Armature and Field-Magnet Winding

GIFT OF
Mr*. H. T.
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS
-FOR-
AND
FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
BY EDWfllJD
AUTHOR OF
Everybody's Hand-Book of Electricity,
How to make Electric Batteries at Home,
Experimental Electricity,
Dynamos and Electric Motors,
Electricity and its Recent Applications,
A Practical Treatise on Electro-Plating, etc.
ILLUSTRATED.
CONTAINING WORKING DIRECTIONS

FOR WINDING DYNAMOS AND
MOTORS, WITH ADDITIONAL DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME
APPARATUS MADE BY THE SEVERAL LEADING ELECTRIC COMPANIES
IN THE UNITED STATES.
Itynn, JVlass.:
BUBIEJ* PUBLtlSHH^G CO|WPflJ4Y.
1892.
VA -T.
COPYRIGHTED BY
BUBIER PUBLISHING COMPANY.
1892.
Press of G. H. & W. A. Nichols, Lynn, Mass.

PREFACE.
THE winding of a dynamo or motor is a matter of
some difficulty students of Electricity have
(as all
discovered), hence many attempts otherwise success-

ful, have ended here in and discouragement.
failure
The importance then of knowing how to wind a
machine properly, can be seen at once. .
The standard works on Electricity contain very

little practical information on this subject. The reason
for this lack of information probably is the fact that

the art of winding was to a great extent theoretical,
until a very recent date. At present, although not
absolutely perfect, electrical knowledge has reached a
more scientific basis. By following certain rules, one
may wind a machine to obtain almost any result

desired.
In this treatise theories have not been deeply
entered into, the information being more of a practical
character. It is thus adapted to the use of beginners
and to the more advanced student. Illustrations have

been used wherever necessary to make the text clear
to the mind of the reader.
EDWARD TREVERT.
LYNN, MASS., Feb. 10, 1892.
46450?
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER i. The Armature in Theory.
CHAPTER 2. Forms of Armatures.
CHAPTER 3. Drum Winding.
CHAPTER 4. Field Winding.
CHAPTER 5. Field Formulae.
CHAPTER 6. General Methods of Winding.
CHAPTER 7. Field Winding concluded.
CHAPTER 8. Dynamos.
CHAPTER 9. Motors.
Armature and Field-Magnet Winding,
INTRODUCTION.
ALL magnets are surrounded by what is known

as a field of force. The familiar experiments with
the magnet and iron filings give us some notion of
the character of this field, for the filings always
adjust themselves along certain lines, generally

curves, depending for their shape upon the form of
the magnet.
The region surrounding the magnet is conceived
" lines of
as being penetrated by force," which
radiate from the poles and are parallel to the lines
of iron filings. They emerge from the magnet
something and always

like the bristles of a brush,
form closed curves, that is, they always return by
longer or shorter routes to the body of the magnet

and through it to the starting point. It is for this
reason that it is impossible to make

a unipolar
magnet. Every magnet must have two poles, a

north and south.
These lines do not pass with equal facility
through all substances. Most bodies offer a high
resistance to them, but iron, steel, nickel, and one
or two others to a less degree, are good "magnetic
conductors." Magnetism always follows the path
of least resistance, and with a given magnetizing
force the intensity of the resulting magnetism is
enormously increased by the presence of iron. It

is for this reason that we use iron in the fields of
our dynamos and motors and we shall see later
that it is of the highest importance that the
"
magnetic circuit" or path over which the mag-
netic force passes should have a large cross section
and a low resistance.
Whenever a conductor of electricity is passed
through the field of force surrounding a magnet, at

right angles to the lines, an electromotive force is
set up in depending upon the length of the
it,
conductor, the speed at which it moves, and the

intensity of the field. This fact is the one utilized
in the construction of dynamos, and forms the
basis of our calculations, for,knowing the strength
of the field magnets, the length of the wire on the
armature, and the speed at which it revolves, we
have all the data necessary to calculate our electro-
motive force.
ARMATURE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
CHAPTER I.
THE ARMATURE IN THEORY.
IN making our calculations we designate the

strength of the field by the "number of lines of
"
force for a given sectional area. In speaking of
lines of force the reader must not be led into the
idea that lines have any real existence.
these
They simply form a convenient symbol for a state
of affairs which nobody understands very clearly
at present, but which must be dealt with in some
manner in this kind of work. If we take a con-
ductor and move it so as to cut across the field of
force at right angles to it, we get an electromotive
force proportional to the speed of the conductor
and the number of lines of force it cuts, or
s=s-i
Where E= the E. M. F., 5= the speed, and /
the number of lines of force.
Suppose this conductor is on the periphery of

an armature, /the total number of lines of force
passing through the armature from one pole to the
other and n the number of revolutions of the
armature per minute. Then it can easily be shown
10 ARMATUKE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
that the average E. M. F. generated in this con-

ductor during a revolution is
E=2/ 60
To get the E. M. F. for a coil of wire instead of

a single conductor we multiply the second term of
our formula by the number of wires in this coil
upon the external surface of the armature and
calling / this number we would have
E=2lt
4 / would of course be equal to the number of
times in a Gramme ring coil and double the number
of times in a drum armature coil. Then suppose
we have a number of coils in series. The E. M.
F. for the whole of them would clearly be this
number multiplied into the second term of the
above and letting N
stand for this number of coils
we get
E=2ltN
As closed coil armatures are ordinarily con-
nected, they have half the wire on them in series
and the two halves in parallel, so that the E. M. F.
they produce is one-half that which would be given
if the entire number of external wires (= N t) were
in series. Consequently, if we take Nt in such a

case to represent the entire number of external
wires, we should get for the E. M. F.
ARMATUKE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 11
The simplest form of armature is the shuttle

armature, devised by Siemens. It consists of a
single coil of wire wound lengthwise upon an iron

" shuttle."
(See Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5.)
When this is revolved between the poles of a
magnet a current is set up in the wire, the direc-
FlG. I.
tion ofwhich may be determined by the following

"rule of thumb." Spread out the thumb and first
two fingers of the right hand in such a way that
each will be at right angles to the other two. (See
Fig. i.)
12 ARMATURE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
FlG. 2.
FIG. 3.
FIG. 4, FIG. 5.
ABMATUKE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 13
Then if the thumb be pointed in the direction

of motion of the wire, and the forefinger in the
direction of the lines of force (that is, from the
north to the south pole of the magnet), the middle
finger will be pointing in the direction of the cur-
rent.
It will be seen that by applying this rule to the
coil just spoken of we find that the current in the
FIG. 6.
wire will reverse at each half revolution, and that

if we desire the current in the external circuit to
be in one direction we must
place what is known
as a commutator at the point where the current is
led from the armature. The commutator in this
case will consist of two halves of a metallic cylin-

der attached to the armature shaft but insulated
from it and each other. The ends of the coil are
fastened one to each half of the cylinder and the
brushes or collectors which lead off the current
rub against them. (See Fig. 6.)
Then when the armature is in the position
shown, the current in the external circuit will flow
as indicated by the arrow, and when the armature
has madehalf a complete revolution its current
will be reversed, but at the same time its connec-
tion with the external circuit is reversed
by the
commutator, and the current still flows there in
the same way.
When the armature has made a quarter revolu-
tion or stands at right angles to its present posi-
tion, the brushes will touch both segments of the
commutator, and the coil is short circuited, but at
the same time it will be seen that the wires of the

coil are not moving across the lines of force, but
parallel to them, and that they are therefore genera-

ting no E. M. F., so there is no harm done, that is,
there would be none if the above statements were
accurately true. Practically if the coil has any
breadth cannot be moving parallel to the lines
it
of force at every point at the same instant, and a

sufficient current may be generated during this
period to cause a spark to form when the short cir-
cuit, caused by the brushes passing from one
ARMATURE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 15
segment to the next, is In well designed

broken.
machines, this can be avoided by attention to the
shape of the pole pieces of the fields, that is by so
making them that few, if any, lines of force are
cut by the coils when short-circuited.
The current given by the above arrangement
while it flows in but one direction is nevertheless
an intermittent one, varying from its maximum,
FIG. 7.
when the coil is horizontal to nothing, when it is
vertical and short-circuited. If we wind another

coil on the armature with its plane at right angles
to the first, we shall evidently lessen this tendency,
for when one coil is in its idle position, the other
will be doing its best work and vice versa, but

there would still be a jog in the current strength,

though to a much smaller degree.
Three would evidently be a step further in
coils
the right direction, and in fact, the greater the
number of coils we use, and of course the greater
the number of commutator segments, the nearer
we come to having a smooth current. The num-
ber is limited by the difficulty of construction
which increases with each additional commutator
segment.
In the usual construction of the closed coil
armatures the end of one connected to the
coil is
beginning of its next neighbor, and a wire is taken

from this junction to a commutator bar, and there
must therefore be as many commutator segments
as coils. This arrangement is best shown on a
Gramme ring, but the principle is the same for
any style of armature. (See Fig. 7.)
In the sketch showing this arrangement it is
seen that the current in the armature is flowing in
the opposite direction in the two halves made by
the line A B. In each case, it flows from B to A,
and therefore if brushes be placed against the com-
mutator on the line A B they will be in the proper
position to take the current. In an open coil arma-
ture, that is, one in which each coil is by itself and
has no connection with the others, the brushes
must be on a line at right angles to A B, or so
that they can take off the current when the coil is
generating the highest E. M. F.

AKMATURE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 17
CHAPTER II.
FORMS OF ARMATURES.
THE two forms of armature most commonly met

with in practice are the Gramme ring and drum.
Each has its special advantages, and in choosing
either we must be guided largely by the conditions
governing the construction and running of a ma-

chine.
The Gramme ring armature consists of a ring or
hollow cylinder of iron, upon which the wire is
wound. Instead of going completely around the
outside of the armature, each turn of wire goes
through the opening in the middle and thence
back to the outer surface again. On an armature
of this description each coil is wound by itself and
is not overlapped by any of the others, conse-
quently if repairs are necessary at any time it is

easy to get at the particular coil where the fault
is without disturbing the others, and this is often
an important point where the armature is wound

with a large number of .turns of fine wire. The
coils being each one open to the air makes it bet-
ter, too, for getting rid of the heat generated in
wire and core. On the other hand the wire which

passes through the middle of the armature is
"dead" so far as exciting E. M. F. is concerned

and it not only does not help but adds a wasteful
resistance.
Then a ring armature is much more difficult to
wind, as the wire must be passed through the
middle for each turn. The cross section of the
armature core is also necessarily smaller than
for a drum armature of the same dimensions
and therefore its magnetic resistance is greater.
In a general way we may say that the ring arma-
ture is better adapted for machines giving constant
current and high potential and that the drum
armatures are the proper ones to use for constant
potentials and large currents. The core of the
ring armature is made
ways. inIt several
should never.be a solid piece on account of the
eddy currents which would be generated in it, and
cause it to heat. It might be made of a flat ribbon
of sheet iron wound up make
a cylinder, but
to
this would have, to a smaller degree, the same
objection as the solid core. It is frequently made
of iron wire wound in a former of wood and shel-
laced and bound with tape to make it keep its
shape. This method has many advantages; it is
cheaply and easily done and gives good results and
unless one has special facilities for doing the work
is
probably the best.
A core of this sort, however, is slightly inferior

considered as a magnetic conductor to one made
of disks or flat rings of sheet iron. Magnetism
always shows a preference for running along the
grain of the iron, and it would have more difficulty
in getting out of the centre of a core made of wire
where it would have to go at right angles to the
grain and besides have numerous air gaps to leap
across than it would to get out of a similar core
made up of disks. (See Fig. 8.)
FIG. 8.
If a coremade of rings cut from sheet iron is

used, some means must be used to hold them to-
gether. This may be done by a bolt or screw
through them from end to end, or they may be
held by the " spider" by which they are attached
to the armature shaft. (See Fig. 9.)
There is no need of paper or any other insula-

tion between the disks. The black oxide of iron
on the surface is sufficient, the danger from heat-
ing not being so much from the small currents in
the disks jumping across from one to the other, as
from the lines of magnetic force going through
the armature slantingly. One prominent inventor
even goes so far as not only to discard the paper
insulation but to replace it at intervals with disks of
zinc, and claims that his armatures run much cooler.
FIG. Q.
Another point which should be brought out in

this connection is that the armature core should
be the same length that the pole pieces are wide,
in order that the lines of force as stated above may
go straight from one pole to the other.

In regard to the necessity for some means of
holding the armature coils in place there is a
diversity of opinion. Some builders wind their
AKMATUKE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 21
coils upon a smooth core and trust to friction and

good luck to hold them where they are placed.
The author, however, believes that there is no use
in taking needless risks in a matter of this sort
where slight additional precaution may be the
saving of an expensive piece of repairing. The
necessity is perhaps not so great in the case of
the Gramme ring as the drum armature, but there
is no harm in using it in either case.
FIG. 10.
The strain on these coils is of course the resist-

ance against which the armature must be turned
and the effect is very much the same as if a brake
were applied to the surface of the armature to pre-
vent its rotation. The method generally em-
ployed to prevent the coils from slipping is to bore
holes in the external surface of the armature close

to the ends between the coils, and drive pegs
either of wood or iron into them ;
if the latter they
must of course be carefully insulated. (See Fig. 10.)
Sometimes the ends are sawed across and
FIG. ii.
wedges of hard wood driven in, as in Figure

11, and sometimes these wooden wedges extend
the whole length of the armature, as in Figure
12. Perhaps the best, but at the same time
FIG. 12.
most expensive way, is to make the disks which

form the core of the armature like a toothed wheel.
(See Fig. 13.)
When these are put together to form the core
the projections will make ribs, running the length

of the armature, between which are channels in
which the wire may be wound. This not only
gives a solid construction, but also has the advan-
tage of reducing the magnetic resistance of the air
space. The core of the armature must always be
carefully insulated by two or three layers of wrap-

ping paper stuck on with shellac. On larger arma-
tures a layer of canvas is advisable between the
papers to lessen the liability to breaking through

on corners and sharp edges.
FIG. 13.
The winding of a Gramme ring is not a very
easy thing to do, since the wire must be passed
through the centre of the armature for every turn

on the coil. You may either do this with as large
a bundle of wire as you can get through the open-
ing, and run the risk of its tangling, or use shorter
pieces and make a number of joints.
Decide upon how many coils you are going to

have, and lay out the ends of the armature in this
number of divisions. If you are going to use pegs
to hold your coils in place, put them in at these
division marks and they will serve as guides for
winding. You should certainly have something
to guide you, so if
you do not have the pegs, clamp
on two strips of wood the length of the armature
core and as far apart as your coil is to be wide.
Then when it is wound remove them and proceed
"in the same
way for the next
coil. Begin at any
one of the divisions to wind. It does not matter
which way you wind so long as you follow the
same direction in each coil. Leave a few inches
of your starting wire hanging loose. Shellac every
layer when you have completed it, and when you
have the required depth of wire, do not cut it
off but throw out a loop, and continue winding
with the same wire and in the same direction on
the next coil. Of course these loops must all be
at the same end of the armature, viz., at the com-
mutator end.
Continue winding and throwing out loops be-
tween each coil until you have occupied all the
spaces, and when you have finished the last coil
leave a few inches of wire hanging free, and twist
it together with the starting wire of the first coil.
If the coils come close together on the inside of
the armature, and if they are in danger of touch-
ing they should be insulated carefully.
AKMAT17KK AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 25
Joints in the wire should always be soldered.

If the wire is small the ends can be compactly
twisted together, and the place where this is done
should be where the increased thickness will not
make a lump in the winding which will be un-
sightly or in danger of touching the pole pieces.
FIG. 14.
Large wires are not so likely to need joining

since the coils made by them are generally short,
and you can usually arrange it so that the break
will come between two coils. Should it be neces-
sary, however, to make a junction in a coil, and
the wire is large enough to make a large swell if
twisted together, bevel off the two ends and bind

them together with fine wire and solder, being
careful to get the wire hot enough to cause the
solder to penetrate everywhere. (See Fig. 15.)
Sometimes a sleeve of thin copper is made, into
which the ends be slipped and soldered, but
may
the author prefers the binding wire method as
being the surest.
FIG. 15.
Thejoint must be wrapped in white tape, after

having been washed in alcohol to remove the sol-
dering acid which would in time destroy the insu-
lation. After the armature is wound it should
be put into a drying oven of some sort to dry it
out, for the shellac when wet makes a very noticea-
ble reduction in the resistance of the armature.
An oven heated by steam is the safest, as it pre-
vents the armature from getting hot enough to
burn or char the insulation. The time it is to

remain in the oven will depend of course upon the
size of the armature, and the thickness of the
wire upon it, and will vary from two to twelve
hours. The armature is attached to the shaft in
various ways. In the larger machines it is gener-
ally done by means of a spider, as referred to

above in speaking of the core. This is a hub with
three or four spokes reaching out and holding the
core by means of channels or key-ways cut in the
inside of the core to receive the spokes. In small
machines it will often be sufficient to drive wooden
cones into each end of the opening in the arma-
ture and pass the shaft through them. Suitable
precautions must be taken to prevent the cones
from abrading the insulation on the wires they
touch, by protecting them with canvas. The shaft
must be in the exact centre of the armature,
since it must run as closely as possible to the pole
pieces.
The operation to the armature itself is to
last
put on the binding wire. This is to prevent the

wires from flying out when run at a high speed.
The number of bands you put on will depend upon
the length of the armature, a small one needing
only one, and a large one three or four. Wrap a

strip of shellaced paper and canvas around the
armature where you have decided to put your bind-
ing wires, and then using fine brass wire, wind on
a number of turns, you have a band from

till
3^ to y? an inch wide. Wind it on tightly, and at

intervals solder the whole width of the band to-
gether.
The connections to the commutator should be
made either by screws or solder, but perhaps best
by both. In some cases it is thought that it is
better not to connect the wires directly to the
commutator bars, but to solder them to flat strips,
which may be bent around the wires to make a
better connection, and then screw and solder these
strips to the commutator bars, their shape allow-
ing them to make a better contact than the round
wires.
Understand each loop, that is to say, the begin-
ning of one coil and the ending of the adjacent one
is to be connected to a bar by itself. When the
connections are all made, and the armature is in
shape for running, it must be balanced. This is
done by placing the two ends of the shaft upon a
couple of straight edges, which have previously
been carefully levelled.
The armature will usually come to rest in some
particular position, which shows that the top side
needs more weight. If it is badly out of balance,
some pieces of lead should be wedged under the
binding band, but if only a little off, add a little
solder to the binding wire on the light side, until
the armature will stay in any position you put it.
Before leaving the Gramme ring armature we will

speak of armatures for four pole machines, which
are or may be from the ordinary
slightly different
two pole armature. (See Figs. 16 and 17.) The
connection between the winding and the com-
mutator may be the same as for the two pole
machine, in which case four brushes will be
necessary as in the first sketch. The brushes
nearest each other will have the opposite sign
(-[- or )
and consequently those diametric-
ally opposite will have the same sign. Two op-
posite brushes, then, must be connected together
for one pole of the machine, and the other two for
the other pole. It isnot necessary to use four
brushes, however, if the connections are made as
shown in Figure 17. Here the opposite seg-
ments of the commutator or the wires leading
to them are connected, which amounts to the same
thing as connecting the opposite brushes.

Another point should be spoken of here, although
it applies
equally to the drum armature, and that is
the open coil connections. In this armature there
many commutator segments as coils,
are twice as
and the ends of each coil instead of being con-
nected to neighboring segments, are connected to
the diametrically opposite segments and only one
end to each segment. There is then no connection
between the different segments.
A rather novel form of Gramme ring machine,
30 AliMATUKE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
FIG. 1 6.
ATCMATUltE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 81
which is perhaps better adapted for use as a

motor than a dynamo will be described while we
are still on the subject of ring armatures. The
armature is of the ordinary ring pattern, preferably
with projecting lugs on the inside between the coils.
FIG. 18.
The field instead of being around the armature is

inside it, and is simply a shuttle-wound armature
supplied with a current in one direction only.
This gives a very short magnetic circuit and con-
sequently requires but little
magnetizing power.
(See Fig. 18.)
CHAPTER III.
DRUM WINDING.
THE drum armature is as stated in the previous
chapter, adapted for low potentials than

better
the ring armature. It has a greater capacity for
large currents than the lines of magnetic force,

which means a stronger field.
Formerly the practice was to place a number
of layers of wire on the armature to obtain the
necessary E. M. F., but while this custom exists

still in the ring armatures, the tendency in the case
of drum armatures has been to reduce the number
of layers as much as possible, and to make up for
the loss of potential caused by the fewer turns by
strengthening the field and increasing the speed,
or the diameter of the armature. The reason for
this is that people are beginning now to see
the importance of reducing the resistance of
the magnetic circuit to its lowest limit. The
gain affected by leaving off one layer of wire,
and diminishing the air space between the core and
pole pieces by that amount, is astonishing to one
who has never seen it tried.
It is even stated that the pole pieces should fit
the armature winding so closely, that they have to

be bored out in shallow grooves where the bands
of binding wire come, and persons who have tried
this, claim that the benefit resulting from it is
much in excess of the slight additional work it
makes.
We cannot impress the fact too forcibly upon
our readers, then, that they should make every
effort to keep down this magnetic resistance.
Builders generally nowadays are trying to get along
with a single layer of wire on the armature. Wind-
ing two layers has other disadvantages. It makes
it worse about
getting at a fault to repair it, and
does not allow such good ventilation. When two
layers are wound on, it usually means that one-half
of the armature winding is in the first layer, and
the other half in the second, and that the second
having a greater length of wire has a greater resist-
ance which throws the armature out of electrical
balance, causing sparking and other evils.
Various ingenious devices have been used by in-
ventors to overcome this last difficulty, by winding
with double wires, so that the outside and inside
layers may have equal shares of each coil, but they
are at best make shifts and greatly increase the
trouble of construction, and we should advise in all
cases when the necessary potential cannot be se-
cured, except by a large number of turns, that a
Gramme armature be used.
The drum winding is not

essentially different
from the ring, except of course that the wires go
completely around the length of the armature in

place of passing through its center. The same
remarks apply to lamination of the core, and to the
pegs for keeping the wire in place. The disks can
be held in place on the shaft by washers which can
be screwed against them along the shaft from either
end. (See Fig. 19.)
"
FIG. 19.
In laying out the spaces on the core to be occu-

pied by the coils, you must have double the num-
ber of spaces that you have coils, if you intend to
have only a single layer of wire, for each coil occu-
pies two spaces, one at each end of a diameter of
the core. If you have two layers of wire and wind
one-half of your wire in the first, and the other

half in the second layer, you will only need the
same number of spaces as coils. This is a point

that sometimes puzzles young amateurs. They
have only the same number of spaces as coils and
find to their surprise when they have filled all the
spaces that they have only commutator connec-

tions for half of the commutator bars.
When you are winding on two layers of wire
you start as you did in winding the Gramme ring, by
leaving a loose end hanging, and then winding along
the length of the armature and into the spaces
diametrically opposite When you have filled one
space leave a loop hanging, and go on and wind up
the next in the same way. When you have half
your wound, you will find, as stated above,
coils
that the spaces are occupied. Shellac the wind-
all
ing well and cover it over with a strip of cloth.

The wires of the different coils will cross at the
ends of the armature. These points of intersec-
tion must always be covered by a piece of cloth be-
fore the next coil goes on.
Wind the second half of the armature over the
top of the first one and connect the last end with
the starting wire of the first layer. When wind-
ing, as in this case, into diametrically opposite
spaces, you will find that the armature shaft inter-
feres with the wire going straight across the end
and you will have to go around it, one-half the coil
on one side and one-half on the other. The
armature shaft at this point must be insulated as
thoroughly as the core itself. When winding on

only one layer, we proceed in a slightly different
manner.
Suppose, for example, that we have a four-coil
armature. Then beginning at one of the spaces,
wind, not into the diametrically opposite one but
into its neighbor.
FIG. 20.
Beginning at a, wind the and throw

coil 1-2,
out a loop, andskipping space wind coil
b,
3-4. Throw out a loop again and skipping d, wind

56, and lastly skipping f windy 7-8, and join the
two ends, and connect to the commutator as
shown. This method is to be followed for any
number of coils. We simply wind into an adja-
cent space to the one diametrically opposite the
ARMATUKE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 37
starting space, and then skip a space in starting

the next one. (See Fig. 20.)
The remarks about finishing up the ring arma-
ture all apply equally to the drum armature.
We will now take up the theoretical armature
and the methods of making our calculations. The
formula given above, for the E. M. F. of the arma-
ture is
E=l t N ^
This expression if the lines of force / are given
in absolute units would give the E. M. F. in abso-
lute units. The absolute unit is TOOO^OO^TT of the
practical unit or volt, so we must divide the result
above by 100000000 to get it into volts or what
means the same thing, multiply it
by io" 8 .
If we adopt the Kapp notation and make our

unit of field strength 6,000 times as large as the
absolute unit, and call the strength of field as
expressed by this new unit Z, we should have for
the relation between and / Z
l=6ooo Z.
Z and / are the number of lines of force,,
which, for a given field will vary inversely as the

size of the unit. If we use this new unit we must
divide the result by 1,000,000 instead of 100,000,000
to get E in volts and will have
ZtNn -7 f M n irT 8
Toooooo ^ t IN n IO
If we
let m
equal the number of lines of force per
square inch of section of armature core and a be
the length of the core and b equal its thickness

then 2 abm will equal the number of lines of
force passing through the core in the case of the
Gramme ring and abm in the case of the drum
armature. (See Fig. 21.)
FIG. 21.
M according to Kapp reaches its maximum when

it
equals 30, and the iron
is then said to be satu-
rated ;20, according to the same authority is a

fair average value for good modern dynamos and
motors.
ARMATUHE AND FIEI.D-MAGXET WINDING. 39
CHAPTER IV.
FIELD WINDING.
THE magnetic field in which the armature re-
volves may be produced by permanent or electro-
magnets. The first method makes a bulky machine
for the hardened steel, of which such magnets are
made is an inferior conductor of magnetic force
to wrought or cast iron. It has given away in ma-
chines meant to supply any considerable current,

to the electro-magnetic field, but is still used on the
"magnetos" for ringing bells and for therapeutical

purposes. In such cases it is customary to use a
shuttle armature with fine wire winding and no
commutator.
It is stated that permanent magnets are much
better adapted for dynamos than motors, as in the
former case they tend to become stronger and in
the latter weaker through use. In every case how-
ever where the machine is of any size, and space and
weight an object, the iron fields are vastly superior
since a given weight of iron will give a much
stronger field than an equal weight of hardened
steel, of the same shape.
The magnetic
qualities of the iron are conferred
upon by a
it
winding of insulated wire through
which a current is passing. Theoretically there
should be no difference in the magnetic force pro-
duced by a given coil of wire and current, no mat-
ter at what point of the magnet's length it is placed.
And really there is not, but there seems to be a
general idea among dynamo constructors, that
coils put upon the poles or close to them, prevent
the lines of force from straying around in some
other way than through the armature where they
will do some useful work. It is mainly -for this
reason that we see the series coils of so many

dynamos placed upon the poles. There are also
the advantages of greater accessibility for repairs,
and less damage from over heating.
In winding a magnet it makes no difference so
far as the magnetic effect is concerned, whether
there are 100 turns of wire with I
ampere flowing
through them, or I turn with 100 amperes. The
product of the number of turns by the amperes is
called the "ampere-turns."
The fields of different dynamos may be wound
very differently but have the same strength. The
fields of a shunt wound dynamo get their current
at a constant potential, and as it is desirable to use
as little power as possible on them, the winding is
made of fine wire to give a high resistance, and
the small amount of current is made up for by
the larger number of turns.
In a series wound dynamo there is usually a cer-

tain amount of current available, and it is taken
around the fields on large wire, and with as few
turns as possible. The character of the winding
will depend therefore upon the conditions under
which the dynamo is to run.
CHAPTER V.
FIELD FO RMUL AE .
THE calculations for the strength of the field,

and the necessary current to produce it, are based
upon the assumption that the lines of magnetic
force obey a similar law to that for electric current,
viz. that they vary directly as the
;
magnetizing force
and inversely as the resistance of the circuit.
Kapp has made this a subject of investigation and
finds a formula which fits approximately to
observed facts. This is given below :
P_
Z
1
440*1+
h
cb ab
'
i
+^
'
AB
and
0.8 P
'
_-.
ab '
AB
Where Z= the total number of lines of force,
P the exciting power in ampere-turns, a b the cross
section of the armature (Gramme ring in this case),
c the arc spanned by each pole piece, d the distance
between the polar surface of the magnets and the
external surface of the armature core, 1 the average
length of the magnetic circuit inside the armature,

L the length of the magnetic circuit in the field
magnets, and AB the cross sectional area of their
core. See Fig. 22.
As the lengths are all given in inches, the excit-
ing power in ampere-turns, and the result Z in the
same units chosen in the armature formula viz. : 6000
times larger than the absolute unit, so that the
FIG. 22.
results obtained by this formula may be readily

applied to the armature calculations.
The first of the two formulae is for well an-
nealed wrought iron, and a wrought iron armature
core, the second is for cast iron magnets. The
formulae only apply where the degree of magne-
tization of the field core is not higher than 10 lines
per square inch, and there give pretty fair results.

Higher degrees of magnetization demand more
current than the formulae call for, and when the
saturation point is approached, the increased power
necessary over that given in the formulae is from

40 to 100 ft.
Different specimens of iron will sometimes vary

in their magnetic qualities, to such an extent that
FIG. 23.
a formula will often not serve a much

better pur-
pose than a foundation upon which to base a good

guess. The formulae of Kapp however are about
the best that have been brought out as yet, and are
near enough to the truth to enable one to build a
dynamo, and not come very far from the calculated
output. By multiplying the Z
by the denomi-
nator of the fraction in the second term we get
the value of P
or the ampere-turns which we
must use upon our magnets. The formulae where

double magnetos are used, are
for wrought iron and for cast iron

Z_ 0.8 P
2
The double field magnet can be made lighter

than the single one for the same power, but re-
quires more copper. Where expense is an item
to be considered it must give way to the single
magnet, but where weight is the chief point, it is
to be preferred. (See Fig. 23.)

46 ARMATUBE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
CHAPTER VI.
GENERAL METHODS OF* WINDING.
ANexperimental method of determining the

winding will next be considered. This is not only
useful in itself but can be applied advantageously
as a check upon the calculations described in the
previous chapter.
The armature supposed to be wound, and the
is
field cores receive their wire.

ready to Put the
armature in place and start it to revolving at the
speed you desire it to have. Put a few turns of
large wire around the field cores and pass a current
over them from some independent source. Take
the current off your armature through some adjust-
able resistance a bank of incandescent lamps makes
a good one where it can be had and a water resistance
is also good. This is made by putting two metallic
electrodes in a vessel of water and arranging them
so that the distance between them can be altered.
A resistance varying from a high to a low limit
can be had by using pure water, and adding a drop
or two of sulphuric acid per gallon. Pure water
will give a high resistance and the acid lowers it.
The finer adjustment is made, after you have

about what you want in this way, by altering
the distance apart of the electrodes. Iron tel-
egraph wire also makes a good resistance, coiled
up in springs, or wound around a wooden frame.
Vary this resistance and the current around your
fields until you get the required current and E. M.
F. from your armature. Then note the current in

the wire around your fields, and the number of
turns and you have the ampere turns necessary to
give the required strength of field.
above, it makes no difference how

As explained
these ampere turns are put on, so that only a few
turns of wire are necessary for the experiment,
providing you have sufficient current.
Then comes the question as to what size wire to
use on the fields. In a series wound machine this
is simply a question as to what size wire will carry
the current without overheating, for your amperes
are already decided by the current that comes from
the armature, and you have simply to divide the
ampere turns as determined above by this, to get
the number of turns.
wound machine it is dif-
In the case of a shunt
ferent. Here you have a certain E. M. F. avail-
able and you must adjust your field winding so
that it will produce the requisite number ampere
turns.
Here comes in a little point upon which good
men trip up, and which the author has never seen
mentioned in text books. It does not make
any difference, once the size of wire on the
fields chosen, how many turns you put on if
is
your dynamo or motor is shunt wound. For ex-

ample, suppose you have ten turns of wire of such
a size that with the given E. M. F. of the machine
it will allow fifteen amperes to flow over it. This
will, of mean 150 ampere turns on the
course,
magnet. Suppose, with the E. M. F. unchanged,
you increase the number of turns to 20. This will
double the resistance of the wire and consequently
cut down the current to half its original strength,
or to seven and a half amperes. Multiplying this
by 20 we again get 150 for the ampere turns, and
this would hold true whatever way we change
in
the number of turns, keeping the E. M. F. and

size of wire constant. This will not be strictly
accurate where we have several layers of wire,
since the outer layers will be longer than the
inner ones and, consequently, have a greater re-
sistance. If the diameter of the core bears a large
ratio to the thickness of the layer of wire upon it
the rule will be nearly enough right for all practi-

cal purposes.
Suppose, then, that we have found out the num-

ber of ampere turns and know what E. M. F. we
are to have. Dividing the E. M. F. in volts by the
number of ampere turns we get the resistance
required of a single turn of wire around the fields

to give the required number of ampere turns.
Find the average length of one turn of wire and
from a wire table find the size of wire which has
the desired resistance for this length. This is the
size wire to use. Of course, a single turn of this
wire would, ordinary circumstances, be
under
burnt up by putting it on the E. M. F. of the
machine, so we must put on a large number of
turns, reducing the current in consequence, until
we have it too small to do any damage. It will
easily be seen that the greater number of

turns we
put on the less energy necessary to
magnetize the fields, for more turns means a
higher resistance or less current, and the energy
used on the fields being equal to the current
through them, multiplied by the E. M. F., it natur-
ally follows that it is reduced in the same propor-
tion that the turns are increased.
It might seem at first as if we might, by increas-
ing the amount of copper on the fields, come at
last to the point where no energy is required to
rim them, but of course this would be impractica-

ble, for it would mean, in the first place, a resist-
ance equal to infinity, and in the second, that the
layer would have to be so thick that the rule given
above would no longer hold true. There is a limit
depending upon the money interest or the
copper used, and the cost of the energy lost. A
50 AKMATURE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
process similar to that used by Sir William Thom-

son in determining the proper amount of copper
to use on a certain piece of wiring could be applied
here, but this is an unnecessary piece of refinement

and all that is really needful is to see that the wire
is long enough to reduce the current within safe
limits.
Often
it will be found that no size of wire
given
inthe table will give the exact resistance called for,
and in that case you will have to use two different
sizes which on each side of the required resist-
fall
ance, winding a few layers with one, and the rest

with the other. This is also the course to pursue,
if the
winding when completed fails to give the
desired result. Unwrap a layer or two and rewind
with a different size wire, larger or smaller accord-
ing as you wish, the fields to be stronger or weaker.
The experimental method answers very nicely for
getting the data for compounding a machine.
Run your dynamo first unloaded and measure the
ampere turns as directed above, necessary to give
the E. M. F. Then run it on the full load and
again get the ampere turns. The first will give
you the ampere turns for the shunt winding, and
the difference between the first and second, the
ampere turns for the series. As this is not always
an even number it is
customary in some
places to
make the series coil larger than is really necessary,
and then put a German Silver shunt across its ends
which will reduce the current in it to the proper

amount. This series coil is generally placed as
near the pole pieces as possible, and is often made
of flat strips of copper, these requiring less room
than round wire and being better adapted to radiate
the heat.
In making the above calculations some allowance
must be made for the increased resistance caused
by the rise in temperature. In the series machine
this does not play any part, as the current has to
get over the coils, but in the case of the shunt

coils where the current is determined by the re-
sistance, this must be taken into account. The

rise in resistance due to temperature is .21^0 for
every degree Fahrenheit. And it is well not to let
the wire get much above 110 or 1200, and a
lower temperature means much less waste of
energy.
The old rule for the safe carrying capacity of
copper wire, is one square inch cross sec-

to allow
tion of wire for 1,000 amperes of current where
the wire is by itself, and one square inch cross sec-
tion for 400 or 500 amperes in places where the
wire is covered or surrounded by other wires.
Prof. Forbes says that wires used in winding which
are 2 millimetres in diameter will carry 5 to 6 am-
peres per square millimetre, and that wire 5 mil-

limetres in diameter will carry 3 amperes per square
millimetre.
CHAPTER VII.
FIELD WINDING.
The method of winding will depend largely

upon the form of the field core, and we will briefly
discuss that before going further.
Cast iron cores most cases, be cheapest
will, in
to construct, but a wrought iron core is always the
most effective electrically, as the formulae given
above show. A cast iron core can be made almost
any shape, but there is a limit to the number of
shapes in which wrought iron can be made, unless
an expensive amount of forging is done.
One wrought iron form, which can be made
without much trouble, is given in Fig. 24.
After bending into shape, the space for the
armature can be bored out and the winding slipped
over spools.
Another of the same style is shown in Fig. 25.
In this case would be well to make it in two
it
pieces, and bolt together at A and B. This makes

it easier to get the winding on.
Often the cores, and perhaps yoke of the fields,

are made of wrought iron, as they are ordinarily
square or round pieces, and the poles made of

cast iron. The poles should, in this case, be made
more massive in proportion to the other parts than
if
they were wrought iron.
In general, it is not advisable to have too many
breaks across the paths of the lines of force, and
FIG. 24.
FIG. 25.
for this reason the author does not think that one
form of field he has seen described
very desira-
is
ble,except for small machines, although it is of

the best wrought iron. It is made of a strip of
sheet iron, wrapped around a former, until the right
thickness is obtained. The lines of force have a
free path until they come to get into the armature,
54 ARMATL'BE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
FORMS OF FIELD MAGNETS

AKMATUUE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 55
[/-~\l
FORMS OF FIELD MAGNETS.

and then they have to jump across from face to

face of the sheets.
(See Fig. 26.)
A
better way, and one adopted by a certain
prominent company, is to stamp out sheets of iron
into the proper shape and then bind them together
with the plane of their faces running lengthwise
of the magnet, but at right angles to the way
shown above. The pole pieces should not embrace
FIG. 26.
the armature more than the diameter of the arma-

ture core. (See Fig 27.)
Nor should they project beyond the ends of the
core for the reasons given in speaking of the
armature. The wire should always, where it is
possible to do so, be wound in a lathe, as it is much
and can be done more evenly. It can
less tedious
be wound directly upon the field core, or may be
wound upon a spool and slipped over the core
afterwards. (See Fig. 28.)
ABMATUIiE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 57
This spoolis generally made of sheet iron to fit
closely upon the core, and is flanged at the open

ends to the depth of the winding. flange made A
of brass, with the edges polished, gives a very
neat appearance. A
spool is generally used where
it is impossible to swing the cores in a lathe.
A double magnet, made in a solid piece, will
have to be wound by hand, as it is impossible to
swing it in a lathe or to put on a spool. Such
FIG. 27.
forms general should be avoided. Before

in
commencing to wind, the bare metal must be in-

sulated with a couple of thicknesses of yellow
wrapping paper laid on with shellac. The starting
end of your wire, if the wire be small, must be
soldered to a larger piece of wire, preferably
with waterproof insulation, and this piece lead
out through a hole in one of the flanges to
make the connection. Wind the wire on in even
58 ABMATUBE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
layers and drive the coils, every dozen turns, back

upon themselves with a smooth piece of wood and.
a light hammer, being careful not to abrade the
insulation. Double cotton-covered copper wire
should be used both for armature and fields. Shel-
lac each layer as you finish it and cover it with a
piece of paper before beginning the next. The
wire must be drawn tight enough to insure the
wire lying snugly. This tension is produced by
taking the wire around a number of grooved
FIG. 28.
wooden wheels which turn rather stiffly, but not
enough so that the wire will slide over them. (See

Fig. 29.)
When you commence wind the next to the
to
last layer, tie a piece of string around the first turn

of wire and leave the ends hanging loose, and when
you return to that end, winding the last layer, tie
the last turn down by these strings, and this will
prevent the wire coming loose

when the tension is
taken off. The winding should now be baked,
like the armature, and is then ready to be as-
AK MATURE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
sembled. The connections should all be soldered

and taped over, and the wire should be taped wher-
ever it comes in contact with the metallic work
about the machine.
Both and armature should be tested to see
fields
that there no contact with the core by trying to
is
ring a magneto from the wire to the core, and if

any contact is discovered it should be fixed at once.
Some manufacturers wind heavy twine around
the fields over the wire after it is all on. This
FIG. 30.
gives a neat appearance and protects the fine

wire from injury. The fields must be con-
nected up in such a way as to make the pole
pieces north and south magnetic poles. To
know if the pole is north or south, look at the
winding at the end from which it projects, and if
the current goes in the direction of the hands of a

watch, the pole is south, and if in the contrary
direction, north. (See Fig. 30.)
If more than two poles are used, they must
alternate north and south.
In making the armature and field connections,
you must be careful to get the machine connected

for the way in which it is to run. A dynamo or
motor will not run in either direction indifferently.
If you run the dynamo in the wrong direction,
you get no current.

First make up your mind which way the machine
is to run, and then follow up the current and see
if it will magnetize the the proper direc-

fields in
tion. If it will not, your connection must be
reversed.
Table of Dimensions and Resistances of Pure

Copper Wire.*
REVISED.
No.
B. &S.
Table of Dimensions and Resistances of Pure

Copper Wire.*
REVISED.
No.
B.
&
S.
64 ABMATURE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
CHAPTER VIII.
DYNAMOS.
WE will now take a brief survey of some of the

dynamo electric machines manufactured by the
leading companies of the United States.
The Thomson-Houston Arc Dynamo. In this

machine the field magnets are cup shaped, they
consist of two cast iron tubes, furnished at their
inner ends with hollow cups, cast in one with the
tubes, and accurately turned to receive the arma-
ture ; upon these tubes are wound the coils ;
after-
wards the magnets are united by means of a num-
ber of wrought iron bars, which constitute the
yoke of the magnet, and at the same time protect
the coils. The magnets are carried on a frame-
work, which also supports the bearings for the
armature shaft.
All late machines have ring armatures (see Figs.
3132), which are a great improvement over the old
style (spherical armature) in the way of better ven-
tilation, higher insulation, greater freedom from
burning out, and the ease with which faulty coils

can be removed and new ones substituted.
ARMATURE AND FIELD MAGNET WINDING.
COMMUTATOR END
FIGURES 31 AND 32.

These armatures are interchangeable with the

old style armature, and can be used in any M. D. or
L. D. machine. The commutator has only three
segments in contact with which are four brushes.
Regulation obtained by an electro-magnet reg-
is
ulator, which controls the amount of current by

automatic shifting of the brushes, in such a way
that they short circuit one of the armature coils
for a greater or less period of time as the occasion
may require, when from a reduction of resistance

in the lamp circuit, by the extinguishing of a lamp,
or otherwise, the current feeding the other lamps
becomes liable to abnormal increase; this increase
of current is made to flow through the coils of wire
surrounding the iron core of the regulator magnet.
The core becomes magnetized, causing the yoke
to which the brushes are attached to be drawn up
towards the regulator magnet which changes the
position of the brushes upon the commutator, so
that they draw away from the maximum point,
decreasing the potential, when more lights are

turned on the reverse action takes place. The
current governing the regulator is cut in and out
by means of a pair of electro-magnets termed the

controler magnets, and are connected with the reg-
ulator magnet of the dynamo.
Sparking at the commutator is reduced by a

blower, being so placed that it sends a current of
air directly on to the point of contact of the brushes
68 AKMATUKE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
and the commutator which blows out the spark.

The largest machines have an electro-motive force
of 3000 volts, and will maintain 63 arc lights in a
single circuit.
The Edison Direct Current Dynamo. The field

magnets consist of vertical cylinders with large
wrought-iron cores, which rest upon cast-iron pole
pieces, and nearly enclose the armature. The
armature is drum shaped. (See Figs. 33 and 34.)
The core consists of a number of sheet-iron discs,
insulated from each other by sheets of thin paper.
The core is mounted on an iron shaft, but insulated
from it
by an
interior cylinder of lignum vitae,
while an external covering of paper insulates it
from the coils. The coils consist of cotton covered
copper wire, stretched longitudinally and grouped
together in parallel, a number of wires in a group,
all of the group being so connected as to form a
continuous closed circuit. The groups are ar-
ranged concentric layers, and are of the same

in
number as the segments of the commutator, the
ends of the wires in each group being attached to
arms connecting with the commutator segments,
a spiral arrangement being adopted in making the
connections between the straight portion of the
wire and the arms. The object of grouping is to
secure flexibility for winding by the use of small
wire and low electrical resistance, by having
ABMATUKE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 69
EDISON DIRECT CURRENT DYNAMO.

SPl
ARMATUUE AND FIELD-MAGXET WINDING. 71
several wires in parallel, the effect as to the resist-

ance being practically the same as if the several
wires were combined in one. At the ends the
wires are insulated from the core by discs of vul-
canized fibre with projecting teeth. The discs* of
the core are bolted together by insulated rods, and
the coils are confined by brass bands surrounding
the armature. The brushes are composed of
several layers of copper wires, combined with flat
copper strips,two layers of wire being placed

between each two strips. This arrangement is to
give a more perfect connection, and to prevent
sparking by furnishing numerous points of contact,
the copper strips confining the wire and making
the brush more compact.
The Westinghouse Alternating Current Dynamo,

for generating the alternating current, is repre-
sented by the accompanying illustration. The field
is composed of a series of radial pole pieces
having
alternate polarity, the cores of which are cast solid
with the base and cap respectively. The field coils
are a series of bobbins each independent of all the
others which are wound on shells, slipped over the
pieces and held up by bolts at the periphery.
The bobbins being supplied with a feeble current
from the exciter are of course subject to no natural
deterioration and are not liable to accident. They
can only be damaged by extraneous carelessness,
72 AKMATUKE AND FIELD- MAGNET WINDING.
and, when such is the case, the cap of the dynamo

is removed and any bobbin taken out and replaced
in a few moments. The armature is removed in
the same manner, as the whole structure of the
dynamo, including the pole pieces and the bearings,
parts along a horizontal plane through the shaft.
The engraving shows the side of the dynamo
which carries the collecting ring ;
the other side
WESTINGHOUSE ALTERNATING CURRENT DYNAMO.
has a similar bearing, beyond which is an over-

hung pulley. This pulley is of compressed straw-
board, which in experience is found to exceed all
other material for belt traction. The dynamo
restsupon a cast iron base and is adjustable by
means of a belt tightener. The dynamo can run
in either direction and stand either way around on

the base. This of course adapts it
universally to
any situation.
The armature is a structure of great directness
and simplicity. The body of the armature is of lam-
inated iron plates freely perforated for ventilating
purposes. A
single layer of wire is wound in flat
coils back and forth across the face of the armature
in a direction parallel to the shaft,
being retained
by stops on the ends of the armature. Mica and
other adequate insulation is provided and the
whole is wrapped with binding wire. A ventilator
is attached to each end of the armature and draws
a strong current of air through it.

The observer will be struck by the simplicity of
the winding on an alternating current armature as
compared with that necessary in the direct current
machines. The total
weight copper on a 750
of
light armature is 16 Ibs., disposed in a single layer,

which being on the surface is readily kept cool,
and which can be inspected for deterioration or
flaws ofany character. A direct current armature
of type most generally in use of 750 lights capacity
on the other hand carries more than 10 times this
amount of wire.
The armatures are uniformly wound to deliver
1,000 volts, and a higher voltage than this, for
special circuits, is obtained by raising through a
special converter.
The New Multipolar Generator, Made by the

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Com-
pany, of Pittsburg, Pa., see illustration. In this
machine the pole pieces project radially from the
interior of the cylindrical yoke pieces, and by the
peculiar construction ready access may be had to
the field coils and armature. The machines are all
wound for 500 volts, E. M. F., but by means of
a rheostat this can be raised to 550 or 600 volts.
They are self-exciting and compound wound ma-
chines. The armature is a distinctive feature. It
is of the Siemens' type, the core of which is built
up in the usual way, of a large number of thin iron

discs which are rigidly keyed to the shaft. The
wires are not placed on the exterior of the core, as
is usually done, but are placed in insulating tubes
which are embedded in the iron of the core. This
construction obviates the use of binding wires. A
special method of winding is used, and the amount
of wire necessary is reduced to a minimum. The
commutators are long and massive. The brush
holders are composed of independent holders, thus
allowing each carbon brush to be removed without
disturbing the others. The machine is carefully
regulated, designed for railway use and to require
a minimum amount of attention.
WESTINGHOUSE MULTIPOLAR GENERATOR.

CHAPTER IX.
MOTORS.
THE dynamo generates electricity, and is driven

by mechanical means. The electric motor fur-
nishes power, and is actuated by electricity gene-
rated from a dynamo or an electric battery. The
field winding of a motor is adapted to the work,
which it is to perform. Series winding is used

when a variable speed is required and where the
regulation may be attended to by hand, its chief
advantage being in its great starting power. Shunt
winding is used where constant speed is required.
Compound winding is theoretically more correct,
but a shunt winding will regulate the machine
closely enough for all practical purposes, and is
the one most commonly used. A brief description
of some of the machines manufactured by the lead-
ing electrical companies will give the reader

a general understanding of their different styles
of mechanical and electrical construction.
The Crocker-Wheeler Electric Motor, of which

two illustrations are given, on pages 78 and 80,
possess some special features of merit which are

as follows :
The fieldmagnets are composed entirely of the

best wrought-iron, each magnet being forged in a
single piece, and set deeply into the base in order
to secure solidity and ample magnetic contact.
The space for wire on these magnets is perfectly
cylindrical, in the form of an ordinary spool, there-
by insuring smooth and perfect winding of the
wire, and is short in length, permitting the shaft
of the machine to be low enough to free it from
vibration. By this construction the neutrality or
freedom of the base from magnetism is secured,
and there is no tendency to leakage. This is
claimed to make the machine much superior to
those in which the base is made to serve as one of
the pole pieces, as the bearings then become mag-
netized and make the shaft bind.
The armatures contain several improvements.
They are sufficiently large in diameter to obtain
slow speed, and are so designed that the wire
winding is entirely embedded below the surface of
the iron core, thus protecting it from all injury,
holding it position, and rendering it
rigidly in
possible for the magnets to approach very closely
to the core, so that an intense magnetic effect is
produced. The armature is mounted upon a brass

face-plate, which turned perfectly true, and
is first
after completion the armature is very carefully

CROCKER-WHEELER ELECTRIC MOTOR.

ARMATURE AND FIELD -MAGNET WINDING. 79
balanced, so that when run at full speed the motion

is hardly perceptible.
The bearings are all of the self -oiling type, which
do not require attention oftener than once in two
to four weeks.
The base of the pillow-block is hollow, and con-
tains a supply of oil, which is carried over the shaft
by two rings which travel upon the latter, and are

caused to revolve by its motion. They dip in the
oil and carry it continuously to the upper side of
the shaft.
The bushings in which the shaft runs Vest in turn
in universal or ball joints in seats of babbit metal
in pillow-blocks, so that the bearings are sure to
assume perfect alignment when the shaft is intro-
duced. After the motor has run a month, the
old oil containing the grit, etc., [should be drawn
off from the pet cock at the base of the pillow
block. This cock should then be closed and fresh
oil introduced by removing the thumb screw in
the pillow block cap on top.
The brushes are held by rocker arms which can
revolve freely around the entire circle, without fear
of the brass connecting parts "grounding" against
the frame, a great advantage in special work where
motors are to be adapted for use in unusual positions.
With this form of armature core which reaches
close to the field magnets, and the high grade of
wrought-iron used for the latter, it is claimed they

SKELETON VIEW, SHOWING INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION OF

CROCKER-WHEELER ELECTRIC MOTOR.
are enabled to maintain the magnetism and there-

fore the power of these motors, with only about
one-third as much wire as is used on the fields of
ordinary standard machines. This great saving of

wire not only reduces the weight of the machine,
but materially increases its efficiency, or the amount
of power that can be obtained from a given amount
of electricity, for with less wire less electricity is
required.
The speed of motors is very low, which in many
cases makes counter-shafting, etc., unnecessary.
The proximity of the armature core to the field
magnets renders a high magnetic pressure un-
necessary, therefore the magnetism escaping from

the fields is very much reduced.
Double insulated wire used throughout for the
is
windings, the cores being first wrapped with oiled

paper and heavy canvas saturated with shellac.
The rocker arm is provided with a heavy insula-
ted handle to enable all adjustments to be made
without touching the conducting parts, and the en-

tire machine heavily japaned and baked at a high
is
temperature, thus securing a polished surface which

resists dirt and oil.
In connection with their incandescent motors,
they furnish fire-proof and indestructible regulating

boxes or rheostats for starting, stopping and vary-
ing the speed of the machines. These are built
entirely of slate, china and iron. The arrangement
82 AKMATURE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
of contacts in the switch on top of the regulator

is such that both the field and armature of the mo-
tor are charged by the single operation of turning

the knob, making it impossible to put the current
on the armature before the field is charged, which
has so often been the cause of the accidental burn-
ing out of many motors by the use of ordinary
regulators.
The charged through a small resist-
field is first
ance which is put in for the purpose of prevent-

coil
ing a too sudden change in the magnetic strength

of the latter, as well as to divide the spark when
the motor is disconnected. The coils used for start-
ing the armature are all of the same size wire
carefully tried for carrying the full current of the
machine at all speeds. With the fire-proof regu-
lator, the motor can therefore be slowed down and
left running at any desired speed, indefinitely, and
the usual caution "never to leave the box half turned

on for fear of overheating and fire" is unnecessary.
The Thomson-Houston Stationary Motor. The

15 horse-power motor shown in the illustration on
next page has an average commercial efficiency
when fully loaded of 91 per cent. This high effi-
ciency is obtained by paying careful attention to
the electric and magnetic proportioning of the
motor.
The magnetic circuit is very short and of ample
THOMSON-HOUSTON STATIONARY MOTOR.

section, and therefore of low resistance, and the

magnetic poles are so formed as to convey the mag-
netism into the armature with the least possible
loss. As be noted in the engraving, the poles
will
of the field-magnets, the bodies or cores of which
are round in section, project upward, enclosing the
armature. The armature isnearly square in long-
itudinal section and relatively large in diameter.
This gives a high peripheral velocity and a. rapid
cutting of the lines of force. In consequence of
this construction, also, the armature is capable of
exerting a powerful rotative force. The armature

being short, avoids the use of a long and conse-
quently less rigid shaft. The coils of the motor-
magnet are wound on bobbins which are slipped
over the cores ;
it is therefore easy to change a
coil or to replace it for any purpose whatever.
The field is wound in shunt to the armature, and
is relatively of a very high resistance.
This reduces the amount of electrical energy re-
quired to energize the field-magnet to a very small

fraction of the total electrical energy absorbed by
the motor. The armature bore is thoroughly well
built and a very solid and substantial structure.
is
At the same time the perfect lamination of the

core reduces the loss by Foucault currents to a
small amount.
The winding on the armature, which is a modifi-
cation of the well-known Siemens' type, is of very

low resistance.
The copper wire onthe armature is held in place
by means which are made of such strength
of bands,
that it is impossible for them to yield from the
centrifugal force, even when the motors are run at

abnormal speed.
The Ford & Washburn Electric Motor oi Cleveland,

isshown in the illustration. The special improve-
ment, they claim, puts their motor far in advance
of manyothers and places the use of electricity for
lighting within the reach of the smallest plants, is
its self-ventilating feature but the motor itself
;
possesses many points of superiority. The bed

plates and brackets are one complete casting.
The magnet yokes are wrought iron fastened to
the bed plate, and the pole pieces are separate cast-
ings bolted to magnet yokes. The field cores are
wound on separate shells, and are interchangeable
for all machines of same size. The armature shaft
is steel and of extra large size.
The especial feature of their motor, as above
stated, is the armature, which is self-ventilating.
It draws a current of air from both ends and
along the line of shaft and out through the discs,,
which are separated, and through the winding, with
openings to let the air pass out. The rapid rotary
motion of the armature sends out the current of air,.
ARMATURE AXD FIELD-MAGXET WIXIHXG.
FIG. 35.
FIG. 36.
which keeps the armature and pole pieces cool and

therefore more effective than the old style which
is so liable to heat up. This self- ventilating feature
it is claimed, is found in no other motor at present
manufactured. It is adapted to both motors and

dynamos. Fig. 35 shows the motor; Fig. 36 shows
the armature.
The Neiv Mather Motors and Power Generators.

Recognizing the demand for power transmission
by means of electric current, the Mather Electric
Company has bought out a series of machines for
that purpose, which, while embodying the essential
features of the well-known Gramme ring type, can
be more readily insulated against the high potentials
required for power service.
One of the essential features of the old type of
Mather machines was a field magnet having the
form approximately of the magnetic lines of force
and consisting of one piece. In the new type the
cores of the field magnet are straight, permitting
the use of coils of wire that can be wound separate-
ly on a machine, while the rest of the magnetic
circuit is practically a ring, and the whole, includ-
ing the cores and pole pieces, is cast in one piece

without a joint.
The motors are built in sizes of I, 3, 6 and 10
h. p. with two poles and 20, 30 and 40 h. p. with
four poles. The generators are built up to 30,000,
NEW MATHER MOTOR.

50,000 and 75,000 watts with four poles, and 180,-

ooo watts with six poles. Drum armatures are used
in all the machines. In the four-pole machines the
winding is such that the current -has but two paths

through the armature wires, and by a special meth-
od, devised by Prof. Anthony, no two wires having
any great difference of potential are brought near

each other.
The illustration represents the /5,ooo-watt gen-
erator, with the fieldmagnet in one casting. In
the i8o,ooo-watt six-pole machine the field magnet
is two halves, but divided through the mid-
cast in
dle of two opposite poles instead of across the mag-
netic circuit. The small motors are wound and
kept in stock for 220 volts, but can easily be wound
for no or 500 volts, when desired. The winding
issuch that in no case is there a loss in the arma-
ture of more than four per cent, and the speeds run
from 1,500 revolutions for the 10 h. p. to 2,500 for
the i h. p. The variation in speed from full load
to no load is never more than four per cent.
Thomson-Houston W. P. Raihvay Motor.

TJie
The following description was taken from the
Electrical World:
One of the most interesting exhibits at the Pitts-
burgh Street Railway Convention was a new slow
speed railway motor of the Thomson-Houston com-
pany, of which the accompanying illustrations give
an excellent idea. It has been in process of evolu-
tion for sixmonths or more and has been worked up

under the careful superintendence of Mr. Walter
Knight. The new machine embodies some decided-
ly novel features acnd its excellent performance on
the special car equipped with it was very favorably
commented upon. It is known to the trade a's the
W. P. motor, which being interpreted means water-
proof, and it well deserves the name, because of
the particularly complete iron-clad character of the
field magnets.
Fig. 37 gives a perspective view of the motor,
and from it the arrangement of the iron is at once
obvious. Singularly enough, it is a two-pole machine
so arranged on the theory that the comparatively
slight gain in weight efficiency that could be ob-

tained with a mutipolar type is more than offset by
the increased complication of the windings. The
only portions of the machine open to the outside
air are exposed at the two oval openings at the ends
of the armature shaft, and even these can be easily
fitted with covers should such a course prove de-
sirable. The whole magnetic circuit is composed
of two castings bolted together and free to swing
apart by a hinge allowing ready access to the ar-
mature.
Fig. 38 gives an excellent idea of the internal
arrangements. The armature itself is very nearly
twenty inches in diameter, a very powerful Pacinotti
A.K.MATUBE AXI> FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 91
FIG. 37.
FIG. 38.
ring nearly six inches on the face and of about the

same depth. It is wound with comparatively coarse
wire in sixty-four sections, with fourteen turns to

the section. Each coil is tightly placed in the
space between two of the projecting teeth, and
about the interior space the separate coils are
closely packed, leaving only sufficient room for the

four-armed driving spider.
As will be seen, the armature takes up most of
the full height of the machine, the pole pieces be-
ing but trifling projections and the requisite cross-
section of iron being obtained by extending the
poles to form a closely fitting iron box that appears
in the exterior view. An unusual feature is the
use of but a single magnetizing coil wound not di-
rectly about the upper pole piece but on the casing

immediately surrounding it. The lower pole is but
slightly raised and both pole pieces are of the
greatest extent permissible with the dimensions of
the machine. The use of a single magnetizing
coil produces naturally an unbalanced field and a
strong upward pull on the armature tending to re-
lieve the pressure on the bearings. The iron-clad
form, however, tends to distribute the lines of
force so as to avoid the sparking and change of
lead that might otherwise have to be feared. The
single coil is wound with quite coarse wire and its
position insures the maximum magnetic effect
from the current.
The speed of the new motor is about the same

as that of the older S. R. G. form, but its general
working efficiency is somewhat better, owing not
so much to a greater maximum of efficiency as to
a better working curve at both heavy and light
loads. The brush holders are shown in the cut,
and the slots in which they
fit render their
position
evident. The brushes
are of the ordinary carbon
description and are readily accessible through the

opening at the end of the shaft.
In operation the W. P. motor has been highly
satisfactory. It runs with but trifling sparking and

no heating to speak of, gives a very powerful
torque, and is singularly free from liability to dam-
age of the armature, for which its careful insula-
tionand the Pacinotti form adopted are responsi-
It is now being
ble. regularly manufactured at the
Thomson-Houston works, and it is expected to
take with great advantage the place in popular fa-
vor of the S. R. G, motor that has made so good a
reputation for itself during the past summer. It is
an interesting departure, both electrically and me-

chanically, and aside from its special features its
general qualities of iron-clad field, gears running
in oil, and the ease of access to the working parts
will commend it to the practical street railway
man.
TJie Porter Electric Motor is shown by the ac-
companying engraving. It is an extremely effi-

PORTER ELECTRIC MOTOR.

cient battery motor and is very simple in its con-

struction. It has but one field winding and its
armature is of the Siemens type.

Three made, viz., No. I, 52 h. p.
sizes are No.
2, ^ and No. 3,
h. p., ^
The No. 3, or largest
size, will run a 6-inch ventilating fan or a family
sewing machine. It has no dead centre and there-

fore starts instantly upon the application of the
current, which may be furnished by a storage cell
or a bicromate battery. The Taylor battery will
be found an excellent battery for running this ma-
chine when one does not wish to use a storage
cell.
The No. 3 motor weighs six pounds. Is 5^

inches long, 4^ inches high and 4^ inches wide.
The Ferret Motor. The chief distinctive feature

of this machine is the lamination of the field mag-
net. Instead of casting or forging this in several
solid pieces, asis usually done, it is built of thin
plates of soft charcoal iron, which are stamped di-

rectly to their finished form and clamped together
by bolts in such a manner as to secure great me-
chanical strength.
The advantages of such a construction are, in
brief, a magnetic field of great intensity and the

entire prevention of all wasteful induced currents
in magnets and pole-pieces.
The armature core is also laminated, and the
ARMATURE AND FIKI.D-M AftNET WINDING.
THE FERRET MOTOR.

ARMATUIIE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 97
plates have teeth, which form longitudinal chan-

nels on its periphery, in which the coils are wound.
The plates in both field and armature are in the
same plane, and are of soft charcoal iron, with its
grain running in the direction of the line of mag-
netic force, and there is the least possible break in
the continuity of the circuit, there being no air
gap between the iron of the field and the iron
teeth of armature, except that required for clear-
ance in rotation. Thus we have a magnetic circuit
of lowest possible resistance, and it follows from
well-known laws that we secure the maximum of
effective magnetism with a minimum expenditure
of magnetizing power.
The armature coils being practically imbedded
in the armature, receive the highest inductive ef-
fect from the intensely magnetized iron. *
The high efficiency which such construction

should give theoretically is practically demon-
strated by the machines in actual work, and ranges
from 70^) in the smaller to 93^ in the larger.
Attempts have been made by many since the
days of Pacinotti to use toothed armatures, but
with the result that very troublesome and wasteful
heating effects were produced in the solid magnets
and pole pieces commonly used. With laminated
field magnets these disadvantages are avoided, and
we are able to secure the advantages enumerated,

as well as others, among which may be mentioned
98 ARMATUKE AND FIELD-MAGNKT WI.VDING.
FIG. 39.
the important ones, positive driving of the arma-

ture coils and less liability of winding out of bal-
ance.
It be seen that the armature is a ring of
will
comparatively large diameter, with longitudinal

channels on its periphery, in which the conductors
are wound, and thus embedded in the iron, which
is in such close proximity to the iron pole pieces
that there is practically no gap in the magnetic

circuit.
The field of three separate magnets
consists
arranged at equal distances around the armature,

each magnet having two pole pieces. See Fig. 39.
The winding is such as to produce alternate North
and South poles. The magnets are built up of
plates of soft charcoal iron, which are shaped as
shown in the diagram, and the magnet thus pro-
duced is of such a form that it may be readily
wound in a lathe. A
non-magnetic bolt passes
through a hole in each pole piece and the plates
are clamped together between washers and nuts on
the same. These bolts also serve to attach the
magnets to the two iron end frames, which are of
ring shape and are bolted to the bed plates of the
machine.
The magnetic circuit is of unusally low resist-
ance by reason of its shape, its shortness, which is
shown by the diagram, and the superior quality of
iron used.
There is no magnetism whatever in the frame,

bed or shaft of the machine, as the magnets are
supported at some distance from the frame by
means of the non-magnetic bolts, and the armature
is mounted on the shaft
by spiders of non-mag-
netic metal.
There is therefore no opportunity for magnetic
leakage, and, furthermore, the whole is enclosed
by a shield or case of sheet metal, as shown in the
illustration on page 96.
Thepractical advantages of low speed machines
are many. For instance, in ordinary machine
shops, wood-work shops, printing offices, etc., the
shaft is commonly run 200 to 300 revolutions per
minute, and it is a simple matter to belt direct to
it from a motor running 500 to 600 revolutions,

thus saving the first cost of a counter-shaft and
one belt) and saving, also, considerable power
which would be lost in transmitting through the
counter-shaft and additional belt, which would be
used necessarily with a motor of high speed. The
advantage is equally as great in case of elevators
operated by a belt from the motor, and indeed, it
is possible to gear direct from the motor to the
elevator.
The Excelsior Motor. The engraving on page

101 illustrates the arc light circuit or constant cur-
rent motor of the Excelsior Electric Co. This
ARMATTJKE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 101
THE EXCELSIOR MOTOR.

102 ARMATURE AXD FIELD-MAGXET WINDING.
motor has its armature and field-magnet coils con-

nected in series. As it is supplied with current by
a generator whose electro-motive force is varied by
an automatic regulator to suit the demands of the
motors on its circuit, it would run at a constantly
increasing speed, when lightly loaded, were it not
regulated and the speed kept uniform by a govern-
ing device. This consists of a centrifugal gov-
ernor which controls the strength of the field-mag-
nets by cutting out the successive layers of wire
in the coils as the load decreases, and cutting them
in when it increases.
The two main bearings of the motor-shaft and
the ball and socket bearings of the governor are
provided with oil chambers, from which the oil is
led to the wearing surfaces by means of felt strips.
The Wightman Single-Reduction Railway Motor.

Among the very first to recognize the desira-
bility of as well as the possibility of eliminating

one set of transmission gears in electric street
railway cars was Mr. Merle J. Wightman, who, as

electrician of the Wightman Electric Manufactur-
ing Co., of Scranton, Pa., over a year ago com-

menced experiments towards the development of a
slow-speed single-reduction motor. The results of
this work are embodied in the motor shown in the
accompanying engraving, Fig. 40, from which

it will be seen that the " Kennedy" type
AHMATUISK AM) FI1- I.D-MAGXtT WINDING. 103
of field-magnet is employed. This form of field-

magnet has the advantage of almost completely
covering the field coils and producing an "iron
clad" moton It gives a very strong and efficient
field and all four poles are excited by two field

windings.
The armature is of the Gramme type, and the
commutator is cross-connected so that but two
brushes are used, placed at an angle of 90 degrees
and on top of the commutator.
The cross-connecting of the commutator is ac-
complished in a remarkably simple way. All the
crossing cables are formed symmetrically into a
which is firmly bolted to the head of the
flat disc
commutator and becomes an integral part of it. In

this way all possibility of vibration and risk of
breakage is overcome. The commutator lead-wires

are all of flexible cable, after the Wightman Com-
pany's well-known method of armature winding.
These lead-wires are fastened to the commutator
without screws and in such a way that they can be
detached in a few minutes, when it becomes neces-
sary to remove a commutator. The armature is
mounted within a strong, continuous frame form-
ing part of the field magnets. The bearings are
self -oiling and dust-proof, and are designed to be
used with grease, oil, or both.
Either field winding is removable without dis-
turbing the other or the armature, each winding
ABMATUKE AND FIELD MAGNET WINDING. 105
FlG. 41. FIELD WINDING OF WIGHTMAN SINGLE

REDUCTION RAILWAY MOTOR.
ARMATURE OF WIGHTMAN SINGLE REDUCTION

RAILWAY MOTOR.
106 ARMATURE AND FIELD- MAGNET WINDING.
being made up of separate coils, one of which is

shown in Fig 41. The removal of two bolts at one
end makes it possible to lift out one of the fields,
after which the armature can be taken out. The
top pole is hinged at one end for convenience
field
in removing the fields or armature.

The ratio of the reduction of the gearing is 4.4
to i, the armature pinion having fifteen teeth and
a diameter of five inches. This ratio gives about
480 revolutions of the armature at a car-speed of
10 miles an hour.
The aimof the designer of the Wightman mo-
tor has been to attain as great an efficiency as pos-
sible with the wide variation of speed and load met
with in street railway practice. This has been ob-
tained by means of large field magnets of a great
number of turns of wire. In fact, speed regula-
tion is obtained without the use of any external
resistance above three or four miles an hour. On a
level, cars equipped with two 2O-h. p. Wightman
motors have frequently attained a speed above
twenty-five miles an hour.
Mr. Wightman's experience has led him to the
belief that there is no economy in operating mo-
tors of small capacity. Many roads are operated
in such a way that cars are barely maintained on
schedule time by dangerous and reckless running
on down grades. A
little calculation will show
that by the expenditure of a little more power,

grades may be climbed rapidly, and as a result,

much more service can be gotten from a given ex-
penditure in wages for conductors and motor-men

and interest on plant and the cost of the extra
;
coal be comparatively insignificant.

will It is
much safer to climb grades rapidly rather than to

descend them at a high rate of speed, not to men-
tion the greater satisfaction of patrons. When
climbing a a
grade stoppage of power and applica-
tion of brakes will bring a car to a standstill within
surprisingly short distance. Since the wear and

tear of ample-sized motors is obviously less than
those overworked, all consideration of economy

and safety would therefore point to the use of the
former.
While in the Wightman motor electrical per-
fection has not been sought for at the expense of
simplicity and durability, a very high efficiency is

obtained. The armature resistance of the 20 h. p.
motor is .75 ohm, and that of the main field coils
.15 ohm, with a load of 40 amperes, or over 26
electrical horse power this would give a loss of
;
potential in the motor of 36 volts, or an electrical

efficiency of 92.8. Even with this excessive load
the commercial efficiency has been found to be as
high as 87 per cent. The large field, referred to
above, makes possible a high efficiency at low
speed and light loads. These qualities are synony-
mous with powerful torque or starting force.
A loaded car equipped with Wightman motors
requires not more than from 15 to 20 amperes to
start on a level.
APPENDIX A.
ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC UNITS.
AMPERE. The unit of current strength. It is
the flow of electricity produced by the pressure

of one volt on a resistance of one ohm.
COULOMB. The unit of electric quantity. It
is the amount of electricity which flows past a
given point in one second on a circuit conveying

one ampere.
FARAD. The unit of capacity. A condenser

that will hold one coulomb at a pressure of one
volt has a capacity of one farad.
OHM. The unit of electrical resistance. Ohms

law states that the current in any circuit is
equal to the E. M. F. acting on it divided by its
resistance.
VOLT. The unit of electro-motive force or pres-
sure analogous to the head of water in hy-

draulics.
WATT. The unit of work. ^ of a horse
power, 746 Watts equal i horse power.

i.e. We
may find the Watts used in a circuit by three
formulae, thus :
Watts=Amperes (squared) X ohms.

Watts=Amperes X volts.
Watts=Volts (squared) -4- by ohms.
DYNE. The absolute unit of force. It is that

force which if it acts on one gramme for one
second gives to it a velocity of one centimetre
per second. In the *C. G. S. system the unit

of magnetism is the force of a magnetic pole,
which repels an equal pole at the distance of
one centimetre with a force of one dvne.
*C. G. S. The abbreviation of centimetre, gramme, second,

and used to designate the so-called absolute system of meas-
urement, viz. : The (Centimetre) the unit of length. The
(Gramme) the unit of mass. The (Second) the unit of time.
SIGNIFICATIONS
OF SIGNS USED IN CALCULATIONS.
= signifies equality, thus 5-1-2=7.

-f- signifies addition, thus 3-)- 2=5.
signifies substraction, thus 8 6=2.

X signifies multiplication, thus 5X315-
-f- signifies division, thus i8-f-3=6.
: : : :
signifies proportion, thus 2 is to 3 .
y signifies square root thus \ =4.

ty signifies cube root, thus -3/64=4.
2 2
3 signifies 3 is to be squared 3 =9-
3 3
3 signifies 3 is to be cubed 3 =27.
ARMATUKE AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. Ill
APPENDEX B.
USEFUL TABLES.
TABLE OF ELECTRICAL UNITS.
UNIT OF
112 ARMATURE AND 'FIELD-MAGNET WINDING.
TABLE SHOWING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WIRE GAUGES.

AKMATURK AND FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 113
Table of Different Ganges, with their Diameters and Areas in Mils.
1
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INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER 1. The Armature in Theory.
CHAPTER 2. Forms of Armatures.
CHAPTER 3. Drum Winding.
CHAPTER 4. Field Winding.
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CHAPTER 6. General Methods of Winding.
CHAPTER 7. Field Winding concluded.
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CHAPTER 9. Motors.
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GIFT OF

CONTAINING WORKING DIRECTIONS

Press of G. H. & W. A. Nichols, Lynn, Mass.

discovered), hence many attempts otherwise success-

The standard works on Electricity contain very

for this lack of information probably is the fact that

may wind a machine to obtain almost any result

and to the more advanced student. Illustrations have

CHAPTER i. The Armature in Theory.

CHAPTER 2. Forms of Armatures.

CHAPTER 3. Drum Winding.

CHAPTER 4. Field Winding.

CHAPTER 5. Field Formulae.

CHAPTER 6. General Methods of Winding.

CHAPTER 7. Field Winding concluded.

ALL magnets are surrounded by what is known

adjust themselves along certain lines, generally

something and always

longer or shorter routes to the body of the magnet

reason that it is impossible to make

magnet. Every magnet must have two poles, a

enormously increased by the presence of iron. It

through the field of force surrounding a magnet, at

conductor, the speed at which it moves, and the

THE ARMATURE IN THEORY.

IN making our calculations we designate the

Suppose this conductor is on the periphery of

that the average E. M. F. generated in this con-

To get the E. M. F. for a coil of wire instead of

in series. Consequently, if we take Nt in such a

The simplest form of armature is the shuttle

single coil of wire wound lengthwise upon an iron

tion ofwhich may be determined by the following

Then if the thumb be pointed in the direction

wire will reverse at each half revolution, and that

case will consist of two halves of a metallic cylin-

the same time it will be seen that the wires of the

parallel to them, and that they are therefore genera-

of force at every point at the same instant, and a

segment to the next, is In well designed

when the coil is horizontal to nothing, when it is

vertical and short-circuited. If we wind another

will be doing its best work and vice versa, but

there would still be a jog in the current strength,

beginning of its next neighbor, and a wire is taken

generating the highest E. M. F.

THE two forms of armature most commonly met

governing the construction and running of a ma-

quently if repairs are necessary at any time it is

an important point where the armature is wound

wire and core. On the other hand the wire which

"dead" so far as exciting E. M. F. is concerned

A core of this sort, however, is slightly inferior

If a coremade of rings cut from sheet iron is

There is no need of paper or any other insula-

Another point which should be brought out in

go straight from one pole to the other.

coils upon a smooth core and trust to friction and