
 Also drain valves open briefly on intermittently timed cycle thus providing
automatic draining as well as unloading
 Also, cooler drains are normally open whilst compressor are not in use to
provide unloaded starting
 There are two timers located in control panel, one delays closure of cooler
drains and drain valves for and to control the time period of opening for
drain valves during periodic draining.
 The other one controls frequency of periodic draining
 A non-return valve is placed in discharge line of low inertia type.
- Control System Air

 Usually compressor coolers are drained automatically, and the reservoirs are
drained automatically or by engine staff.
 When source of control and instrument air main reservoir special provisions
are necessary to ensure high quality of air
 A reducing valve which reduces pressure to 7 to 8 bar is required by the
control air system.
 It can be affected by emulsion carry over and required frequent cleaning to
stop it from sticking.
 Auto drain traps can also be fitted to the system.
 A moderate amount of moisture in air can be removed by ceramic filters, but
for satisfactory dryness factor absorbent type drier or a drier using
refrigeration may be used.
- For Control Air of 15 to 40 bar

 A three-stage filtration system comprising of pre-filter, carbon absorber and

after filter may be used to deliver good quality air.
 Pre filter constitutes of medium grade porous ceramic element and removes
gross impurities from air
  The carbon absorber contains activated carbon and activated carbon and
provides deep bed producing evenly distributed flow for removal of vapours.
 After filter contains fine grade porous ceramic element preventing ingress of
carbon particles to air supply assuring a good quality of air.
 Air from main engine starting air receiver enters filter assembly in fully
saturated condition, that is carrying some free water and oil vapour.
 Most of moisture is removed in the after cooler due to precipitation air temp
being below dew point by 5 degree celsius.
 When pressure reducing valve reduces pressure to 7 bat dew reduces
sufficiently to precipitate out moisture and to make air suitable for control air
system.

- Compressed Air System for Steam Powered Ships

The instrument air and control air system should be separated and only
cross connected in emergency
 Instrument air is typically supplied by oil free water cooled air
compressors, and discharges to air reservoir passing through aftercoolers
 Normally three compressors are installed with 2 compressors engaged at
a time on load/unload cycle between 5.5 bar and 7 bar and other unit
engages when pressure goes below 5.3 bar
 Air then passes through two of three air driers
 The air dryer works based on the principle of cooling air by refrigeration
having a small sealed unit refrigeration compressor
 In normal service they reduce dew point of air to about -25 degree Celsius
and then high dew point alarm is fitted to warn of malfunction
 The air dryers are also known as dehumidifiers
 Normally air discharge is rated at 170 m3/hr for a consumption of 150-160
m3/hr
 Normally one unit can replace the other one fully in case of a malfunction
 The air system is fitted with many individual drains traps and cocks , and
no moisture should be present in air system anywhere after the
aftercooler and in case it is found it should be investigated immediately
- Rotary Compressor

Roots blower
  this is a 2 lobe type air compressor
 one lobe is connected to motor drive and other is driven by first one
 thus rotors rotate in phase and lobes have cycloidal or involute form giving
correct making of lobes to seal delivery side from inlet side
 this sealing until delivery commences
 there is clearance between lobes and casing to avoid direct metal to metal
contact and reduce wear
 this clearance forms a leakage path which has adverse effect in volumetric
efficiency as pressure ratio increases
 as a lobe rotates the air is displaces towards delivery side at constant
pressure, a further rotation of rotor opens this volume to receiver
 since this gas is at higher pressure . the gas induced is compressed
irreversibly by receiver and delivery begins
 this process is carries out 4 times per revolution of driving shaft

- Vane type Blower

 Consists of a rotor mounted eccentrically in body and supported by roller and
ball bearing in end covers of body
 The rotor is slotted to fit the blades.
 As each blade moves past the inlet passage, compression begins due to
decreasing volume between rotor and casing, and then as air gains K.E. its
pressure increases further due to increasing cross sectional area of volute
casing then the air is delivered
 Its is used to give constant supply of compressed air at lower pressure ratios
 It usually requires less work compared to roots blower for same capacity and
pressure rise
 Can deliver upto 150 m3 of air per minute at pressure ratio upto 8.5
  Speed limit of vane is 3000 rpm

- Centrifugal Air Compressor


 Curved Radial Vanes – a series of curved radial vanes are attached to the
shaft, normally fir tree type slots are used with a locking pin
 Impeller – it is a disc fitted with radial vanes, the impeller is generally forged
or die casted of high speed steel or low silicon aluminium alloy

 air enters the eye of impeller depending upon centrifugal action of impeller
the air moves radially outwards and during its movement is guided by
impeller vanes, the impeller imparts kinetic energy to the air increasing its
velocity and static pressure
 then the air enters diverging passage i.e. Diffuser where it is efficiently
slowed down, and the kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy,
further increase in static pressure
 then the air passes through increasing cross sectional area of volute casing
ehich increases the static pressure further



 Velocity Triangle Diagrams
-