CHEMISTRY

CSEC Chem
CHEMISTRY
12
i
HOUR
stry
CRASH COURSE
Teacher: Ms. Kristi Mohammed
Miss ShazaraMissKristi
ShazaraMohammed
Kristi Mohammed
 SECTION B – CSEC
SECTION A - DYNAMICS
CHEMISTRY
Equations of Motion
CRASH COURSE BOOKLET
Students should be able to:

1) State
Topicstheinmain Equations
Section B: of Motion.

❑ Introduction
2) Perform calculations to solve for distance,
to Organic velocity, acceleration and
Compounds.

time using❑the Equations

Sources of Motion.
of Organic Compounds.

❑ style
3) Solve exam questions
Reactions using theCompounds.
of Organic Equations of Motion.

❑ Formation of Polymers/
 Sources of
Hydrocarbon
Compounds
 Natural Sources of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms only. Alkanes and
alkenes are both hydrocarbons. There are two natural sources of hydrocarbons:

• Natural gas

Natural gas is a mixture of the first four alkanes, mainly methane (CH4) with small amounts of ethane

(C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10).

• Crude oil (or Petroleum)

Crude oil is a complex mixture consisting of a large number of different solid and gaseous

hydrocarbons dissolved in liquid hydrocarbons, mainly alkanes and some ringed compounds. To

make it useful, petroleum is separated into its fractions by fractional distillation.

 Catalytic Cracking
Cracking is the process by which long chain hydrocarbon molecules are broken down into shorter

chain hydrocarbon molecules by breaking carbon–carbon bonds.

Cracking is important for two reasons:

• Cracking increases the production of the smaller, more useful hydrocarbons, such as petrol.

Fractional distillation produces an excess of the larger hydrocarbon molecules and insufficient of

the smaller ones to meet current demands.

• Cracking produces the very reactive alkenes which are used in the petrochemical industry to make

many other useful organic compounds. Fractional distillation does not produce alkenes, whereas

cracking always results in the formation of at least one alkene.

 Catalytic Cracking
Cracking can be carried out in two ways:

• Thermal Cracking, which uses temperatures up to about 750 °C and pressures up to 70 atmospheres.

• Catalytic Cracking, which uses temperatures of about 500 °C, at fairly low pressures in the presence

of a catalyst.
Introduction to
Organic
Compounds.
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Homologous Series
Principle of Electrolysis
 Organic chemistry – An Introduction
Organic chemistry is the study of compounds which contain carbon, known as organic compounds. Most

organic compounds also contain hydrogen, many contain oxygen and some contain other elements such

as nitrogen.

Bonding in organic compounds

A carbon atom has four valence electrons and can therefore form four covalent bonds with other carbon

atoms, or atoms of other elements including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and the halogens.
 The Structure of Organic Molecules

The simplest organic molecules can be thought of as being composed of two parts:

• The hydrocarbon part composed of only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

• The functional group (or groups), composed of a particular atom, group of atoms, or bond between

adjacent carbon atoms, such as –OH, –COOH.

The chemical properties of a compound are determined by the reactions of the functional group (or

groups) present.
 Homologous Series

Organic compounds can be classified into groups known as homologous series.

These are based on the functional group which they contain. Each homologous series can be represented

by a General Formula.

For example: the general formula of the alkane series is CnH2n+2.

A homologous series is a group of organic compounds which all possess the same functional group and

can be represented by the same general formula.

 The Characteristics of a Homologous Series
Each homologous series has the following characteristics:

• Members of a series all have the same functional group.

• Members of a series can all be represented by the same general formula.

• The molecular formula of each member of a series differs from the member directly before it or directly

after it by CH2 and, therefore, by a relative molecular mass of 14.

• Members of a series can all be prepared using the same general method.
 The Characteristics of a Homologous Series
Each homologous series has the following characteristics:

• Members of a series all possess similar chemical properties.

As the molar mass (number of carbon atoms per molecule) increases, the reactivity decreases.

• Members of a series show a gradual change in their physical properties as the number of carbon

atoms per molecule increases.

Generally, as molar mass increases, the melting point, boiling point and density increase.
How to name the straight chain members of a homologous series
Straight chain members of a homologous series have a name consisting of two parts:

• The first part, or prefix, which depends on the total number of carbon atoms in one molecule.

• The second part, which depends on the functional group present in the compound.
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Structural Isomerism
Principle of Electrolysis
 Structural Isomerism
Organic compounds can have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae because

their atoms are bonded differently. These are called structural isomers.

Structural isomers are organic compounds which have the same molecular formula but different

structural formulae.

Structural isomerism is the occurrence of two or more organic compounds with the same molecular

formula but different structural formulae.

 Structural Isomerism

Each different structural isomer has a different name, and if they contain the same functional group,

they belong to the same homologous series.

Structural isomers of straight chain molecules can be formed in two ways:

• By the chain of carbon atoms becoming branched.

• By the position of the functional group changing.

 Isomers formed by branching
Carbon chains can have side branches composed of one or more carbon atoms. For this to happen,

the molecules must have four or more carbon atoms.

Example:

Isomers of C6H14

C6H14 has five isomers, three are given below:

 How to Name Branched Chain Isomers

The name of any branched chain molecule has three parts:

• The first part gives the number of the carbon atom to which the alkyl group (side chain) is attached.

• The second part gives the name of the alkyl group.

•The third part gives information about the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms. The number of

carbon atoms in this chain is indicated using the correct prefix, and the homologous series to which

the compound belongs is indicated using the correct ending.

 How to Name Branched Chain Isomers
Side chains branching off from the longest chain of carbon atoms are called alkyl groups.

They have the general formula CnH2n+1 and are named using the appropriate prefix with the ending ‘-yl’.

The name of any branched chain molecule has three parts:

• The first part gives the number of the carbon atom to which the alkyl group (side chain) is attached.

• The second part gives the name of the alkyl group.

Reactions of
Organic
Compounds
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Reactions of Alkanes
Principle of Electrolysis
 Reactions of Carbon Compounds
The chemical reactions of carbon compounds are determined by the reactions of the functional group

(or groups) present in the compounds.

The alkanes: CnH2n+2

• Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, meaning they have only single bonds between adjacent carbon

atoms.

• Alkanes with 1 to 4 carbon atoms in their molecules are gases at room temperature, those with

5 to 16 carbon atoms are liquids and those with 17 or more carbon atoms are solids.

• Alkanes are relatively unreactive because the carbon–carbon single bonds in their molecules are

strong and not easily broken.

 • Alkanes burn easily in air
Reactions of Alkanes or oxygen

They burn with clear, blue,

Alkanes burn in air or All the carbon is converted
non-smoky flames because
oxygen to form carbon to carbon dioxide and no
they have a low ratio of
dioxide and water as unreacted carbon remains
carbon to hydrogen atoms
steam. in the flames.
in their molecules.
 Reactions of Alkanes
• Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens

• Under the correct conditions, alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens.

• In these reactions, the hydrogen atoms in the alkane molecules are replaced by halogen atoms such

as chlorine or bromine.

• For the reaction to occur, energy in the form of light is required; ultraviolet light works best.

• The products of the halogenation of alkanes are known as haloalkanes or alkyl halides.
 Substitution Reactions with Halogens
The reaction between methane and chlorine

• In the dark, no reaction occurs.

• In bright light, a rapid reaction occurs.

• In dim light, a slow substitution reaction occurs in stages, where one hydrogen atom is replaced by

one chlorine atom at a time:

Substitution Reactions with Halogens
The reaction between methane and chlorine
 Substitution Reactions with Halogens
The reaction between methane and chlorine

• Similar substitutions occur with bromine vapour or bromine solution and with other alkanes, though

the reactions are slower.

• During the reaction between bromine and any alkane, the colour of the bromine slowly fades from

red brown to colourless in the presence of UV light. This indicates that the bromine is being used up

in the substitution reaction.

 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Reactions of Alkenes
Principle of Electrolysis
 Reactions of Carbon Compounds
The alkenes: CnH2n

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons because they each contain one carbon–carbon double bond. The

presence of this double bond as their functional group makes alkenes more reactive than alkanes.

Reactions of alkenes

• Alkenes burn easily in air or oxygen

• Alkenes burn in air or oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water as steam.

• They burn with smoky yellow flames because they have a higher ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms

in their molecules than alkanes. Not all the carbon is converted to carbon dioxide and the unreacted

carbon remains, giving the flames a yellow, smoky appearance.

• The reactions are exothermic.

Addition Reactions of Alkenes
 Distinguishing between an alkane and an alkene
An alkane can be distinguished from an alkene by reacting both with bromine solution or acidified potassium
manganate(VII) solution. Both reactions test to see if the compound contains a carbon– carbon double bond
causing it to be unsaturated.
 Uses of alkanes and alkenes
Uses of alkanes

• Alkanes are used as fuels for the following reasons:

1. They burn very easily.

2. They release large amounts of energy when they burn because the reactions are exothermic.

3. They burn with clean blue flames which contain very little soot.

4. They are easy to store, transport and distribute.

5. Alkanes are used as solvents because they are non-polar and are able to dissolve other non-polar

solutes, e.g. hexane and heptane are used as solvents for making fast drying glues and extracting

oils from seeds.

 Uses of alkanes and alkenes
Uses of alkenes

Alkenes are used as starting materials in the manufacture of a wide variety of important chemicals

because they readily undergo addition reactions.

I. They are used to manufacture ethanol and other alcohols, antifreezes such as ethane-1,2-diol,

synthetic rubbers and a variety of haloalkanes.

II. Because they can undergo polymerisation reactions, they are used to manufacture a wide range of

polymers, also known as plastics.

 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
ReactionsPrinciple
of Alcohols
of Electrolysis
 Alcohols: CnH2n+1OH

• Alcohols (or alkanols) have the hydroxyl group, —OH, as their functional group.

• All alcohols undergo similar reactions because they all contain the hydroxyl group; however, the

strength of the reactions decreases as the number of carbon atoms per molecule increases.
 Reactions of Ethanol
• Ethanol burns easily in air or oxygen

Ethanol burns in air or oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water as steam. It burns with a clear,

blue, non-smoky flame because of the low ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms in the molecules. The

reaction is exothermic:

• Ethanol reacts with sodium

Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide (C2H5ONa) and hydrogen:
 Reactions of Ethanol
• Ethanol undergoes dehydration

Ethanol can be dehydrated to ethene in two ways:

I. Heating ethanol at a temperature of about 170 °C with excess concentrated sulfuric acid. The acid

acts as a catalyst.

II. Passing ethanol vapour over heated aluminium oxide. The aluminium oxide acts as a catalyst.
 Reactions of Ethanol
• Ethanol undergoes oxidation

Ethanol is oxidised to ethanoic acid when heated with acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution

or acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution. Ethanol acts as a reducing agent.

 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Reactions of Acids
Principle of Electrolysis
 Reactions of Aqueous Ethanoic Acid
• Aqueous solutions of alkanoic acids react in a similar way to inorganic acids, such as hydrochloric

acid, though the reactions are slower because the acids are weak.

• The hydrogen in the functional group can be replaced directly or indirectly by a metal to form a salt.

• The salts formed by ethanoic acid are called ethanoates.

I. Aqueous ethanoic acid reacts with reactive metals

Ethanoic acid reacts with reactive metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas:
 Reactions of Aqueous Ethanoic Acid
• Aqueous ethanoic acid reacts with metal oxides and metal hydroxides

Ethanoic acid reacts with metal oxides and hydroxides to form a salt and water:

• Aqueous ethanoic acid reacts with metal carbonates

Ethanoic acid reacts with metal carbonates to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Reactions of Esters
Principle of Electrolysis
 Esters
• An ester is formed when an alkanoic acid reacts with an alcohol.

• The reaction is a type of condensation reaction where the two molecules join to form a larger

molecule with the loss of a water molecule.

• This particular condensation reaction is known as esterification, and it requires concentrated sulfuric

acid and heat.

 Hydrolysis of Esters
During hydrolysis, molecules of a compound are broken down into smaller molecules by reacting the

compound with water. Hydrolysis of esters can be carried out by:

I. Heating the ester with a dilute acid

II. Heating the ester with aqueous alkali

• Acid hydrolysis involves heating the ester with dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. The acid acts as a

catalyst. The products are the alkanoic acid and the alcohol from which the ester was formed.
 Hydrolysis of Esters
During hydrolysis, molecules of a compound are broken down into smaller molecules by reacting the

compound with water. Hydrolysis of esters can be carried out by:

I. Heating the ester with a dilute acid

II. Heating the ester with aqueous alkali

• Alkaline hydrolysis involves heating the ester with potassium or sodium hydroxide solution. The

products are the potassium or sodium salt of the alkanoic acid and the alcohol from which the ester

was formed.
 Saponification of fats and oils – making soap
Saponification refers to the process that produces soap.

• During saponification, large ester molecules found in animal fats and vegetable oils undergo

alkaline hydrolysis.

• Alkaline hydrolysis involves boiling the ester with concentrated potassium or sodium hydroxide

solution.

• The reaction produces soap, which is the potassium or sodium salt of a long chain alkanoic acid

(fatty acid) and glycerol (C3H5(OH)3).

Comparison of Soapy and Soapless Detergents
Polymerization
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Addition Polymerization
Principle of Electrolysis
 Formation of Polymers
A polymer may contain thousands of monomers. The reaction by which a polymer is formed from

monomers is known as polymerisation. There are two types:

I. Addition Polymerisation

• Addition polymerisation occurs when unsaturated monomers, such as alkenes, are linked together

to form a saturated polymer known as an addition polymer.

• One bond in the double bond of each alkene molecule breaks and the molecules bond to one

another in chains by single covalent bonds between adjacent carbon atoms.

Formation of Polymers
Drawing Polymers
Drawing Polymers
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
CondensationPrinciple
Polymerization
of Electrolysis
 Formation of Polymers
A polymer may contain thousands of monomers. The reaction by which a polymer is formed from

monomers is known as polymerization. There are two types:

2. Condensation Polymerization

• Condensation polymerisation involves linking monomers together in chains by eliminating a small

molecule, usually water, from between adjacent monomers.

• For this to occur, the monomer molecules must have two functional groups. The polymers formed

are known as condensation polymers.

Classification of Polymers
Formation of Polymers
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
End ofPrinciple
SectionofBElectrolysis