Associazione Studiosi Scienze Eterodosse

Monografie
di Altra Scienza
n.8
agosto 2006

Macchine Elettrostatiche

Influence Machine – fine XIX secolo

 2

Sommario
3 Kevin M. Dunn Radial Dirods
34 C.L. Stong How to make an Electrect
42 Electricity from Glass
48 Electrostatic Machines
60 Alfred Evert Electrostatic – Electricitygenerator

74 Il Motore a Potenziale Elettrostatico

75 IMSS Macchina Elettrostatica
77 Kelvin Water Drop Electrostatic Generator
79 Replica tedesca della Testatika
82 Sparkmuseum Electric Machines

86 Testatika Small Machine Testbed 1

88 Paul E. Potter Retroingegneria di Methernitha
101 August Toepler
108 Enrico Landi La Macchina di Wimshurst
111 R.J. Van der Graaf
116 MadScientist Bobina di Tesla
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How to Make an Electret: the Device That Permanently Maintains an Electric

Charge
Danger 4: (POSSIBLY LETHAL!!)
Only 1 Egg Productions
Alternate Science HOME
---------------------
by C. L. Stong
November, 1960
---------------------
THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE IS A TREASURE house for the amateur experimenter.
For example, many devices invented by early workers in electricity and magnetism
attract little attention today because they have no practical application, yet these
devices remain fascinating in themselves. Consider the so-called electret. This device
is a small cake of specially prepared wax that has the property of permanently
maintaining an electric field; it is the electrical analogue of a permanent magnet. No
one knows in precise detail how an electret works, nor does it presently have a
significant task to perform. George O. Smith, an electronics specialist of Rumson,
N.J., points out, however, that this is no obstacle to the enjoyment of the electret by
the amateur. Moreover, the amateur with access to a source of high-voltage current
can make an electret at virtually no cost.
"For more than 2,000 years," writes Smith, "it was suspected that the magnetic
attraction of the lodestone and the electrostatic attraction of the electrophorus were
different manifestations of the same phenomenon. This suspicion persisted from the
time of Thales of Miletus (600 B.C.) to that of William Gilbert (A.D. 1600). After the
publication of Gilbert's treatise De Magnete, the suspicion graduated into a theory that
was supported by many experiments conducted to show that for every magnetic effect
there was an electric analogue, and vice versa.
"In 1339 Michael Faraday suggested that it should be possible to polarize a dielectric
material so as to produce 'a Dielectric Body which retains an electric moment after the
externally-applied electric field has been reduced to zero.' In Faraday's time, however,
other workers were so busy with such ideas as the telegraph and the arc light that
they paid little attention to his device. An exception was Oliver Heaviside, who
discusses it in his Electrical Papers. Finding Faraday's 19-word description a bit
cumbersome, Heaviside coined the word 'electret,' by analogy to 'magnet.' Adorned
with this name, the electret remained no more than a scientific concept until 1922,
when the first electrets were produced by Mototaro Eguchi, professor of physics at the
Higher Naval College of Tokyo.
"The analogy between the magnet and the electret is striking, and this includes the
way in which they are fabricated. For example, a magnet can be made 'cold,' but the
strength and permanence of its magnetism is enhanced if the material is placed in a
magnetic field while it is in the liquid state and is then allowed to cool while the field is
maintained. The same is true of the electret, though of course the effect and the field
are electrical.
"One form of electret is
made by melting a
mixture of waxes and
permitting the batch to
cool slowly between a
Figure 1: An electret devised by E. P. Adams of Princeton University
pair of electrodes charged
 35

to a direct-current potential of several thousand volts. When the wax has cooled to
room temperature and is removed from the field, it will retain a charge. The strength of
the charge depends on a number of factors, including the composition of the wax and
the rate of cooling. However, even crudely made electrets can maintain a charge of
several hundred volts. Just as some magnetic materials have a higher permeability
than others, certain waxes make better electrets. One of the more efficient formulas
for electret material is: carnauba wax, 45 per cent; water-white rosin, 45 per cent;
white beeswax, 10 per cent.
"In the present state of the art this formula is subject to imponderables of the sort that
make horse-racing popular: It is more a matter of opinion than of certainty. Some
experimenters advocate the substitution of 'halowax' for the water-white rosin. Others
who agree go on to point out that if halowax is substituted for the rosin, the beeswax
may be omitted. The beeswax is added only to reduce the brittleness of the final
electret, and equal parts of halowax and carnauba wax do a fine job. The carnauba-
halowax mixture gives the finished product a creamy, ivory texture with a nicely
polished surface, and it shrinks sufficiently upon cooling to come easily out of the
mold. On the other hand, halowax is somewhat hygroscopic, and electrets containing
it must be protected against humidity.
"Some experimenters claim that good electrets cannot be made unless the mixture
contains at least a trace of carnauba wax. Others insist that any wax that cools to a
fairly hard, shiny surface will accept the electric charge and develop an external
electric field. One explanation in support of the carnauba-wax view suggests that the
relatively large shrinkage of carnauba wax places an additional stress on the finished
electret, which adds a piezoelectric effect to the over-all static charge. In recent years,
however, this view has been refuted. When the ceramics industry undertook the
development of dielectrics, a whole special class of materials was created. Starting
with ceramic capacitors, piezoelectric ceramics were developed for hydrophones,
microphones and phonograph pickups. Ceramic magnetic materials appeared, and
finally ceramic electrets. A ceramic electret made of barium titanate contradicts the
notion that electrets do not work without carnauba wax.
"A major problem in the manufacture of electrets stems from the cussedness of wax
dielectrics in general. The insulating property of waxes decreases as the temperature
increases. This is a smooth and well-established relationship. When the wax enters
the liquid phase, however, the insulation resistance begins to drop sharply. This effect
can expose the experimenter to hazard. If a high-voltage supply with low internal
impedance is used to provide the polarizing electric field, it is possible that the supply
will deliver enough current through the melted dielectric wax to add to the temperature
of the mass. Because the internal resistance drops with increasing temperature, the
process becomes explosive. Ultimately enough current follows along one channel to
provide a flash-arc path that can splatter flaming wax in a dangerous manner.
"On the other hand, a 'safe' high-
voltage power supply (one that
includes an internal resistance on
the order of 50 megohms, say) will
deliver only a fraction of its
available voltage to the electret-
forming terminals, because its
ratio of internal impedance to
external impedance acts to divide
the voltage. The external load
resistance also goes up as the Figure 2: An electret devised by W. M. Cood and J. D.
electret cools and the strength of Stranathan of the University of Kansas
 36

the polarizing electric field increases.

"The reason that the electret acquires a charge is fairly obvious. The molecules of the
wax are electrically polarized, and they align themselves with the electric field just as
the 'domains' of a magnetic material line up with a magnetic field. As the wax cools
and solidifies, this alignment is maintained. Unlike metallic substances, however,
waxes have no sharp melting point. Even when the wax is highly purified there is a
span of many degrees between the solid state and the state in which the wax flows as
a liquid. A mixture of waxes usually exhibits an even wider range of temperatures
between the semiplastic and semifluid states.
"The current-carrying mechanism in waxes consists of a migration of polar molecules
from one electrode to the other, of the delivery of electrons from cathode to anode by
true physical movement. The positive end of a polar molecule picks up an electron
from the cathode; this causes a local neutralization of the positive end, but destroys
the neutrality of the molecule, making it act as if it were a negative ion (anion).
Conversely, the negative end of the polar molecule can lose an electron to the anode,
causing a local neutralization of the negative end and a loss of over-all molecular
neutrality. This molecule now behaves as if it were a positive ion (cation). Both
processes can occur in a single molecule, resulting in a restoration of molecular
neutrality but the loss of dipolar features. The partially neutralized dipoles exhibit only
half as much tendency to align themselves with the electric field, and the neutralized
molecules none at all. Add these conditions to the lowered electric-field intensity
caused by the current, and to the molecular vibrations caused by the temperature of
the material, and it is not hard to understand why electrets that are cooled quickly
during manufacture exhibit fields of lower intensity than those that are cooled slowly.
Slow, deliberate cooling enables the vibrating molecules in the electret to come to rest
in alignments that result in the maximum subsequent field strength.
"A simple form of the electret was devised some years ago by Edwin P. Adams of
Princeton University. It consists of concentric metal cylinders sealed at the bottom by
an insulating base and containing a cylinder of wax, as shown in the accompanying
illustration [above]. In 1939 W. M. Good and J. D. Stranathan of the University of
Kansas devised the improved version depicted in the second illustration [Figure 2 ].
The large oil bath shown in this illustration provides a mass to retard the rate of
cooling. Good and Stranathan also added electric heaters and an automatic
temperature-control to lower the temperature gradually through the semiplastic state
over a period of many days. This refinement is scarcely needed unless you embark on
a program of meticulous research. When the oil bath is heated to the temperature that
will cause a true fluidity of the electret material in the mold, it will cool slowly enough to
give rise to an effective electret.
"Any high-voltage supply
can be used; if the one at
hand chances to be capable
of delivering more than a
milliampere, it can be
rendered safe by adding
resistors in series between
the supply-terminals and
the electret plates. This can
best be accomplished by
connecting the necessary
Figure 3: Circuit diagram of a power supply to polarize and number of two-, three- or
charge an electret five-megohm resistors in
series for a total of 50
 37

megohms. The resistors should preferably be of the two-watt size; they should not be
smaller than the one-watt size. I concede that 1,000 volts across a five-megohm
resistor dissipates only .2 watt. We are not concerned with the wattage, but rather
with the voltage gradient across the resistor itself. The physical size of the larger
resistors eliminates the high voltage-gradient and attendant internal electrostatic
effects that cause fusing of the carbon granules. This process can cause a major
change in the resistance value of small carbon resistors. The use of a string of two-,
three- or five-megohm resistors also enables you to make a rough adjustment of the
output voltage by coupling the output leads to intermediate points in the string.
"Sparking across the surface of the wax can be reduced or eliminated by increasing
the series resistance. A meter of some sort should be connected in the load circuit so
that you can observe the process. A zero-to-one milliammeter will prove far more
informative than a volt meter that merely indicates the total polarizing field.
"The polarizing field should be maintained at a maximum. The current flowing through
the melted electret wax should never be permitted to rise above .5 milliampere. At the
dielectric material's most conductive phase the series resistance should be adjusted to
limit the current to about .1 milliampere. It will not be necessary to readjust the
resistance as the wax cools, because the internal resistance will rise to a safe limiting
value. Simultaneously the polarizing voltage across the wax will increase to the
maximum value.
"In computing the output voltage
of your power supply, such as
the one illustrated in the
accompanying circuit diagram,
remember that the voltage
shown on the nameplate of the
transformer must be multiplied
by 1.414. This is because in this
application the load current is so
low that the delivered voltage
practically reaches the peak
value, and the rated output of Figure 4: A simple device for testing an electret
the transformer is always given
as the root mean square value.
"In processing electrets the oil bath should be raised to operating temperature first, or
at least started so that it will be at operating temperature by the time the electret
formula is mixed. Melt and mix the waxes in a separate pan, stirring frequently to drive
out air bubbles and moisture. Keep the electret-mix temperature well above the boiling
point of water for at least half an hour. Be wary of touching tiny bubbles that cling to
the walls of the container. These may be water droplets. Touching them with a stirring
rod breaks the surface tension that has prevented the water from boiling into steam.
When the tension is broken, the water explodes into steam with sufficient violence to
splatter the hot wax.
"In the meantime line the mold with aluminum foil and smooth it out to remove as
many of the wrinkles as possible. Tapering the mold slightly will facilitate the
subsequent removal of the foil-encased wax. Next pour the melted mix into the mold.
(The size of the finished electret is optional. A disk two or three inches in diameter and
about half an inch thick is convenient.) The top plate should just touch the top surface
of the electret material. This plate should be heated, too, by the way. When the wax
wets the top plate, the high-voltage supply can be turned on. The electrostatic stress
should cause an abrupt jump in the annular meniscus of the wax surface between the
center plate and the mold walls. If sparks appear on the molten wax, turn off the
 38

power and connect the output leads for lower voltage. Then reapply power, turn off
the oil-bath heater and permit the assembly to cool to room temperature. Observe the
temperature with a thermometer, not by feel. Stay away from any part of the
apparatus when the high-voltage supply is in operation!
"When the oil reaches room temperature, turn off the power supply and remove the
electret. Immediately fold the aluminum foil forward over the surface in contact with
the top plate, short-circuiting the electret. The foil acts as a 'keeper' and is analogous
to the soft-iron bar placed across the open jaws of a horseshoe magnet to preserve
the magnetic flux. Electrets properly short-circuited have kept for longer than five
years without noticeable loss of charge.
"Now comes the puzzler that stumps the experts. If the electret's polarity is measured
directly after its manufacture, its charge will be just what theory predicts it should be.
The negative surface of the electret will be that which made contact with the positively
charged polarizing electrode, and vice versa. This agrees with the north-south polarity
of a bar of steel magnetized by contact with a permanent magnet. In contrast with the
behavior of a magnet, however, the charge on the electret begins to diminish
immediately, and in about a week it will have fallen to zero. The charge then begins to
build up in opposite polarity to a final value that may be several times as large as the
original charge. This may take as long as three months. The negative surface of the
stabilized electret will be the face that made contact with the negatively charged
polarizing electrode. In other words, the charge will correspond in sign to the polarity
of the high-voltage field. Just why this reversal takes place has never been
satisfactorily explained.
"Measurement of the electrostatic field that surrounds an electret requires a sensitive
electrostatic meter, an instrument actuated by electrostatic attraction or repulsion
rather than by the passage of current. The magnitude of the surface charge may be
measured by passing a metal plate of known area at a known rate into the field until
contact is made with the electret surface, the plate being connected to an electrostatic
voltmeter. A voltmeter of this type can be made inexpensively by using an
electrometer tube (essentially a vacuum tube designed for service in vacuum-tube
voltmeters). The instrument will absorb substantially no power and can be calibrated
by using a conventional voltmeter as a reference.
"For simple checks a gold-leaf electroscope will do an admirable job of measuring
polarity. The polarity of the electret can be determined by charging the gold-leaf
electroscope with a current of known polarity and observing whether the electret's
approach adds to the charge (by causing the gold-leaf vanes to separate more) or
subtract from the charge (by permitting them to fall closer together).
"Finally, at least one simple but
spectacular test can be made. A
metal disk with a point at the rim is
cut just large enough to cover the
electret. The disk is fastened to an
insulating arm that is hinged to a
metal base-plate as shown in the
accompanying illustration [Figure
4]. The metal point should be bent
so that when the disk rests on the
electret, a sheet of writing paper
(.003 to .005 inch thick) will just
drag a bit when passed between
Figure 5: Pattern of smoke pulses passing through a the point and the metal base-plate.
nozzle in a homemade smoke tunnel The insulating arm may be made
 39

of lucite, or of dry wood (such as a length of model-airplane balsa) that has been
boiled in paraffin or impregnated in oil until a fresh-cut surface will repel water. The
arm is pivoted at the end to allow the plate to fall through the electrostatic field of the
electret. If your hand is steady and your aim unerring, you can omit the lever assembly
and merely drop the plate onto the electret surface! The falling plate picks up a charge
from the field? and the charge is dissipated in a small but brilliant spark discharge
between the point and the bottom plate. Try this with both surfaces of the electret. For
some reason electrets are not symmetrical. One surface will deliver more energy than
the other.
"The electret has not been entirely without practical application. It has been used to
replace the high-voltage polarizing network employed for energizing some types of
condenser microphones. The growth of radio broadcasting in the early 1920's, with its
need for a microphone that worked on some principle other than the compression of
carbon particles, seems to have spurred the original investigation of the electret. For
some reason the condenser microphone grew up and passed into obsolescence
without ever meeting an electret. But in 1935 Andrew Germant made an electret
condenser-microphone for the engineering laboratory of the University of Oxford.
Subsequently condenser microphones employing electrets were taken into the field by
the Japanese army.
"The electret found another application a few years ago when the television industry
was seeking a simple method for focusing picture tubes. Early picture tubes were
focused by a magnetic coil that was adjusted by means of a costly power-
potentiometer. Eventually the arrangement was replaced by a permanent-magnet
focusing device adjusted by changing the magnetic gap. During one brief period,
however, the picture tubes were made with an electrostatic lens, the focal length of
which was adjusted by a potentiometer. At this point someone remembered the
electret and reasoned that, if the electromagnetic focusing-coil could be replaced by a
permanent magnet shunted by a mechanically adjusted gap, perhaps the permanent
electret could similarly be put to work. Before the idea could be exploited, the
development of the self-focusing electron gun solved the focusing problem and once
again reduced the permanent electret to the status of a scientific waif.
Dillard Jacobs, associate
professor of mechanical
engineering at Vanderbilt
University, has developed a novel
accessory for extending the
usefulness of aerodynamic smoke
tunnels of the type described in
this department [see SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN, May, 1955]. The
pattern of air flow in such
apparatus is made visible by a
grating of smoke streamers
admitted to the tunnel through a
"rake" of small tubes near the
inlet. The lines of smoke bend
around test objects placed
downstream, and: enable the
experimenter to approximate the
distribution of forces acting on the
Figure 6: A simple device for pulsing the streams of smoke
object. in a smoke tunnel
"Following your description of the
 40

smoke tunnel," writes Jacobs, "I promptly built one and can attest to the suitability of
its design. The tunnel has been used extensively to produce photographs of fluid-flow
phenomena for use in my classes. Some months ago I added a gadget to the tunnel
which considerably broadens its utility as a scientific tool. This consists simply of an
electric doorbell ( with the gong removed ) and a chamber with a diaphragm inserted
in the smoke circuit just ahead of the 'rake.' When properly adjusted, the doorbell-and-
diaphragm assembly acts as a chopper to send the smoke out into the tunnel in small
puffs or pulses instead of in a continuous stream. I was able to measure the frequency
of these pulses (780 per minute). With the pulse frequency known, one has only to
measure the distance between puffs on test photographs to calculate velocities
precisely. When an obstruction such as a divergent nozzle is placed in the tunnel, the
increase in velocity through various regions of the constriction show clearly [see
illustration below].

Figure 7: How pulsed smoke streams were used to investigate shearing in the boundary layer

"The modified doorbell is supported by a wooden bracket as shown in the

accompanying illustration [above]. This provides an adjustment for altering the impact
of the clapper on the pliofilm diaphragm, thereby controlling the amplitude of the
smoke puffs. If the diaphragm action is too strong, the smoke pulses become smoke
rings, an interesting but unsatisfactory effect. Although the bell was originally designed
to operate from a six-volt battery, in this device it works best on a volt and a half. "I
used an electronic stroboscope for timing the frequency of the pulses. This consists of
a variable oscillator that triggers a high-speed gas-discharge lamp. The speed of the
flashing lamp is varied until the smoke puffs appear to stand still. The flash rate is
then read from a calibrated scale on the oscillator. If an experimenter does not have
access to such apparatus, a motor-driven stopcock designed to operate at a known
speed could be inserted in the smoke line.
"Among the interesting phenomena opened to investigation by the pulsed smoke
tunnel is the shearing action in the boundary layer between the fluid and a solid
surface, as shown in the accompanying photograph [below]. Both the thickness of the
boundary layer and the velocity distribution through it can be determined with fair
precision. In this case the smoke velocity beyond the boundary layer is .79 foot per
second. The transverse Reynolds number is 960."

Bibliography
FUNDAMENTALS IN THE BEHAVIOR OF ELECTRETS. W. E. G. Swann in Journal
of The Franklin Institute, Vol. 255, pages 513-530; June, 1953.

Only 1 Egg Productions

Alternate Science HOME
41
 42

Electricity from Glass

Otto von Guericke (1602-1686), the
Burgomeister of Magdeburg best known for his
demonstration of the effect of atmospheric
pressure on evacuated bodies (the Magdeburg
Hemispheres), also showed the electrical effects
were obtained by rubbing glass. Originally, he
used a globe of sulphur mounted on a shaft, with
the hand rubbing the rotating sphere. The sulphur
was cast in a spherical shell of glass that was
subsequently broken away; soon it was
discovered that glass, and not sulphur, was the
key ingredient of the demonstration. About 1700
Francis Hauksbee the Elder suggested that a glass
cylinder be used in place of the sphere.
The form of cylinder electrostatic machine
at the right was patented by Edward Nairne
(1726-1806) in 1782.

This example is on display at the Museum

at St. Patrick's College, Maynooth, County
Kildare, Ireland. The horsehair-covered
leather pad that rubbed against the glass
cylinder was placed atop the broken, vertical
glass pillar. To promote the ready production
of the electric fluid, the surface of the leather
was smeared with a mixture of mercury and
lard.

Also missing is the toothed conductor that

drew the charge from the surface of the glass
and led it to a storage electrode or a Leiden
Jar.

This particular apparatus dates from the

middle of the 19th century, according to
Charles Mollan in The Scientific Apparatus
of Nicholas Callan (Dublin, Samton Limited,
1994) pg 113.

This small, unmarked cylinder type

electrostatic machine is in the collection
at Dartmouth College. It is the only
example of gearing, to increase the
rotation rate of the glass cylinder, that I
have seen.
 43

The small cylinder-type electrostatic

machine at the right is marked "Prof.
John Tyndall's Electric machine,
Manufactured by Curt W. Meyer, .. New
York".

The 1886 Meyer catalogue devotes

three and a half pages to the set of 58
pieces of apparatus designed to
accompany Tyndall's "Lessons in
Electricity", based on his lectures at the
Royal Institution in 1875-76. The entire
set cost $65, plus a dollar for the book.
At $8.00, this electrical machine was the
most expensive piece of apparatus.

The machine is in the collection of

Westminster College in New
Wilmington, Pennsylvania.

This unmarked, Ramsden-style

electrostatic machine is in the Garland
Collection of Classic Physics
Apparatus at Vanderbilt University. It
was bought ca. 1875 and, judging
from other purchases made by
Chancellor Garland at the time, is
probably of French manufacture. The
1853 Lerebours et Secretan shows a
very similar machine with a glass disk
80 cm in diameter priced at 600 francs
(about $120).

The design is due to Jesse Ramsden

(1735-1800), the British designer and
maker of scientific apparatus. In 1760
he suggested that the glass cylinder be
replaced by a circular glass plate.
 44

This electrostatic machine with a forty-

inch glass disk is in the collection of
Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, New
York.

It is unmarked, but it is almost

certainly by Edward S. Ritchie of
Boston. The 1854 catalogue electrical
apparatus of Chamberlain & Ritchie
lists a machine of this size, with the
prime conductor at the right being
sixty inches long. Originally this had a
silk "pillow case" covering up the
lower half of the glass disk to prevent
the loss of the electrical charge; this
may be seen in the picture above of
the Vanderbilt machine.

Vassar was founded in 1861. The 1860

Ritchie catalogue shows a similar machine
with a forty-two inch diameter plate for
$160.

The disk electrostatic machine at the right is

marked "Benjn Pike, Jr., No. 294 Broadway,
New York."

The 1856 Pike catalogue lists this machine,

with its sixteen-inch disk, at $20.00 and
$25.00. This was the smallest machine in the
series; the largest one, resembling the Vassar
machine, sold for $200.00.

The brass ball is the negative conductor, and

the brass cylinder is the positive conductor.

This beautiful little machine is in the

collection of Richard Zitto.
 45

When I photographed the Wightman

disk electrostatic machine in September
1979, in was on display at the physics
department at Wittenberg University in
Springfield, Ohio.

The glass plate, which can be seen only

dimly in this picture, is of the order of
eighteen inches in diameter, and was sold
by Joseph M. Wightman of Boston in
1846 for the order of $30.00.
 46

Most American and European makers

produced small disk electrostatic machines
with plates in the sixteen inch diameter
range.

Here are three unmarked examples.

From the top to the bottom they are at
Benedictine College in Atchison, Kansas,
Denison University in Granville, Ohio and
the University of Glasgow in Scotland.

The pictures below show electrostatic machines of the type suggested by Georg K. Winter of Vienna ca.
1850. The example at the left at St. Patrick's College in Maynooth, County Kildare, Ireland is missing its
signature plate, but was bought from Yeates of Dublin ca. 1877 as "Winter's Improved Plate Machine. It
has a plate 91.5 cm in diameter. The smaller one at the right was at the antique shop of James Kennedy of
Durham, North Carolina when I visited in April 2000, and the Winter signature plate can be seen at the
front edge of the base.
The two characteristic items of the Winter design are the rubber and the collector, which may be seen
most clearly in the Maynooth example. The rubbing mechanism has been dismounted and sits on the
mahogany base-plate. The rubbers are made of wood, covered with leather and stuffed with cotton. The
wooden rings have an inner surface lined with tin-foil from which fine points extend. This mechanism is
used to collect the charge generated by the rubber, and is connected to the brass primary conductor at the
right.
 47

This Winter-type electrostatic machine was on display at the

Royal Scottish Museum in Edinburgh when I photographed in in
the summer of 1978. It is a twin of the machine at the left-above
in the Maynooth collection.

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 48

Electrostatic Machines
Electrostatic machines are electromechanical devices that produce "static
electricity", or electricity at continuous (DC) high voltage. They were
fundamental in the early studies about electricity, started in the XVII
century, in the form of "friction machines", and their development
culminated at the end of the XIX century with the development of powerful
"influence machines". Today, some specialized uses for them continue to
exist, but they are mostly seen as demonstration devices in physics
laboratories, with much of their history forgotten.
I started experimenting with these machines by 1973, building a first series
of machines. With this I learned a lot about electricity, and I still think that
all people interested in electricity or electronics shall try these machines to get a real feel of the subject.
At least, high voltage static electricity is something that you can see and feel. Eventually I abandoned the
subject for several years, but in 1996 I renewed my interest in this subject, started to study and build new
machines, and set up these pages.
Below are pictures and descriptions of my old machines, of machines that I built more recently, of
machines built by others, pictures from old books and papers related to electrostatic machines and other
high-voltage devices, and also some pictures from museums. There are also extensive references,
covering classical and new materials. This site is always in construction. I plan to add more details about
the machines depicted and historical material, as soon as I find or receive more data from interested
people, build and experiment with new machines, and have time.
Está também disponível uma seção em português.
To navigate through this site efficiently, use the "open link in a new window" function of your browser to see the pictures in the
links, and use its search function for searching. Recent changes.
"Ignis ubique latet, naturam amplectitur omnem"

Machines of Toepler, Bonetti, Voss, Bohnenberger, and Nicholson

My machines

• A Wimshurst machine [1][2] that I built in 1974. Front view, back view, and with two Leyden
jars. A schematic diagram, with the disks represented as cylinders, and a description of how the
Wimshurst machine works.
• A Ramsden friction machine [2], built in 1975. Small (18 cm acrylic disk), but useful to test the
insulation of materials and for for starting the influence machines in humid days.
• A Lebiez machine, or simplified Voss machine [p31], in front view and in back view. Built in
1975 as a kind of Voss machine, and rebuilt in 1996 in this form. Schematic diagram, with
cylinders instead of disks for my machine. This machine is equivalent to Lord Kelvin's
"replenisher" (see below), with better insulation. The classic Voss machine, also known as
Toepler-Holtz machine, is better and is built in this way, with charge collectors and inductor
plates separated. A possible similar true Voss machine is shown here and here.
• A small cylindric simplified Voss machine built in 1997, with the same structure of the previous
machine. Side view, and another view. It is similar to a Dirod machine [10].
• A symmetrical 2 disks Toepler machine [4], with some modifications, built in 1997. Side view,
 49

another view. A drawing. A schematic diagram, with the disks shown as cylinders. This machine
has excellent performance, and can generate higher voltage and even more current than a
conventional Wimshurst machine with the same disk size. In 1999, I built a larger machine. Look
at the bottom of the page here for a description.
The first classic Toepler machine (1865) was built in this way [4][9], with a different
interconnection and disks with two sectors only. Toepler described also a symmetrical machine
(1866) that is very similar to my machine (the picture shows a sectorless machine and a similar
device used as voltage multiplier). schematic diagram [p39].
• My first sectorless Wimshurst machine, or Bonetti machine [4][5][8] (ray-tracing drawing), built
in 1997, with 31 cm disks. A drawing. Another view. Pictures of the actual machine, in front view,
and back view. A detail of the charge collectors and neutralizers. Pictures (video frames) of sparks
from this machine: A short spark, a long spark with a loop, and a longer one. The original Bonetti
machine (1894) [31] used series of brushes as neutralizers instead of combs.
• A Holtz machine [2][4]-[7] of the first kind, that I built in 1997. A drawing. Another view, and a
schematic diagram. Pictures of the actual machine, in front view, and back view. This machine
was the first really powerful influence machine, invented in 1865, and was very popular, even
requiring external excitation to start. An apparently complete actual machine is here. Some
additional pictures, from books by H. Pellat: A Holtz machine [6] (the fixed disk is in a wrong
position), a better picture [7], a double Holtz machine [6][7], and a machine with neutralizer and
friction starter [6][7]. And another good picture [14]. This picture shows a machine with a more
modern structure [22]. A multiple machine [24]. Here is a picture of the Holtz machine of the
second kind, that uses two counter-rotating disks, as the Wimshurst and Bonetti machines. A
drawing of a possible machine.
• The Leyser machine (1873) [4][19], is variation of the Holtz machine with the output taken at
positions that would be under the inductor plates in the regular machine, and the neutralizer bar
where the original output circuit would be. This is the schematic diagram of the machine, with a
cylinder instead of the disk. This is a different design due to Weinhold (1887), with wood
inductors and no insulating plate [19]. This diagram [19] shows how it operates. Initial plans for a
machine that I have built are here, in front view and back view. The version that actually worked
was somewhat different.
• A double Voss machine, or double Toepler-Holtz machine, with classical structure, built in 1998.
A drawing, and a photo of the machine. This is a good self-exciting machine, invented in 1880.
With 27 cm rotating disks, it produces sparks with up to 10 cm and more than 50 uA of short-
circuit current.
• A Bohnenberger machine (1798)[4], that I built in 1998. A drawing, and a picture of the
machine. An ancient machine of the "doubler" type, it is not a powerful machine, but is very
interesting. See more about "doublers" in the section about influence machines below.
• In June 1999 I made experiments with a bipolar Van de Graaff generator, (drawing) similar to
the original machine, but smaller.
• This is a large Bonetti machine, that I started to build in December 1999. The disks are old
ebonite disks that come with the Radiguet & Massiot Bonetti machine that I recently restored. A
drawing of it. Front view, and back view. Another view of it, and another. Some sparks, that may
reach 20 cm..
• In April 2000 I finished a Wimshurst triplex machine. (drawing). It's a double Wimshurst
machine, using the close proximity between the central disks to increase the output current,
through greater induction and mutual shielding. Pictures of the machine, in front view, back view,
and side view. The machine produces a high current (100 uA with the 36.5 cm disks rotating at 16
turns per second, 4 times more than a single Wimshurst machine with the same disks). With the
original design, it reached only 8-12 cm sparks, eventually reaching 14 or 15 cm on dry days,
because with the rather small separation of the sectors it easily sparked through them and the
neutralizer bars. With half of the sectors removed, it produces consistent 15 cm sparks.
• By the same time, I made also a working version of Bennet's doubler, a curious simple influence
machine.
 50

• In August 2000 I made a version of Nicholson's doubler, the first automatic influence machine
(1788).
• In January 2001 I completed a double Wommelsdorf machine, following closely the original
design of [p84] (1920), but with modern materials. Front view, and back view. A collection of
parts. Partial assembly. Assembling the neutralizer. Neutralizer and other details assembled. Back
view. The machine, almost complete. Back. The disks, and the switches. The complete machine.
back view, side view, other side, and another view, with only painting missing. The machine
works quite well (13.5 cm sparks, 100 uA current) for the two 28 cm disks.
• In March 2001 I made a curious AC electrostatic machine, apparently new, that I named as "half
Wimshurst machine".
• And by April 2001 I extended the same idea to a three-disks machine, that I named as "unfolded
Wimshurst machine".
• A Wehrsen machine, completed in April 2002. It is a prototype for a large Wehrsen machine (see
below), that I started to build in August 2001. Some parts for it at the start of the construction.
Almost complete, by March 2002. Back view. Working, it performs quite well, with 11 cm sparks
and 70 µA of short-circuit current.
• An electrostatic linear motor, completed in January 2002.
• A large Wehrsen machine, first tested by August 2003. Almost complete by July 2003. Another
view, back view. Ray-tracing picture. Just before the first test. First test. The machine is still
without its definitive rotating disk due to construction and insulation difficulties.
• This is a Toepler-Dirod machine that I was building by March 2004, still without spark terminals.
It's connected as the symmetrical Toepler machine, but uses Dirod-type disks. A drawing of the
final machine. The machine works, but is weak. More comments soon.
• Bohnenberger's Bennet's doubler. A curious little machine that I built in April 2004.
• Bohnenberger's Nicholson's doubler. A version of Nicholson's doubler with back-and-forth
movement, built in May 2004. So far not so good as the other doublers.
• See also the comments about machines that I have restored, in the section about influence
machines below.

Machines built by others

• A big Wimshurst machine built by Jim Banas.

• A sectorless Wimshurst machine with 60 cm disks. This machine was built by Ed Wingate. A
spark from this machine. Another sectorless Wimshurst machine, with 30 cm disks. Similar to the
one described by R. A. Ford in [8]. A more recent picture. Side and base view. Neutralizers,
Charge collectors. Another view. This machine was built by J. Hardesty and Ed Wingate. Photos
sent by Steve Cole.
• An old Wimshurst machine repaired by Johannes Zolk in 1996, with the original broken disks
replaced by LP records, with good results. Front view, and back view. Photos sent by J. Zolk.
• A "shaking" machine [10], built by Joachim Bolz and his students in 1997. It is an influence
machine using two balls in a tube, moved by shaking the tube, instead of disks. It works as my
Toepler machine above. An schematic diagram of it. Photo and drawing by J. Bolz.
• Complete plans for a beautiful Wimshurst machine, built by J. M. S. van Gelderen in 1997. Plans
for the disks, a top view, a back view, a side view, and details of the terminals and Leyden jars.
Pictures from the machine, seen from the front and back sides, and from above here and here.
• Ricardo "Rike" built this Wimshurst machine in 1997, using LP records for the disks. It produces
7 cm sparks. Another view.
• A beautiful large Wimshurst machine (40 cm disks), built by James T. Garavuso in 1998. A
frontal view, another, a side view, a back view with the terminals in storage position, another, and
a view from above. Details if the charge collectors, neutralizers, and secondary spark gap. This
machine produces 12 cm sparks.
• A Toepler machine, built by Maximiliano Guzman, from Spain, in 1998. The disks have 27 cm of
 51

diameter. A later version used larger shields and a speed multiplier in the crank.
• A Wimshurst machine, built by Raymond Zaborski, from the USA, in 1999. The small intersector
distance and the neutralizers at low angle result in intense current and easy self-excitation, but
relatively small spark length.
• A big motorized Bonetti machine, built by Emery Wayman, from the USA, in 1999. The machines
has disks with 61 cm of diameter, and produces sparks with up to 28 cm of length. Some sparks
from the machine: 1, 2, 3. The terminals balls have 7.5 cm of diameter. Mr. Wayman has built
also a similar, smaller, machine with motors driving directly the disks.
• A motorized 2 disks Toepler machine, built by Roger Magnuson in 1999. The disks have 20 cm of
diameter. Another view. Note the small Leyden jars built in the terminal supports.
• A classic Wimshurst machine, built by Ronald Coleman in 1999. Detail of the crank, and of the
charge collectors. The machine is prepared for an upgrade with larger disks.
• A Wommelsdorf condenser machine with double rotation, built by Bert Pool, following plans in a
thesis written by Wommelsdorf in 1904. Another view. This machine is a compressed version of a
multiple Wimshurst machine, with sectors mounted between pairs of insulating rings,
interconnected through the external or internal edges of the rings. One set of rings/sectors is held
by the inner side and the other by the outer side, and both turn in opposite directions.
• A well built small Wimshurst machine, made by Harry Boneham, from Canada. The support
structure was machined from aluminum, with the disks having 18.5 cm of diameter. Another
view.
• A Wimshurst machine, built by Terry Baines, from England, in 1999. With 30 cm disks, it
produces sparks with 3 cm.
• A Wimshurst machine, built by Alex Rice, from England, in 1999. The machine has 32 cm disks,
and produces sparks with 10-11 cm of length. The spark is a double exposure. A spark from the
machine. In 2000, he built an improved machine.
• A Wimshurst machine, with 18" acrylic disks, built by John Clark, from England, in 2000. It
produces 3" sparks.
• Dan Bowlds, from Kentucky, USA, designed this original machine. A bare disk rotates behind an
insulating plate, that holds four wood blocks painted with conductive ink. The lateral blocks are
connected to blades collecting charges from the back surface of the rotating disk, and to Leyden
jars made in the supports. The upper and lower blocks are inductors, and are charged from the
terminal blocks through single corona points, also made of wood. Opposite to the inductor blocks
there are interconnected neutralizer blades. The terminals are directly connected to the Leyden
jars in the supports. An elegant structure for a small motorized machine (the disk has 6" of
diameter) that works essentially as the Voss machine. The machine requires an initial charge to
start, and produces sparks with 1" of length. Back view, Lateral view.
• A Wimshurst machine with acrylic structure made by Scott Nagel in 2000. With disks with 14.5"
of diameter, it produces sparks with up to 6". Another spark. Note the separated small balls in the
positive terminal, and the good dimensions for the sectors in the disks. The charge collectors, with
some sharp corners, were later modified.
• What is probably the largest working Wimshurst machine was built by Paul Hendriksen in 2000,
for a technical show by ROVC , in the Netherlands. The machine uses two glass disks with 2.15
meters of diameter (2 cm more than the large machine built by Wimshurst in 1884), 12 mm thick.
The output voltage reaches 1 MV, producing sparks of up to 1 meter. It turns at up to 100 rpm,
producing 10 uA of current. The output voltage is too high for Leyden jars, and so two copper
globes are used as distributed capacitors. Details of the driving pulleys and a curious discharging
mechanism. A long spark, another, and more sparks.
• A big Wommelsdorf condenser machine with 10 55 cm disks was built by Serge Klein, in France,
in 2000. It can produce 25 cm sparks and up to 0.7 mA of current. Frontal views, from the left and
right sides, a view of the motor that turns it, detail of the disks and inductors, and another view.
The disks are composed of three disks glued with epoxy glue, with the central disks separating
two sets of intercalated sectors. The inductor plates are also enclosed between plastic sheets glued
with epoxy glue. It works better with the neutralizer brushes removed, with the gap between the
 52

disks and the neutralizer bars making the role of the gap in the neutralizer circuit of the classic
machines. The machine was later upgraded to 12 disks, with better brush supports, in an attempt
to increase the output current. A spark from the machine. Mr. Klein has also built other machines,
as a Dirod, a Wimshurst machine, a big Bonetti machine, that produces 30 cm sparks, a machine
similar to a Felici machine with disks and operating in open air, and a triplex sectorless
Wimshurst machine. Another view.
• A nice Wimshurst machine, built by Julian Phillips, in New Zealand, in 2000. With 30 cm disks, it
can produce 7 cm sparks. Another spark, and a description of it.
• A very simple setup was developed by Michael Foster, in Los Angeles, USA, in 2001, to produce
long sparks by frictional electricity. He used nothing more than a long PVC tube, a paper towel, a
very simple Leyden jar capacitor, and a special positive terminal to excite long sparks. A
description of his procedure.
• a Wimshurst machine, built by Luca La Valle, in Rome, Italy. He built also other high-voltage
devices, as a Van de Graaff generator and a Tesla coil.
• A curious small Wimshurst machine, designed by Fausto Gazzi, in Bologna, Italy. Mr. Gazzi deals
with ancient instruments, and frequently makes restorations, as of this 4 disks Wimshurst
machine.
• A nice Wimshurst machine, built by Chris Kitching, from England, in 2001. Top view, detail from
the charge collectors, and a spark with 14.5 cm produced by it. The acrylic disks have 36 cm of
diameter and 4 mm of thickness, and are mounted on nylon bosses. The balls at the spark gaps and
joints are softened steel balls.
• This and this Bonetti machines I found at eBay. They are similar to the machine described by R.
A. Ford [8]. Builders unknown.
• Tony J. Meijers, in the Netherlands, built this nice Wimshurst machine. With 37 cm disks, it
produces 14 cm sparks. Note the driving system, without crossed cords. Front view. Back view.
He built also this Triplex Wimshurst machine, in 2000, that with 41 cm disks produces 24 cm
sparks. It also has a curious implementation of the driving system, with the driving axle making an
angle of 10 degrees with the upper axle, so the crossed cord that drives the central disks don't
touch itself at the crossing. Front view. Back view. Side view. Other view. Assembly of the disks.
A thick 24 cm disk at the center and disks at the outer sides impede sparking to the center of the
machine. The Leyden jars also have increased insulation.
• Georges Hublart, from France, built this Wimshurst machine, motorized and with a curious
construction. Side view. With 33 cm disks, it produces 16 cm sparks. Note the chains driving the
disks. He has also other high-voltage devices, as a Van de Graaff machine.
• A Wimshurst machine, with conductors insulated within PVC tubes and LP record disks covered
by adhesive plastic foil, built by Ben Noviello, USA, in 2002. It produces 10 cm sparks.
• A Wimshurst machine, built by Rod Heidel, from the USA, in 2002. With 20 cm disks, it produces
5 cm sparks. The frontal structure is a capacitor.
• A beautiful Wimshurst machine, built in cherry wood and brass by Gerald J. Schaefer, from the
USA, in 2002. The disks have 18" of diameter. Side view, Frontal view, With two demonstration
devices. An intense spark from it.
• A symmetrical Toepler machine, built by J. Keverline, from the USA, in 2002. With 30.5 cm
disks, it produces sparks with up to 16 cm. The disks have increased insulation with a material
used to insulate tool handles. This resulted in voltage high enough to pierce the spark shields, that
had to have their thickness increased to 4 mm.
• A Wimshurst machine that was once used for demonstrations at the Science Museum, in London,
England, restored in 2002 by Rob Skitmore.
• A large Bonetti machine, built by Karl Kehrle, in Germany, in 2003. With 80 cm polystyrene
disks, it produces 63 cm sparks, between a pair of aluminim balls (8, 12 cm) at the positive
terminal and a 30 cm styrofoam ball covered with aluminum foil at the negative terminal. The
glass Leyden jars have 720 pF each. Mr. Kehrle wrote a book [49] showing experiments with a
similar sectored machine, that with 90 cm disks produces 47 cm sparks.
• A Toepler machine with 48 cm disks, built by Alain Tramasaygues, from France, in 2003. This
 53

improved version, with the inductor plates mounted inside a box, worked better. This is a curious
Van de Graaff generator also built by him, that can produce 30 cm sparks. This is his Van de
Graaff with external belt. He also built a Dirod machine. Another view.
• A sectorless Wimshurst machine, with 60 cm disks, built by Grant Vincent Wells, in New
Zealand. It can be operated by hand or by a motor, has an electronic startup system, and produces
sparks with up to 24 cm.
• These two machines were built by Alan Kerley. The larger machine is a Voss machine with a 21"
and 17.5" disks, and the other is a small Wimshurst machine made from CD disks.
• This is a Wimshurst machine made by Keith Stuart, by 2000, in New Zealand. It produces 10 cm
sparks. He also restored an old machine (probably German, from around 1900) for the Auckland
Museum of Transport and Technology. Front view, back view. By the end of 2003, he made a
curious combination between a symmetrical Toepler machine and a Dirod. Side view, other side,
top view, end view. With 12 cm disks, it produces 4 cm sparks.
• A motorized Wimshurst machine, made by Thomas Rapp, in Munich, Germany, in 2004. Another
view. The disks have 30 cm of diameter. More informations and other projects can be found at the
author's site.
• A Van de Graaff generator, made by Richard Linder, in Burlington, USA. The terminal is a
stainless steel sphere with 45 cm of diameter. The bottom roller is made of Nylon, and the top
roller of Teflon. The belt is made of 0.4 mm Mylar foil. Mr. Linder makes demonstrations using it
at the Burlington Science Center. For the 2004-2005 school season, he built a larger machine, with
a 36" terminal. The 6" belt is made of vinyl impregnated nylon. It produces arcs with 18" to 24" to
a 1.5" grounded sphere.
• A Wimshurst machine, built by Ricardo Triches, in Brazil, in 2004. Another view.
• A big Van de Graaff machine, built by Harold Pollner, in California, USA, in 2004. The terminal
has 30" of diameter, the comumn is 9" PVC, the belt is made with 4" Neoprene, and the machine
is powered by a 1/4 hp 1725 rpm ac motor. Excitation is by rolling friction between the belt and
the lower roller, that is a 4" PVC coupling mounted over a wooden core. It produces 22" to 27"
sparks, but from the rim of the sphere opening to a grounded target electrode positioned below the
sphere, (as in the picture). Sparks from other points of the sphere reach only 6" to 7".
• A small Wimshurst machine, with 20 cm disks, built by Hannu Eloranta, from Espoo, Finland, in
2005.
• A nice Wimshurst machine, belonging to Dr. Alistair Miller, England. The machine has 19" disks
and produces 6.5" sparks. It was built by Anthony Swift, that runs a museum dedicated to
Victorian science in North Yorkshire, England.

Friction machines

• The first electrostatic machine [15], was built by Otto von Guericke [16] by 1663, using a sulphur
globe frictioned by hand. The globe could be removed and used as source for experiments with
electricity. A picture of a working replica of the machine, from the University of Oldenburg.
• Another important early researcher was Francis Hauksbee, that built several machines using glass
globes [50][53] and cylinders by 1705.
• The friction machines were gradually improved through the works of many researchers. This is
the machine with a glass globe of the abbot Nollet (~1740) [7]. Eventually, the machines took a
stable form, with leather friction pads (Winkler, 1744), glass globes (Bose, 1751), and insulated
charge collectors. Demonstrations with these machines were common.
• Watson's machine [51][52] (1746) had a large wheel turning several glass globes. The prime
conductors were a sword and a gun barrel suspended from silk cords.
• A Ramsden electrostatic friction machine [2]. Another picture [7], another [12], a good drawing
[17], and a picture of a large machine [14]. The first popular machine using a disk (1766).
Designed by J. Ramsden, an instrumentist that also designed many other good instruments in the
1700's. A beautiful restored Ramsden machine, found at eBay in 1999. Photos by Fausto Gazzi.
 54

This large machine I found in a museum in Geneva, Switzerland. A simpler machine built by
myself is in a photo above.
• The machine of Le Roy (1772) [50][p26] was suitable for the production of long sparks, due to the
high insulation between the friction pads and the charge collectors (see a more modern version as
the Winter machine, below).
• This large disk machine (1785) with 1.6 m disks can be seen at the Musée du Conservatoire
Nacional des Arts et Metiers, In Paris, France. On its base is written the motto at the top of this
page. There is a picture of it in [21].
• A brass model of a Ramsden machine. A curious decorative object, possibly from the 1930's or
before. The disk has 3.5" of diameter. Photos sent by Blake Awbrey.
• A Nairne electrostatic friction machine [7], built in 1770, consists in a glass cylinder, a friction
pad in one side, and a charge collector in the other, both connected to insulated conductors.
Another one.
• The van Marum electrostatic friction machine (1784) [9]. By moving the two curved bars with
charge collectors, it was possible to collect charge from the disk (bars as shown), or from the
friction pads (bars turned 90 degrees), producing voltage with any polarity, as shown here. Van
Marum is also known for the big machine [16][21] that he had made in 1784, that is now in the
Teylers museum.
• A similar machine, now in the Deutches Museum, Munich, Germany, belonged to Georg Ohm
(1830?)[21]. Another view. Photos sent by Hans Bussmann.
• A belt machine [50] built by N. Rouland by 1785, had a charge collector with blades that collect
charges from a silk belt rubbed by two grounded tubes covered with hare fur [21].
• An old friction machine using a glass disk. Another picture of the same machine. Photos sent by
Don Day.
• A Winter electrostatic friction machine. One of the most efficient friction machines. A picture
from an old book [3], and another, from H. Pellat [7]. This was the last popular structure for
friction machines, as shown in these catalog pictures from the 1920's: this and this are from [17],
and this is from [22]. The characteristics of the machine are the disk frictioned at one side, at both
faces, with a pair of charge collectors at the other side, shaped as rings with points turned to the
disks. Sometimes a large wood ring (Winter's ring) with a metallic core was attached to the
terminal, increasing it's capacitance. A double version can be seen on the first picture.
• The Woodward machine (1840) [43][21] was a modified Ramsden machine, with the prime
conductor located above the disk, or disks, saving some space. It could also generate negative
voltage, by mounting the upper friction pad in place of one of the charge collectors. This double
machine is in the University of Porto, Portugal. Partially disassembled. Pictures by Marisa
Monteiro.
• The Armstrong hydroelectric machine [2], a friction machine using steam as charge carrier
(1840). It is just an insulated boiler producing a steam jet mixed with water droplets. A better
picture is here [9].
• The Lorente generator. A triboelectric machine composed of four cylinders that roll together
without friction, under a slight pressure. The two outermost cylinders are metallic, and the two
central cylinders are of distinct insulating materials (nylon and teflon). Opposite charges are
collected in the metallic cylinders. The basic machine produces voltages of some tens of kV, but
several modules can be stacked for more voltage. A coaxial version is also possible. Pictures from
actual models are here and here. This device was invented and patented by G. Lorente, who sent
the pictures.

Influence machines

• The first rotating influence machines were the "doublers". The first was Nicholson's doubler [p14]
(1788). It was a rotating implementation of Bennet's doubler (1787), a device based on Volta's
"electrophorus" (see also here) (1776), that allowed great multiplication of a small initial charge
 55

by a series of repeated operations with three insulated plates. The original machine proposed by
Nicholson didn't require a connection to ground, but versions with explicit ground connections are
also possible, as this [28], and this (built by Wimshurst) [p14]. An actual machine exists the
Musee d'histoire des sciences, in Geneva (the site has a movie of the doubler in operation), that
looks as this machine (John Read's doubler) [p106]. See my Nicholson's doubler. A similar
implementation, where the two plates that are fixed in Nicholson's device rotate, is
Bohnenberger's machine (1798) [4]. Bohnenberger designed several other doublers, as this
automated version of Bennet's doubler and this variation of Nicholson's doubler (1801)
[p107], both operating with back and forth movements. See my Bohnenberger's machine.
• Multipliers based on a different system are also possible, as Péclet's condenser (1841) that
increases the charges linearly with the number of operations [p87] and a multiplier with 4 plates
invented by Pfaff and Svanberg that combines addition and multiplication [54].
• A similar adding device was Cavallo's multiplier (1795), where a movable insulated plate was
moved back and forth, alternatively being grounded under the influence of a second previously
charged plate, and touching a third insulated plate close to a grounded fourth plate. After some
cycles, the grounded plate would be removed, causing the accumulated charge at the third plate to
rise its potential to about the potential of the second plate times the number of cycles [4].
• The next development was of symmetrical influence machines, using influence to generate new
charges and Faraday's shielding effect to collect them. The first was Belli's machine [4][p14]
(1831), the first symmetrical influence machine. A picture of an elaborated actual machine. Belli
developed also a different machine using the same principle, shown here. The same basic
structure appears in Lord Kelvin's "replenisher" [2][p92] (1867), in schematic representation, and
as constructed [12]. A simple machine built with insulated curved metal plates, used as part of
measurement instruments. Here is a ray-tracing picture similar to a machine that I built by 1973.
The rotation of the central insulating bar with two metallic carriers, touching the four contacts,
causes accumulation of opposite charges in the outer plates. Another similar machine was the
Varley machine [26] (1860).
• A curious machine [18] that appears to be similar, if the lateral brushes are connected to the fixed
plates. The same machine appears illustrating this advertisement (1962) but with an added set of
brushes installed, to separate the output circuit from the inductor plates, as in the Voss machine.
• The Piche machine, or Bertsch machine (1866) [7]. One of the simplest influence machines, uses
an insulator plate (I), that is separately electrized by friction, and used to generate charges in the
rotating disk by induction. See the original letters about this machine in the references. A similar
device is the Dubrowski machine [22]. This type of machine was called "continuous
electrophorus".
• The Carré machine [6] (1868). A friction machine below charges by induction a fast rotating disk,
that transfers charge to the upper conductor. It is similar in operation to the Bertsch machine, but
regenerates the charge in the inductor. A better picture [7]. A variation [14] with slanted combs. A
ray-tracing drawing. A photo from an actual machine, sent by John Newman. A machine with a
double terminal. The Van de Graaff generator [p4][8] is an evolution of this machine, with a belt
instead of the disk, and a more efficient charge collector at the top. This machine is in a museum
in Switzerland. Another machine, in a Museum in Spain.
• A double Bonetti machine from the same museum, with curiously shaped neutralizer combs (?).
• Another antecessor of the Van de Graaff generator is Righi's electromer [p55] (1872), that used a
rubber string with brass rings for charge transport, and a hollow sphere as charge collector. A
picture of this machine [41]. Similar machines are also discussed in [p59] (1875), as a bipolar
machine, that must have grounded pulleys, and another, that adds a neutralizer circuit and can use
insulated pulleys.
• Righi studied also a belt machine [p59], that antecipates a regenerative charging system used in
some Van de Graaff machines, and shows a curious polarity reversal phenomenon, where for
some time the belt operates with bands of both polarities.
• Righi designed this big Holtz machine [41] (~1875), used at the Regio Istituto Tecnico de Bologna
for teaching and research. A drawing of a similar machine [42].
 56

• A Lord Kelvin's water machine (1867) [1][p91]. It is an influence machine that uses water droplets
instead of rotating carriers. It works in the same way of the 2 disks Toepler machine. Another
picture [6] of a similar machine. An improvement of this machine using two additional units for
output, avoiding the discharge of the inductors, was proposed by Fuller in 1888 [p103] [ p62]. A
different version was proposed by Sylvanus Thompson in 1887 [p104].
• The Schwedoff influence machine [9][13][29] (1868). A very strange machine. The lower plates
form a modified Holtz machine, with inductor plates replaced by combs (dotted lines) charging
the lower surface of the lowest fixed disk with charge taken from the charge collectors. This first
machine provides bias for the sectors in the lower plate of the upper assembly (the even-numbered
ones with one polarity, the others with another), that form a current multiplier. The output is taken
between the two insulated sets of combs over the upper, rotating disk. This picture from the
original paper [p46] shows more clearly the connections. This is the charge collector [p46] that
completes the machine.
• A Toepler-Holtz machine, or Voss machine with classical design. From a catalog from the 1920's.
Two more pictures here and here. Pictures found in the Gemmary's forum.
• Several Toepler-Holtz, or Voss, machines from [17]: A simple machine, another, a double
machine, a quadruple machine (see one here), and a multiple machine. Two more simple
machines from [18]: this and this. And another one, from [22].
• A magnific quadruple Voss machine, at the museum of the University of Pavia, Italy.
• A Holtz-Wimshurst machine [4][23], simple and with a frictional starter [4][23]. These were
Holtz-type machines with several disks and improved construction, as the inductors fixed in
separate square glass plates, developed by Wimshurst by 1878.
• The Kundt machine [4] (1868) was a mixed friction-influence machine, similar to a Bertsch
machine with the back side of the disk frictioned by a friction pad with a silk flap attached, as in a
friction machine. At the front side are positioned two charge collectors, as in the Bertsch machine.
A similar machine was the Cantoni machine (1869), that added a third charge collector at the back
side of the disk, so the machine can also be used as a friction machine.
• A good picture of a classic Wimshurst machine (1883) [1]. A Line drawing of the same picture
[2].
• A Wimshurst machine [6], similar to one that exists in the Museum of the UFRJ Engineering
School, and that I restored. Another [14] similar machine. That machine was built by F. Ducretet
and E. Roger, Paris, and originally should look as in this (front) and this (back) ray-tracing
drawings. Here are comments about the restoration and more pictures. This is how it is now,
compared with my 1974 Wimshurst. A large spark produced by the machine in a demonstration.
Another picture, showing two of these machines connected as a generator and motor pair [24].
These pictures [23] show discharge images on photographic plates obtained with one of these
machines. A positive discharge, and a negative discharge. A multiple machine from the same
instrument builder, at the University of Porto, Portugal.
• Here is another Wimshurst machine from the same museum that I restored (ray-tracing), a picture
of it, and some comments about the restoration.
• The largest Wimshurst machine ever built is presently at the Science and Industry Museum in
Chicago, USA. It was built in England in 1885, with 7 foot glass disks 3/8 inch thick, and
produced sparks with 22 inches. This picture is from Engineering, Vol. 39, 1885, scanned from
[23] (also appears in [4][5][8][26]). More informations and pictures about this machine.
• More Wimshurst machines, from [14]: A large simple machine, a double machine, a quadruple
machine, and an octuple machine. And also two machines from [15], with ebonite disks and
Leyden jars with two sections, and with glass disks. Two more large machines from [22]: A
simple machine and a quadruple machine.
• Wimshurst machines, from the collection belonging to Louie Scribner: A French machine
(Bonetti), and a German machine (Leybold, 1901).
• Wimshurst machines that have full construction details in [4][23]: A laboratory machine, a long
spark machine, and a twelve plates machine. Designs by J. Wimshurst.
• A "Voltana" Wimshurst machine [34](1921), used to run an electrostatic motor, and a bank of
 57

Geissler tubes. A larger machine, a smaller machine, another machine, more Geissler tubes being
lighted, lighting a spinning Geissler tube, charging a Leyden jar, and charging a spring, that
expands when charged [35].
• Several machines, from [38], that illustrate the state of the art by 1900: A classic Wimshurst
machine made by Bonetti, with Leyden jars that support the terminals, a complex double machine
and a large multiple machine made by Ducretet, and a machine with large conductors, that act as
capacitors. The classic Bonetti sectorless machine, a multiple Bonetti machine, and a double
Bonetti machine.
• Some multiple Wimshurst machines: A double machine, built by the instrument builder E.
Balzarini, similar to the machines that appear in its 1907 catalog. Note the triple brushes at the
neutralizers. A quadruple machine, built by Newton & Co. Back view. Detail from one of the
charge collector assemblies. Pictures from eBay auctions.
• Wimshurst machines with an orthogonal drive system were built by companies as Central
Scientific Co. A machine with the Leyden jars serving as terminal supports. A small unusual
German machine. A larger machine, and a big machine . One of the pulleys below is driven by the
crank. The other runs freely 1.
• A Wimshurst machine with cast iron structure, including the neutralizers 1.
• The Wimshurst machine can also be built with cylinders instead of disks [4][23]. A more practical
structure was designed by Lemström [5][8] (1899), with the two cylinders turning around a fixed
central axle, that also holds the internal charge collectors and neutralizers. The axle was separated
in two sections by an insulating block at the center. The machine was kept warm, dry, and
ventilated by a heating system and the sides of the cylinders, shaped as fans. See his patents.
• The Wimshurst alternating machine (1891), that generates alternating voltage, synchronized with
the rotation, with a polarity reversal at each 3/4 of rotation of the disk. The operation of this
machine was considered difficult to explain [5]. A single disk with sectors at both sides,
alternating, rotates between two pairs of collectors/inductors. Picture from Engineering.
• A triple Bonetti machine [11]. This kind of multiple machine was used in early X-ray work.
• By June-October 1999 I restored a similar quadruple Bonetti machine, built by Radiguet &
Massiot (~1910), for my university's museum. Some pictures of the machine during initial tests
and a report about the restoration are available.
• Another double Bonetti machine [26], with similar features.
• A cylindric Bonetti machine [11]. A compact design with high current output. This appears to be a
large machine built by Bonetti by 1894, where the cylinders had 50 cm of diameter and height
[p78]. Another cylindric machine [26].
• A machine that appears to be a sectored Holtz machine [22], said to be quite powerful. There are
fixed inductors on the back plate, that are charged by sectors at the back of the rotating disk
through brushes that project through two holes in the fixed disk.
• A motorized Voss machine with a fully sectored rotating disk [26].
• P. V. Schaffers (1885) [4][5][p29][p32] described a machine that is essentially a Wimshurst
machine with the charge collectors at different positions, with brushes at the charge collectors.
The Schaffers machine works as a combination of the Wimshurst machine and the Holtz machine
of the second kind, producing higher current (schematic). A (bad) picture of a Schaffers machine
[26].
• A Wehrsen machine [1][26][27][32][34][p77] (1907). Wommelsdorf's idea, it is a highly insulated
sectored Holtz-style machine with sectors embedded in the rotating disk, contacted through small
buttons, and inductors [34] also totally insulated behind celulloid plates. Some machines had
corrugated sectors for greater surface area, what increases the output current [5], or mounted at
different planes for higher insulation [26]. They had switches to allow the direct connection
between the inductors and the output circuit, for startup as a "replenisher" machine [32]. Two
better pictures from [17]: A large machine, and a small machine. A simple machine, and a large
machine, from [22]. A machine with direct motor drive [26]. A similar machine [p77]. Wehrsen's
"Mercedes" machine [34][26], with one rotating disk, and with two rotating disks, one at each side
of the fixed disk. A similar machine, built in 1911, exists in the Cavendish Laboratories, England.
 58

left view, right view, back view. Detail from the switches, and from the central inductor plates.
The machine is normally under an enclosure, and was disassembled for cleaning and investigation
of why it doesn't work anymore in 1999. Photos sent by Tacye Phillipson.
• The Wommelsdorf condenser machine [1][17][18][p84] (1902-1920) was the last of the classical
disk machines. It was basically a sectored Voss-style machine with double induction plates, one
pair at each side of the rotating disk, and with all the sectors and inductor plates enclosed in
ebonite plates. Some models had a switch in the middle of the neutralizer bar. A simpler model
[17]. In the last versions, the disk had a full set of embedded sectors, monted in alternate groups
separated by one or two thin insulating disks. The sectors were touched only at the borders of the
disk by brushes running in a V groove there. The ebonite disk was covered by a material (celluloid
or bakelite) resistent to deterioration caused by ozone and other gases produced by electrical
discharges. [5][8]. Schematic diagram [27]. Versions with multiple sections were also built, with
some versions combining different charging systems for the inductors, with alternate sections
charging the inductors from brushes at the edge of the disks and others from brushes touching the
sides of the disks, as in a Holtz machine. Another version [22] with older design, totally enclosed
and with fixed contacts for the neutralizer. Partial schematic diagram. A similar machine [p80],
another, an open machine, and a very large machine [p81][46] along with a small machine. A
condenser machine powered by a steam engine [46]. Wommelsdorf designed also machines with
pairs of disks rotating in opposite directions [45][p83], similar to multiple Wimshurst machines,
as this [46], a triplex Wimshurst machine with a central disk accessed through the edge.
• Several of the papers and patents by Wommelsdorf are available here. See also my machine.
• See some tables with the performances of several machines.
• The Pidgeon machine [26] was a Wimshurst machine with fixed inductors positioned in a way
that increases the induction effect. Fixed inductors with same polarity of the opposite disk were
placed surrounding, insulated, each neutralizer brush. The sectors were embedded in the disks
[5][26][p53][p54]. Pidgeon studied also machines based on "triplex" Wimshurst sections (double
machines with a single central disk), with enclosed sectors, that produce more current.
• Piggott made a set of experiments with radiotelegraphy and "antigravity" using a compact double
Wimshurst machine enclosed in a pressurized box. Drawings from his patent (1911) showing the
machine. Front view, side view, top view.
• A "Dirod" generator. A modern electrostatic machine, designed by A. D. Moore [10]. It is a
cylindric machine similar to the Belli machine, or Lord Kelvin's replenisher, with metal rods as
carriers. The output is taken at the inductors.
• From the 1940's to the 1960's, Nöel J. Felici, in France, developed a series of high-power
electrostatic generators [40], initially for applications in research. This site, by Lyonel Baum,
contains many informations about his work.
• See also the several machines that I have built, in the section "my machines", above. The linked
pages have many informations about the machines.

Other high-voltage devices, not electrostatic

• Changing of subject, an Induction coil [1], or Ruhmkorff coil (1851). A "fly-back" circuit with a
mechanical interruptor, that eventually replaced the electrostatic machines as a practical source of
high voltage. Its schematic diagram [1], ommiting the secondary of the transformer, that is wound
with many turns of thin wire and well insulated. By 1867 Ruhmkorff (instrument maker in France)
was making coils that could produce sparks with 40 cm. A spark image (16 cm) obtained with one
of these machines, with the terminals applied to a photographic plate [12]. The positive terminal
was in the left.
• The Planté rheostatic machine. It produces high voltage by charging a bank of capacitors in
parallel and discharging them in series. The connections are made by contacts in the rotating
cylinder [24][47]. The input is obtained from a battery.
• A resonance excitator [1], with adjustable inductances (L1, L2), Leyden jar capacitors (C1, C2),
 59

and a spark gap, used in old experiments about resonance.

• Self-resonant coils [1] with different lengths, that emit corona discharges when driven at their
resonant frequencies by the excitator above.
• Connection between an induction coil (J), the excitator, and the resonant coils (Seibt experiment)
[1]. By changing the excitator inductance, it is possible to put one or another of the self-resonant
coils in resonance. This experiment is a variation of the "Tesla coil" circuit, using a direct
connection instead of a transformer. See my implementation of a similar system, and follow the
links to see my other experiments with multiple resonance networks.
• Complete apparatus for the Seibt experiment [18]. A variation using a large open primary coil
[17]. A curious experiment using a Tesla coil and a long resonator coil, where corona to two wires
demonstrates standing waves.
• A classic Tesla transformer [1]. A primary coil with a few turns of heavy wire (or tubing), and a
well-insulated secondary with many turns. It produces a similar result if the primary is inserted in
series with the spark gap in the excitator above. Several Tesla coils, from [18].
• Apparatus for Tesla experiments, with an usual Tesla transformer, and with an oil-insulated
transformer [18]. A large Leyden jar capacitor is connected in series with a spark gap and the
primary of the transformer. The capacitor is charged by an induction coil, or a powerful influence
machine. The other devices shown are for demonstrations of the effects of high-frequency high
voltage. Similar apparatus with the usual air-insulated transformer [17], and an experiment to
demonstrate the high impedance of a wire loop, using a Tesla coil with the primary coil inside the
secondary [22].
• An Oudin coil (1898) [33], a Tesla coil with the primary and secondary windings forming an
autotransformer. Another Oudin coil [36]. See also my Tesla coil, that can also be operated as an
Oudin coil.

Half Wimshurst, Toepler, Wommelsdorf, Holtz, and Unfolded Wimshurst machines

• Some final observations, about pseudo-science, safety measures, and troubleshooting.

• Calculating the output current of electrostatic machines.
• References - Books, papers and patents about electrostatic machines, cited between "[]" in the
text.
• See also my links about these subjects.
• Links to e-mail addresses or collaborators had the "@" replaced by "|".
1 Found in the catalogs here.

Last update: 5 June 2005 (Recent changes and updates)

© 1996-2005 Antonio Carlos M. de Queiroz
The contents of these pages cannot be reproduced without consent of the author.
Send comments and questions to .
 60

Alfred Evert
Electrostatic - Electricitygenerator
Objectives
At chapter Perpetuum Mobile Fourth Kind was mentioned, how stabile status is to disturb, becoming
labile status and if disturbance is stopped, automatically stabile status is regenerated - and usable
energy is to earn by this movement. Besides others, this principle well should be usable concerning
equal spreading of electrostatic charges.
occurrences of electrostatics were starting points of development of electrotechnics. Soon also
electromagnetic characteristics were known and effective generators were constructed. However, there
is valid rule of Heinrich Lenz, as every produced current will demand input of power same amount. So,
by electric generators mechanical energy is only transformed into electric energy, vice versa by electric
motors.
On the other hand, by electrostatic machines energy is seemingly produced ´by nothing´, e.g. at
influence machines. Just last months, diverse inventors and explorers seem to be interested in
electrostatics more and more. For example, diverse experiments concerning this subject are described
at website of Harald Chmela and Richard Smetana (see External Links, HC&RS, only in German).
Especially at chapter ´Problems of Capacitor´ are discussed energy ´losses´ by compensation of
charges between capacitors. By reverse-conclusion is mentioned possibility of energy-earnings,
however authors themselves call explanation of that effect ´rather esoteric´.
By this chapter here, I will point out totally concrete possibility and source for generating Free Energy in
shape of electricity. At first, starting points of view briefly are shown, then technical arrangements of
mechanics and circuits are discussed. Afterwards, concrete source of energy is described in details,
according to principles of Perpetuum Mobile Fourth Kind and by some elements of my new Ether-
Physics. Finally, comparison between Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator and common generators like
known influence machines will point out importance of this new concept.
Starting Points
At picture EV ESSG 01 are shown two metallic sheets (A and B),
connected by wire and switch. By opened switch (C) both sheets
can be loaded by different charges.
If afterwards switch is closed (D), compensation of both charges
will occur. Current flowing within wire represents kinetic energy.
Current will swing between sheets (E and F) by damped
oscillations. However, process is not to repeat.
If both sheets would show variable surfaces, flow could be
ordered, e.g. by synchronous variation of two turning-capacitors
(like were installed at early radio receivers).
Analogue, at G and H are drawn two cylinder-capacitors. Inside
of both outer cylinders, as mutual opposite pole, a smaller
cylinder (K) is installed, movable alongside central axis. That
cylinder will show larger capacity, within which most part of
opposite pole is situated. Thus electric flux within wire between
both outer cylinders is achieved by mechanical movement of
inner cylinder.
Capacity of a capacitor is enlarged, if between both metallic
sheets is arranged dielectricum sheet or block. Isolators of that
kind replace rather small relative permittivity (1.0) of air by most
larger protecting effect (e.g. Teflon (2.1), paper (3.5), porcelain
(6.5) or mica (7.0) up to titanoxid (100.0)). Isolating effect will
work also without opposite pole.
At M and N are drawn two metallic sheets connected by wire. If alongside these sheets a dielectricum
(P) is moved, capacity of both metallic sheets will change. Current thus will flow from one sheet to the
 61

other via this wire.

Here e.g., sheet M could be charged at its maximum (within surrounding air), while sheet N does show
larger capacity and could be charged stronger (based at its partly protection by isolator P). If now
dielectricum P is moved to left side, right sheet will become oversaturated and same time capacity of
sheet left side is enlarged. Corresponding to these changes, current will flow between both sheets.
Normally, circuits are organized between minus and plus poles. Normally, at capacitors is important
voltage between both different poles. Both won´t matter here. It´s only important to organize current
between like poles (of different and changing charges and variable capacity). It will make sense (see
below) to use only likely (negative) charged sheets (so not to use capacitors with two poles).
Circle Process
Instead of movement back and forth,
continuous process would be better, i.e.
dielectricum should rotate alongside
metallic sheets resp. all elements are to
arrange circle-like. At picture EV ESSG
02 now is shown circled arrangement,
however circumference is rolled out.
At A schmeatically are drawn four
elements of dielectricum (DI) which are
installed at a rotor. Below are drawn six
matallic sheets which are installed at
stator, where sheets e.g. are made by
copper (CU, German Kupfer). At the following these parts are called ´dielctricum´ (DI) resp. ´sheet´ (CU).
At position shown here, four sheets are surrounded by air both sides, while two sheets (C) at one side
are protected by dielectricum. Momentanous (partly) isolated sheets show larger capacity. When starting
system, all sheet at first are to charge up (D), e.g. by an accumulator.
Sheets are stationary within space, while dielectricum is turnable. At B is shown
situation, where dielectricum did turn half phase ahead (here to right side).
Capacity of sheet E thus is diminished, while sheet F gets steady larger capacity,
i.e. current will flow from E to F. So currents flowing out of sheets move into same
direction (counter turning sense of dielectricum, here to left), within wires between
each sheets should be installed rectifiers (G, German Gleichrichter).
At C situation is shown, where dielectricum again did turn half phase (so one
phase corresponds to length of sheet). Both sheets opposite to each dielectricum
show larger capacities and stronger charges. By further turning of dielectricum, thus current will flow
within (each two) wires K, afterwards within wires L and lastly within wires M, each during one phase.
Inducted Current
Current represents energy (its basic
cause and strength is discussed
below). Current within conductor
induces current in neighbouring
conductor. By inducted current e.g. an
accumulator can be charged. This
process schematically is shown at
picture EV ESSG 03.
At upper part of picture, situation of
picture above at C is drawn once more
with dielectricum movable from left to
right (DI) and stationary sheets (CU).
At central part, induction coils (A) schematically are marked. Wires between sheets are guided via
primary coils (B). Inducted current of secondary coil (C) is connected with accumulator (D) resp.
constructional elements of battery charger.
 62

At part below, accumulator schematically is marked. By this accumulator is supplied motor (E) for turning
dielectricum-rotor and there is voltage resp. power supply available for other consumers (F).
This drawing only shows principles. Experts will know suitable constructional elements. As an example,
this system is doubled, i.e. corresponding circuits of wires etc. naturally could be arranged other kind.
In principle, direct current is running within primary coils, by three phases (marked blue, red and grey).
By changing currents, each secondary current is induced. Thus chopped direct current flows towards
accumulator.
Mechanics
At picture EV ESSG 04 mechanical arrangement is
drawn schematically. Animation upside left shows
corresponding elements in motion.
Previous four elements of dielectricum (DI) are
arranged crosswise around system axis (SA).
Previous six elements of copper-sheets (CU) in
principle are shaped likely and are stationary fixed
within housing (GE, German Gehäuse).
Right side, by longitudinal cross-sectional view is marked, how shaft (SA) of dielectricums (DI) is beared
turnable within housing (GE). Copper-sheets (CU) are installed aside of sheets of dielectricum. Naturally,
more modules like this one could be installed at central shaft. Also more or less dielectricum and sheets
could be used (in relation two to three). Also this drawing is purely schematical, all dimensions and
relations are to determine by experts expediently.
Drive of this generator has to be done by any motor. If this machine is installed within vehicle any kind,
electric engine can serve for drive of vehicle and same time can drive dielectricum-rotor of generator.
Capacitor-Version
Upside at starting points was mentioned variable capacity of turning-capacitors. At picture EV ESSG 06
corresponding version with opposite poled capacitor-sheets schematically is shown.
Instead of dielectricum here a rotor with two
positive charged sheets (P) is drawn. Three
negative charged sheets (N) are installed
within housing (GE). Also at both sides of
positive rotor could be installed each three
negative sheets or several modules of
positive and negative charges could be
installed at system axis (SA).
At this picture downside are shown three
positions (A, B and C), where rotor turns
alongside stator-sheets (counter clock-
wise). Actual capacity of capacitor
corresponds to each commonly shared
surfaces. When starting system, again all
sheets should be charged positive resp.
negative.
By turning of rotor, e.g. capacity of sheet D
is reduced while capacity of sheet E is
enlarged. Via wire (here not marked)
between both sheets, thus current will flow,
counter turning sense of rotor. So current here will occur phasewise between negative charged sheets,
counter clock-wise. Analogue to circuit above, by induction coils an accumulator is charged. Same time,
charges within positive sheets (P) will move from one to the other sheet via central connection.
 63

This system is a simple module with only two positive and three negative sheets. By animation left side
below, process of movements are visualized. Common surface between one pair of sheets decreases,
common surface of following (in clock-wise sense) pair of sheet increases. Between both ´capacitors´
current will flow.
Each third negative sheet is not involved at this phase. Within three circuits of
wires between negative sheets, thus within each one phase only within one lead
wire exists rising impulse of current, which is usable within induction coils.
At this capacitor-version simply is used air as isolator between sheets. This
version thus won´t be as effective as dielectricum-versions above, based on much
stronger protecting effect by high permittivity of dielectric materials.
Usage of opposite poled capacitor sheets at this machine, thus wouldn´t be good
idea (as in addition and strictly speaking, positive ´charges´ don´t exist at all, see
below). So this capacitor-version here is implemented only for better understanding of working
processes of this machine in general.
Nevertheless, this animation visualizes an other effect: speed of changes of common surfaces increases
from inside towards outside. Relative capacity of capacitor thus changes within sheets by different
speeds. So changes of charges within sheets will occur differently, i.e. different currents come up. So
characteristics of current impulse within primary coil of induction coils are to determine by shape of
sheets.
If sheets are shaped as circle-segments (e.g. like CU at upside picture EV ESSG 04), there will come up
flux in radial direction on surfaces of sheets. So besides shape of sheets it´s also important, where lead
wires are connected to sheets (see below).
Ether-Physics
As mechanics of this Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator and principles of its current flows are discussed,
now real source and real cause of movements of charges are considered. Detailed description and real
essence of all occurrences will be presented at new release of my Ether-Physics. So here only some
elements concerning this subject are briefly reported.
Today, via television, everyone knows picture of atoms, e.g. by nanotechnics. Atoms appear like ´cloudy
hills´ at photos of electronic microskopes. However, outside of these hills is not nothing, but outside like
inside is nothing else than ether - only ether here and there moves different kind.
Indeed, there is ´unsharpness´ (like quantum physics tells), however not cause particles are out of focus,
any ´parts´ are to see only blurredly. Instead of, light is reflected at different locations, only where ether
actually is at most strongest movement (and thus can´t take additional overlays of other movements).
So ether only there - at varying locations - affects reflection of ´lights´.
Ether movements, in general can not be linear nor circled, but only spiralic with steady changing radius
around wandering fulcrums, all and every time by varying speeds. Basically, also every movement into
one direction forcibly (but only if ether is considered to be indivisible continuum) demands additional
movement in right angles direction (what´s essential property e.g. of all electromagnetic occurrences).
Movement´s of Free Ether (opposite to Bounded Ether of material occurrences) are at scales much
below ´quants´ (of conventional diction). Movements tracks look like ´spiral clusters´, macroscopic image
of that movement´s structure is DNA. Only small part of all ether represents material occurrences with its
relative large structures of movements (for example of ´electrons´).
Pressure of Free Ether
Basic movements of Free Ether with its small-dimensioned motions affect steady ´pressure´ versus all
larger scaled movements, wants to minimize them. Large-scale motions overlay small-scale motions, by
simplistic example like two circled movements overlay. While both movements show same direction, that
´s no problem. As small-scale ´circle´-movements now turns into opposite direction, problems come up.
There are not moving separated parts, but coherent ether. Within ether, no counter-directed movements
are possible nearby (only at ´astronomic distances´, relatively looked at), so dominating Free Ether
pushes versus large-scale movements (like any macroskopic countermovements affect rejection).
Only within motion´s compounds (by mutual protection) large-scale structures of movements can exist,
like e.g. atoms (as movement´s compound of electrons). Depending on kind of atom, its surface shows
 64

different structure, e.g. valence-electrons (all left-turning in general) rise above surface (building hills),
while at depression areas (between these hills) counter-directed movements are (nevertheless, all these
movements not at simple circled tracks by constant speeds, but steady by spiralic ´twisting´ and
´tumbling´ turnings).
Only if vortice-structures geometrically fit to each other, atoms can build ´chemical´ compounds
(molecules) or ´physical´ compounds (grids resp. crystals). At surfaces (while inside only very limited)
around its ´hills´ additional movement´s vortices (negative ´cyclones, low-pressure areas´) can come up
resp. within ´valleys´ flat counter-movements (positive ´high-pressure-areas´) can be stored.
These additional movements are not necessary for stability of atom resp. an atom-compound, these are
only movements ´sticked-on´. Naturally general pressure of Free Ether weights at these areas, so
´charges´ can only survive protected by material movement´s compound (e.g. at separated parts of air,
at relatively homogenous grid-surface of conductive metals resp. within confusing surfaces of
amorphous matter).
At these surfaces, prevailingly valleys can be filled up resp. appear extended (positive charges) or
around hills extended ´vortice-clouds´ (negative charges) are attached. At any case however, general
pressure of surrounding Free Ether will keep ´landscape´ as flat as possible.
Ether-Continuum
Only if ether is understood as real continuum, these occurrences coming up and existing inevitably are
to explain sensefully. Only this general pressure is real cause of any flow of charges. By common
understanding, ´free electrons´ within conductors are vehicle of electric flux - disregarding evident fact,
electrons (or defect-´holes´) crawl ahead only few millimeters each second. That movement of ´free
electrons´ within (semi-) conductors can only be casual symptom of electric currents (see below).
With speed of light however, compensation will occur as soon as conductors with different charges
meet. Movements occur at surfaces of conductors by movement-pressure of Free Ether - whereby
speed of ether´s motion naturally is far above speed of light (which only is speed of signals).
Only by this understanding of ether e.g. results occurrence, charges ´automatically´ are spread equally
at whole surface, ´nature´ generates stabile status ´without costs´. If this status is disturbed (labile status
is produced) and afterwards disturbance is stopped, system by itself will ´fall back´ into stabile status.
These are principles of Perpetuum Mobile Fourth Kind, applicable at its best onto electrostatic
processes.
Here by Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator, both processes are organized simulatously: disturbance
(protecting sheets by isolator with its concentration of charges) and taking off disturbance (by moving
isolator off charged sheet with automatic regeneration of equal spreading). Flux of charges between
actually oversaturated areas to areas of actually free capacity - is for free.
Naturally, readers but hard will understand these brief statements about my understanding of ether.
Some points of view are already available by Ether-Continuum-Theory of this website. Extensive
deductions and discussions about all chemical and physical processes and occurrences (and some
more) however will demand many chapters of new ´Ether-Physics and -Philosophy´, at which I am
working at the moment (and will be available some later this year).
Charges at Conductor and Isolator
After these general considerations about ether as basis of all charges and its movements, now concrete
processes within Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator are to consider. It will make sense to use isolating
effect of materials with most strongest permittivity. That´s why at the following, no longer this previous
capacitor-version is subject, but above machine with dielectricum and copper-sheets only is discussed.
Picture EV ESSG 08 shows four situations, at which dielectricum (DI) moves from left to right, alongside
copper-sheets (CU). These elements are drawn with rounded edges, which will make sense concerning
movements of charges like radiation of free ions (see later). Charges (+ resp. -) here are drawn within
elements, in reality charges are situated at surfaces of elements resp. will move alongside surfaces.
If dielectricum (A) is not aside of a sheet (CU), it´s electrostatically neutral, at least inside. Only some
charges of barrier-layer might have remained.
Correspondingly, sheet (B) without isolator aside, will show small capacity and correspondingly few
charges. These charges are spread equally onto whole surface of sheet, based on general pressure of
 65

Free Ether. Remember: at starting of systems, all sheets are charged to each maximum, e.g. from
accumulator above.
At picture below, dielectircum (C) did move to right and covers half surface of sheet (D). Now less ether-
pressure weights onto this common surface between both elements, while onto rest of surface of sheet
(still surrounded only by air) full ether-pressure affects. Negative charges of sheet thus are pressed into
this ´protected zone´.
Same time, capacity of this sheet is enlarged, while capacity of next sheet further right side (here not
drawn) is diminished subsequently. As marked above, thus charges (K) will flow at conducting wire
between both sheets. These additional charges will land at partly free surfaces of sheet D (where from
earlier charges wandered into protection zone), from there will be pressed into increasing protected part
of surface.
These tightly packed charges at that sheet (simply spoken)
are conus-shaped movements, now reaching far out into
space. At the other side, at surface of dielectricum, now
corresponding counter-turning areas consequently are
induced resp. also conus-shaped counter-movements
inevitable are produced.
Simplified one could imagine, movements are like
connected gear-wheels, where shafts of wheels are
embodied each opposite surface. However, there are not
moving any parts at all, there is moving only coherent
substance of ether. So one better would imagine e.g. four
left-turning vortices within water, arranged at square, where
logically at its center must come up vortice counter-turning.
This process commonly is told building-up of barrier-layer at
surface of dielectricum. These attached movements won´t
penetrate likely into amorphous structure of dielectric
matter. As here no opposite ´capacitor-sheet´ is installed,
also at outer side of dielectricum (here upper side) won´t
come up opposite barrier-layer, or only few charges will
remain.
At this picture further down, dielectricum (E) did move
further right side and now is situated opposite to sheet (F).
This sheet now shows maximum capacity and is strongly
charged, via conductor (K) from next sheet (right side, not
drawn here). Most likely charges are concentrated at
protected surface, opposite to dielectricum.
At this surface of sheet dominate left-turning movements
(and counter-movement reaches until surface of
dielectricum). Within grid-structure of conductor these concentrated movements show effects even to
other side. Intensive left-turning vortices compress counter-turning within conductor, practically shift
them to other side (here downwards).
Again, one shouldn´t imagine gear wheels with fix radius, much better is picture of conus-like water-
vortices with variable radius. So circumference of vortices can move inwards and outwards, however
can also wander some upwards and downwards within conductor.
At this opposite side (here downside surface of sheet F) of conductor so now are enlarged counter-
turning movements (and reach further out into space than previous depression areas there). There are
not really positive (opposite poled) charges existing, however these extended counter-vortices enforce
inevitably again left-turning areas. Into these areas will fit negative ions of surrounding air.
Into theoretically maximized capacity of sheet (F) also really move lots of charges, at the one hand send
from neighbouring sheet via conducting wire (K). At the other hand, also charges (M) practically are
´sucked´ in from surrounding air. In reality, there are no forces of suction, however parts of air move and
collide with each other, also hitting onto that downside surface of sheet. If air-parcel bears fitting charge,
 66

this charge gets stuck onto that strongly appearing ´positive´ surface of conductor-sheet.
At section most below in this picture, dielectricum (G) did move further right side, now covering only half
of sheet (H). Free Ether (at surfaces which now got free) presses concentrate left-turning movements (at
upper side of sheet) back into sheet. As a consequence, e.g. just additionally attached charges of free
ions (N) now are pushed off resp. are given to colliding parts of air (if these are able to take that charge).
For this sheet, now most parts surrounded only by isolator air, concentration of charges is much too
strong in relation to reduced capacity, i.e. this sheet now is ´oversaturated´. As charges can only exist in
connection with materia, surplus of charges not only can escape via air (at occasionally available air-
parts actually not charged), but by majority will move alongside (continuously available) surface of
conducting wire (L) to next sheet (and are welcome based on its actually increasing capacity).
So charges flow via conducting wire (L) to next sheet (left, here not drawn), i.e. to upside wire (K).
Between however, circuit is installed via induction coil, so kinetic energy of that flux induces charging
current for accumulator.
Real cause of any kinetic pressure of electric current (of movements of charges alongside surfaces of
conductors like ´capacitor´-sheets) is previous discussed pressure of Free Ether. By this machine,
compensating effect of this pressure phasewise and locally is prevented (by isolating effect of
dielectricum), so charges are shifted and concentrated into this temporarily protected zone. Same
moment, parts of surface of following sheet are given free for surrounding air (thus normal ether-
pressure), so corresponding charges are pressed from unprotected area into protected area, phase by
phase, from sheet to next.
Comparison with conventional Electric Generators
Difference between Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator and conventional generators is like difference
between Coulomb (attracting forces of unlike charges) and Lenz (opposite magnetic forces).
Normally current is produced by moving a conductor through magnetic field. Current induced, by itself
produces magnetic field and its forces are exactly same amount and exactly opposite direction of original
mechanical movement. Lines of both magnetic fields collide ´frontally´, its ether movements are totally
opposite. These movements can not penetrate mutually, so mutual resistance affects back into its
material sources. Only by ´violence´ these opposing ether movements can be redirected, pressed aside
for passing each other.
That´s why conventional generators are bound to law of energy-constancy: kinetic energy of produced
electric current corresponds to mechanical power for its production. So energy of one kind is only
transferred into energy of other kind.
By this process is produced ´hot´ current: ´bulky´ ether movements affect backwards into structure of
conductor, atoms somehow are shifted (so not only atoms of iron cores are concerned, based on
changing directions of magnetic fields, but some ´heat´ in general comes up). By this process, electric
charges not only are ´attached´ onto conductor´s surface, but are also pressed into and through
conductor. This will mean, here current also flows partly within conductor (with correspondingly high
resistance).
At Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator, dielectricum is moved alongside copper-sheet. Also this process
demands power input. While negative charges are accumulated at surface of sheet, at surface of
dielectricum that barrier layer is induced, corresponding to positive charge. Both ether movements
mutually fit well, left-turning movement of negative charges indeed requires turnings into opposite
direction (like mentioned above by connected ´gear-wheels´ resp. communicating conus-like vortices).
Based on protection by isolator, both kinds of vortices at both surfaces reach relative far into space
(where optimum is given by certain width of air-gaps - like at many electric machines).
Analogue to process, gear-wheels of mechanical transmission are clutched and declutched (e.g. by
using reverse gear), so these communicating vortices are to stretch resp. are to pull off each other. As
soon as this compound of turning movements got out of protected zone, these vortices are reduced to
normal size by general pressure of Free Ether, thus are flattened onto each surface.
However, power demanded for turning of dielectricum rotor (resp. sidewise separation of unlike charges)
at electrostatic generator is much less than at electromagnetic generator (comparable e.g. an iron stick
is easier to move aside of magnetic stick than at poles of magnets).
 67

Current at Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator is solely produced by power effect of ether-pressure.

Charges and their movements occur and are done only at surfaces, so without producing heat and with
minimum resistance.
Naturally by producing current, same time its ´magnetic field´ is initiated. Also here is valid, ether doesn´t
allow purely linear motion, i.e. charges are not simply moving straight ahead alongside surface of
conductor. Each of these movements requires inevitably additional right-angled balancing movements,
so charges ´wriggle´ alongside of hilly surfaces. By common understanding, radial part of these
movements is called ´magnetic´, its ´twist´ is interpreted as circling closed lines of B-fields. Nevertheless,
these magnetic forces can´t show any effects onto copper-sheets nor dielectricum, so here are not
relevant (however, see below).
Electromagnetic effect of charge movements here is used only within induction coils, however, these
constructional elements work practically without losses. Differing volumes of flow, i.e. rising-up phase of
current builds up its magnetic field within primary coil (as well known), and this magnetic field by itself
induces current within secondary coil, here used for charging accumulator. Experts will know which kind
of induction coils are best for this job.
As certain fact, this Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator not only transfers energy of one kind one-to-one
into energy other kind, but here ´cold´ current really is generated by few input of power and nearby null
resistance.
Comparison with Influence-Machines
At very beginning of electro technics, influence machines were constructed and astonishing voltages
were achieved. For example, it´s also credibly witnessed Testatika is well running current generator
(however Swiss group Methernitha won´t offer this machine, based on ethic points of view).
At Internet are presented plans for rebuilding Testatika,
e.g. this version by Paul E. Potter (Free Electric Power,
see External Links).
Complex construction of Testatika like other (difficult to
adjust) influence machines point to fact, at the one hand
there exists an usable effect, on the other hand effect not
jet is transformed into simple technics, so effect not used
at its optimum.
Advantageous at these machines as a rule is, voltage
between negative and ´positive´ (see below) charges are
used, while conception above uses only differences
between likely charges (in reality, of locally different
density of negative charges).
Problematic at influence machines is, charges are taken only from air, i.e performance is ´weather-
dependent´. Opposite, Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator is charged up when starting system, at running
modes ejects ions and takes ions. If this generator is constructed within housing e.g. of aluminium, there
will exist constant ´climate´ with suitable conditions. Aluminium probably would be suitable matter for
protection in general, cause aluminium at chemical compounds offers electrons (building cation Al+++),
so can give and take free electrons.
Problematic at influence machines is also taking-off voltages by ´brushes´ or diagonal arranged metal
sheets (difficult to build and arrange well). Charges transfer by ´sparks´, conductor there is locally
discharged, so further charges can flow behind. This flow of charges practically pulls conductor into its
direction, so these machines (after soft starting impulse) run by itselves. However, turning momentum is
not very strong, so these machines are constructed rather large for achieving about one full turn each
second.
Opposite at concept above, it´s not aim to achieve self-running mode but motor is used for drive of rotor.
By this measurement, Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator naturally can be build much more compact and
will run much faster, i.e. given effect is used repeatedly each time unit, thus performance is essentially
stronger.
At influence machines, also dielectricum as rotor (in shape of large disk) is used, at which sheets (mostly
 68

of aluminium, right-angled or like circle-segments) are attached. So also at these machines, one side is
isolated and shows correspondingly large capacity. However, capacity of these sheets is constant, while
Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator works by changing capacities and variable density of charges. That´s
most important difference between this concept and probably all other influence machines.
In addition there is an other grave difference, as at Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator charges are not
transported via (isolating) air, but separated sheets are connected by circuit of electric conductors, i.e.
current can flow by much less resistance.
This aspect might be decisive for performance: while influence machines build up enormous voltages
but producing only few flow of charges, Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator works by comparably small
differences of density of charges, but charges are in steady motions, during two of three phases building
rising-up and going-down flows. Instead of only potential energy (high voltage) thus at Electrostatic-
Electricitygenerator dominates kinetic energy of practically steady current (high amperage), within
changing phases, by three conductive wires, with varying impulses of flow.
No positive charges
Among others, atoms are build of electrons and bear electrons at their surface. Electrons are negative
(turning into different directions, however all times left hand). Atoms may get ´lost´ of electrons, so ´free´
electrons may ´vagabond´ temporary between atoms or may attach onto surface of other atoms, so
these carry ´negative charge´ (show additional left-turning movements).
Giving atom got poor, don´t bear ´positive charge´, it only got some place at its surface for re-storage of
an other electron. Place between (generally left-turning) valence-electrons is a deepening, within which
ether inevitably has to turn by right-hand movements. At positive ions, these parts of surface are
relatively extended.
A ´positron´ like this can only exist within atomic compound of its electrons. If this right-turning vortex
comes out of atom, so this commonly is told a little spot of ´anti-materia´. This movement is dissolved
immediately by overwhelming Free Ether, which generally is left-turning (will be described at new Ether-
Physics in details).
So there can not exist any positive ´charge´ at conductors, it´s surface only seams positive, if there are
relative large parts turning right in general, thus allowing or inviting storage of left-turning movements.
If dielectricum above is protecting conductor surface, so left-turnings of attached charges will reach far
out in space (and correspondingly right-turnings at opposite surface of dielectricum). At conductor, at this
side left-turning dominates, also valence electrons are drawn some outwards into that protected zone,
i.e. structure of grid is some kind shifted (that´s why these sheets should show large surface but be
rather thin).
One may not imagine atoms to be like rigid mechanical gears, but like pasty dough, rather liquid and
within steady turnings, multiply overlayed (like one would prepare batter before baking bread). For
example, it´s also well known, atoms ´tremple´ within grid-structure even of most solid crystals.
Correspondingly ´elastic´ also is material of conductor and allows some internal dislocations based on
changes at its surfaces.
If at previous process left-turnings at one side of conductor are intensified resp. shifted to that side,
´inertia´ of required spaces between (opposite turning ´positrons´) still is given - so these occurrences
now dominate at other side of conductor. So this side of sheet now looks ´positive´, ready for re-
enforcement of left-turnings (by own electrons coming back to their old places) or for attachment of left-
turning charges of hitting parts of air.
At a whole it´s not advantageous to organize enlarged voltage of influence machines above by using
´positive´ sheets (one has to take off electrons, but ´holes´ immediately are filled up by negative charges
or air-parts).
Opposite, negative charges can be attached without problems and ether-pressure concentrates charges
automatically within isolated areas. Also automatically opposite side now appears ´positive´ and sucks in
negative charges. So there is no active measurement demanded. That´s why Electrostatic-
Electricitygenerator does work only with negative charges at all sheets, however dielectricum is moved
´actively´ by rotor.
No heat
 69

Many explorers of alternative physics often assume, heat is source of energy surplus or energy is drawn
off ions. Indeed, also this Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator will become ´cold´ and it will ´smells´ like
ionized air. However, these are symptoms, not source of energy earnings.
If parts of air hit onto positive side of sheets, this charge changes surfaces, like discussed above.
Naturally this removal of attached charge from air-part is some ´loss of energy´ cause communicating
ether movements are tied off. So air-part at surface of sheet won´t be reflected by same impulse but will
leave sheet some slower than previously hitting onto surface.
Analogue to this, removal of charges from (oversaturized) sheet onto air is also process, which slows
down collision. So parts of air at both processes loose some kinetic energy (not internal, but
macroskopic movement´s energy), machine at a whole won´t get hot at running mode.
No resistance
Valid in general is, resistance of current increases proportional to length of conductor. That´s easy to
understand, cause ´gradient of charge density´ becomes flattened by longer distances.
Valid in general is, resistance of current decreases by square of radius of conductor - and common
conclusion is, current is running within cross-sectional surface of conductor. Opposite to common
understanding, I claim charges to move (nearby) exclusively at surface of conductor (so resistance
would decrease only by circumference, i.e. only proportionally to radius of conductor).
As mentioned above, surface of conductor is like landscape with deepenings and hills resp. between
hills are meandering valleys and passes. There within, charges flow ahead by three-dimensional
windings. Structure of surface offers possibility of radial movement. The more homogenous the surface,
the better suitable ´riverbed´ is (specific electric resistance resp. electric flux-ability of material).
Process of motions between conductor and charges is also harmonious, as electron-hills and ´positive´
areas between not only are purely left- and right-turning ether movements, but all times there are also
movements right-angled to each motion (by spiralic twisting and tumbling movement´s structures
mentioned above). At side of conductor, thus flow of charges goes ahead with relative few resistance, at
its best on homogenous metal surfaces.
Charges resp. their movements are ether resp. ether movements. These will also reach far outwards (by
´astronomic´ relations), where component of movements right-angles to surface of conductor commonly
is called ´magnetic´. These automatically and inevitably required (but only if ether is assumed coherent)
balancing movements demand surfaces - outside of conductor, need space into radial directions. If
these necessary surfaces are not available, within ether will come up ´stress´ resp. opposite: resistance
of electric flow decreases in relation to available surface.
So that´s reason for resistance decreasing by ´square of radius of conductor´, not related to cross-
sectional surface within conductor but related to (ring-shaped) surface outside of conductor. That´s why
e.g. width of isolation or air-gap (demanded space for ether movements) at many electric machines is of
decisive importance. Cause current runs at surfaces of conductors, but needs not only two-dimensional
surface alongside conductor but demands space around conductor too.
No Alternating Current
If high-frequency alternating current is ´transported´ importance of ether movements at surface of
conductor is obviously: one takes hollow conductors. By alternating current, ether outside of conductor is
´stressed´ by extreme swinging movements right-angles to conductor (and by missing material of hollow
conductor, walls of pipe are more elastic, can take these rapid movements like springs).
Stress is caused by charges pushed ahead and back, each time demanding redirection of magnetic
´fields´. So there come up opposite oriented movements, requiring large balancing rooms. Charge by
itself is rather small part of all ether ´masses´ moved, charge is only ´tricker´ for extensive movements
around conductor.
Practically there is no flux really transporting charges from one place to next, there are only few charges
swinging alongside surface of conductor some ahead and back. However, whole ether around
conductor is disturbed by restlessness, so ether must build up most complex structures of movements,
reaching far out into space. Resistance versus alternating current is only relatively reduced, cause
resonant patterns of movements come up and spread alongside conductor.
So not charges by itself are moving alongside conductor from source of voltage to consumer, but it´s
 70

ether movement´s structures (ring-shaped) around conductor, which extend along wire (and only by
secondary effect make swinging to and fro some charges also far away from generator). There are no
real flow nor lots of charges, which could represent potential nor kinetic energy, but energy is
represented by high amount of ether in highly restless movements around conductor and alongside total
length of wire. If one tries to ´transport´ more than this small amount of charges, resistance goes up by
square of amperage.
Balancing movements in radial directions, again require right-angled movements (thus now parallel to
conductor) within large surrounding space (´B- and E-field´), again and again. So electromagnetic
radiation will result - lastly electro-smog and stress not only for ether.
Direct current, in comparison, results absolutely soft motion: at one end of conductor exists high density
of charges, at the other end exists low density of charges. Normal ether pressure ´presses together thick
end of sausage and shifts contents to thin end, until skin of sausage is filled up everywhere equally´.
Also these shifting movements produce ´magnetic´ components right-angled to surface of conductor,
however all are directed likely, so highly harmonious ether motions result, without radiation far into
space.
No Current at all
Direct current is well to compare with flow of water within river. Also there is ´voltage´ resp. gradient
between source and mouth, different potential energy, which by flux is transferred into kinetic energy of
motions.
Also cause of water flow is comparable. At electric direct current, dielectricum protects surface of
conductor, so charges are pressed from unprotected to protected areas. Same pressure of Free Ether
affects macroscopic (and occurrence is called gravity), however here earth plays role of ´isolator´. By
materia of earth, ether pressure of opposite direction is protected. Free Ether no longer is moving
symmetric by ´spiral clusters´ tracks, but all movements into direction of earth are faster, while
movements outwards of earth are slowed down.
There are no ´attracting´ forces at all, even suction never ever results any movement. Motions are
always initiated only by pressure - versus minor pressure (details see Fluid-Technology of this website).
Based on unequal movements of ether (resp. one-sided reduced ether-pressure) thus water molecules
flow from source to mouth (resp. are pressed downwards at sloping surface). However, this picture is not
correct. Correctly spoken, only ether vortice-structures (which material occurrences of are called H2O)
move down stream - while ether by itself practically is stationary (besides its small-scaled movements,
maximum by size of molecules, however inclusive their balancing areas).
Only this relatively stationary ether is ´steady´ part of so-called ´gravity-waves´ (while ´stable standing´
waves of common understanding never ever are possible within three-dimensional space, apart of
required - and not given - stationary mirror-surface and additionally, of uncertain source of ´stationary
gravity waves´).
Imagination of (appearently) flux is visually comparable by waves at ocean. If wind blows constantly,
waves pile up, moving ahead hundreds of kilometers, even single crests of waves run for kilometers
(especially swell), with quite astonishing speed. At surface of waters, impression of strong movements
ahead is obvious - however we all know, each single water drop isn´t moving ahead but turning in circles
of maximum some meters (as often demonstrated by pieces of cork).
Only spiral motions - and driftwood
One circle movement isn´t sufficient for building up waves, several circled motions must overlay. Mostly
not considered is, waters have to move by different speeds around turning points, which by itself are
turning by different speed. So there result movements always at spiral tracks, multiply overlayed,
however only variable speeds of all motions can result above occurrence of running-ahead waves.
If some wet piece of wood drifts within water, that matter also will do circling movements. It takes part at
movements ahead at water surface, however won´t dip into waters thus deep to take part at all
backward movements completely. Resulting of, dirftwood also moves some ahead, however by much
less speed than wave´s crests vehemently storm ahead.
Just like behaviour of driftwood are movements of free electrons when electric current is flowing at
conductor. At ocean, air is most ´liquid´ element and water is some more ´viscous´. Free Ether
 71

comparably is more ´liquid´ than Bounded Ether of atoms or within atom´s compounds. There within,
free electrons are not really free to move everywhere. So free electrons within conductor can follow
affects of ether movements at surface of conductor not totally - they slowly ´crawl´ some ahead within
conductor, while at conductor´s surface exists movement by light speed.
Again, anaolgue to waves at ocean: motion ahead at surface of conductor is only secondary occurrence
(only ´apparently´ existing). This impression is caused, as movements of ether nearby conductor´s
surface into direction of flux are some faster and (according) movements backwards some outside of
conductor are some slower. Ether by itself is nearby ´stationary´ (like water-drops above), only
movement´s structure of charges above wander fast into direction of less density of charges.
There is an other difference to consider: within water there are parts shiftable alongside each other, so
all axis of all overlaying circled movements show parallel to water surface (right angled to direction of
wind). Opposite, ether dosn´t know any parts but is one single coherent matter. Turning axis thus can´t
stay parallel at all, but all axis of all movements have to ´tumble´ on and on, again all times by left turn.
Resulting of is no linear ´flux´, but ´winding-ahead´ over hilly landscape of conductor´s surface, as
mentioned above.
Optimum shape
After these considerations in
general, some hints to
concrete concept of
Electrostatic-
Electricitygenerator are
offered.
In order to produce current
´soft´ kind, only likely charges
are to use, flowing same direction (however by increasing and decreasing intensity). In order to avoid
losses, surfaces should be most homogenous and especially all connections of sheets and conducting
wires must be ´flowing´, i.e. with smooth transition of all surfaces.
Opposite to normal capacitors, dielectricum and sheets must not show same shape and dimension. At
picture EV ESSG 10 for example, sheets are drawn as circled surfaces and dielectricum as circle-
segments. Rotor is shown by three positions while turning, corresponding animation shows elements in
motion.
Mutually covered part of surfaces is small at the beginning, then increases
faster, until decreasing correspondingly. So there results increasingly rising-up
and going-down current impulse. By design of both surfaces, thus design of
current is to form that kind, within induction coils is produced charging current at
its best. Wires to and from sheets, at this example should be installed in front
and backside (in turning sense of rotor).
It´s absolutely possible to install each one rotor with dielectricum at both sides of
sheets. Naturally current-generators with different performances are to construct
by arrangement of several modules at system axis.
At construction, in general should be considered three assembly sections above: section of generator by
itself (rotor and sheets) is to store within separated part of housing, so suitable ´clima´ of ionized air is
steady (probably this part of housing should be charged negative when starting system). Area of
induction coils should be separated (or isolated) in order to avoid influences of electromagnetic fields to
section of generator. Third section of accumulator inclusive control-unit will be separated anyway.
In principle, accumulator is only demanded for starting system. Afterwards, generator will produce much
more current than required for drive of rotor. Rest of current is constantly available for other consumers.
If generator shall produce current for differing supply of consumers, accumulators of suitable capacity
are to install as energy buffers. However control could be organized that kind, generator-modules are to
switch on / off at running modus.
Constructional Variations
Naturally, presented concept of Electrostatic-Electricitygeneraor technically is to realize by multiple
 72

versions. Here once more, quite other design is

shown.
At normal sheet-capacitors, capacity is enlarged
(and voltage is diminished), if distance between
both surfaces is reduced, vice versa (and both
occurrences are based on charges movement
and ether-pressure described above). So
instead of rotation above, one also could move
dielectricum to and fro, parallel to copper-
sheets.
Corresponding mechanics schematically are
show at picture EC ESSG 12, working similar to
piston of ´boxer-motor´. Upside and downside are two sheets (CU) fix installed within housing (here not
drawn). Between both sheets, dielectricum (DI) is movable linear. In principle, one could use normal
crank-shaft with connecting rod, here is drawn special version of (see Machine-Inventions of Fluid-
Technology).
Around system axis (SA) is turning a crank-shaft (KW, German Kurbelwelle), its situation is
marked by four positions (A, B, C and D), each after 90 degrees turning clock-wise.
Dielectricum practically is a piston (KO, German Kolben), which is guided within cylinder of
housing (indicated only at animation). Piston at center shows round drilling. Within that
drilling is turning (opposite direction of crank-shaft) a circle-round element with excentric
drilling (and within this drilling is turning crank-shaft). This element functions like connecting
rod (PS, German Pleuelstange).
This gear practically is a camshaft with balancing element, running well also by high speeds.
Whole gear e.g. could be made by ceramic matter. In reality, much less stroke distances are demanded
than marked at this schematic drawing. ´Trembling´ within millimeters will be sufficient.
Capacity is depending on actual distance between dielectricum and sheet,
depending on direction of dielectricum movement current is flowing between
sheets (and to use by suitable circuits by principles discussed above). This
system has to ´breath´, i.e. air must flow between dielectricum and sheet
inwards and outwards. This machine ´pumps´ air, but will produce not at all
only cold air.
Movement of air, at this system might probably be biggest problem. That´s why
lastly pure rotor-systems could be most easy to construct (e.g. round instead of
plane surfaces) and show most reliability at long-term usage. At picture EV
ESSG 14 once more a rotor-version schematically is drawn.
Dielectricum (DI) here practically is a rod, turning around system axis (SA). Sheets (CU) are arranged at
a round cylinder of housing (GE). Based on constant radius, dielectricum moves by steady speed
alongside whole surface of sheets. By suitable shape of sheets, e.g. like at EV ESSG 10 as circle-round
disks (however with bended surface), shape of wanted current impulse is to design.
Naturally, all versions above are also to construct by diverse modules at axial direction.
Also generators with high performance thus are to build by rather compact volume. Just
this last animation remembers at conventional generators - however by this concept here,
electric current is produced ´soft´ kind and much more effective manner.
Looking forward
This Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator will serve for decentral power supply as stationary unit. Above this
it´s usable at vehicles diverse kind with best relation of performance and weight.
All that stuff above, again I present as pure claims, based on nothing else than my understanding of
ether. By sure, most readers will find these brief statements concerning ether ´rather esoteric´ (but every
fact above and many more, I will describe in details, with lots of drawings and animations, within following
months, at new Ether-Physics and -Philosophy).
One fact is sure: electricity doesn´t show its properties cause of formulas and abstract terms for
 73

calculations and discussions - but based on totally real ´material´ processes. The only real and
comprehensive substance - for me and lots of others - is ether. However, only by assuming certain
properties of ether, processes above are to explain well. With known formulas is to work well and
machines are to dimension at its best. However, only by best resp. ´most true´ understanding of
essence of causing basics and relations, one will be able to design really optimum machines. For me,
principles of Perpetuum Mobile Fourth Kind is most true statement and ideally applied at electrostatic
charges.
Approval of basic functions of Electrostatic-Electricitygenerator should be possible soon. Also reliable
running products could be developed by experts in foreseeable future. That´s what I am convinced of
and I hope, some got convinced by considerations above.
Many skilful men make handicrafts of remarkable quality by electric and electronic elements. Probably
some are strongly interested in previous ideas and want to approve it really. That´s what I am looking
forward, for results and reports, of positive like negative ´charges´.
Evert / 13.01.2003

Appendix Perpetuum Mobile Perpetuum Mobile Index / Sitemap

 74

Il motore a potenziale elettrostatico

Questo semplice motore utilizza il potenziale elettrostatico tra l'atmosfera e la Terra e la proprietà che le
cariche elettriche di stesso segno si respingono. Se collochiamo un'antenna in alto nell'atmosfera,
l'antenna e ogni oggetto ad essa collegato mediante un filo elettrico isolato possiederanno la stessa carica.
Il materiale utilizzato per l'antenna determinerà la corrente di ioni prodotta. L'alluminio è una buona
scelta.

Fondamentalmente il motore elettrostatico crea un percorso facile perché la carica elettrica scorra
dall'atmosfera alla Terra e così facendo estrae energia.
Il diagramma mostra il funzionamento del motore elettrostatico.

I due piatti sulla sinistra sono allo stesso potenziale elettrostatico dell'atmosfera e i due piatti sulla destra
sono allo stesso potenziale della Terra. Il disco al centro ha una superficie conduttrice su ogni lato, e
queste superfici sono divise a metà da una striscia di materiale isolante. Ogni coppia di piatti è collegata
alla zona conduttrice sulla rispettiva faccia del disco da una spazzola.
Consideriamo la parte sinistra del diagramma: i piatti e la zona conduttrice sul disco possiedono la stessa
carica elettrostatica quando sono collegati dalla spazzola. Quindi si genera tra di essi una forza di
repulsione. Lo stesso accade sul lato destro. Comunque la cariche sulla parte sinistra del disco e sui piatti
di destra sono opposte e tra di essi c'è una forza di attrazione. Allo stesso modo avviene tra la parte
sinistra del disco e i piatti di destra. Il risultato è che il disco è portato a ruotare di 180º. Quando questo
avviene, le spazzole toccano le facce opposte del disco e l'intero procedimento ricomincia. Una volta
compiuto un primo giro per avviare il motore, esso continuerà a girare e a produrre energia elettrica.
 75

Macchina elettrostatica
.....................

Le macchine elettrostatiche, ideate nel XVIII secolo, sono strumenti in grado di generare elettricità
statica. I generatori elettrostatici furono fra gli strumenti più importanti nei gabinetti scientifici del
Settecento e dell'Ottocento. A seconda che utilizzino i fenomeni dell'elettrizzazione per strofinio o per
induzione, si distinguono in macchine elettrostatiche a strofinio e macchine elettrostatiche a induzione.

Macchina elettrostatica a strofinio

Le macchine di questo tipo sfruttano la capacità di alcune sostanze isolanti (vetro, zolfo, resine, ecc.)
di elettrizzarsi se strofinate energicamente. Fin dal 1660 Otto von Guericke (1602-1686) utilizzava
una sfera di zolfo che, attirando dei corpi leggeri dopo essere stata elettrizzata, gli permetteva di
illustrare le sue teorie sulle forze agenti nell'universo. Ma la prima vera macchina elettrostatica fu
realizzata verso il 1700 da Francis Hauksbee (1660-1713): un globo di vetro (che poteva essere
evacuato) posto in rapida rotazione da una puleggia e strofinato dalla mano si elettrizzava
permettendo una serie di osservazioni sulle attrazioni e repulsioni elettrostatiche e sulle scariche
elettriche nel vuoto. Nei decenni seguenti, e soprattutto dopo l'invenzione della bottiglia di Leida nel
1745, furono proposti numerosissimi modelli di macchine elettrostatiche: globi, cilindri e dischi di
vetro venivano fatti ruotare rapidamente da sistemi di pulegge e manovelle. Per strofinarli, e dunque
elettrizzarli, furono introdotti dei cuscinetti di cuoio imbottiti che sostituirono efficacemente la mano
dello sperimentatore. Le cariche così generate venivano accumulate su grandi conduttori metallici
isolati.

Verso il 1750 la moda delle esperienze elettriche fece delle macchine elettrostatiche uno strumento di
fondamentale importanza in tutti i gabinetti e nelle collezioni scientifiche. Ne vennero realizzate di
dimensioni diverse. La più grande, fatta costruire dallo scienziato olandese Martinus van Marum
(1750-1837), era dotata di due dischi coassiali di 165 cm di diametro azionati tramite manovelle da
due uomini. Questa macchina era capace di produrre tensioni di diverse centinaia di migliaia di volt
che potevano generare scintille lunghe oltre 60 cm. Le macchine più piccole, portatili, erano
generalmente utilizzate da fisici, da medici e anche da ciarlatani per le discusse applicazioni
terapeutiche dell'elettricità, che si pretendeva curasse ogni sorta di patologia.

Macchina elettrostatica a induzione

Nel 1875 il fisico italiano Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) inventò l'elettroforo, semplice ma ingegnoso
strumento capace di fornire una serie quasi illimitata di scariche elettriche. Da esso nacquero le prime
macchine elettrostatiche a induzione nelle quali l'elettricità veniva generata non dallo strofinamento,
ma da un complesso gioco di induzioni elettrostatiche. Ad esse appartengono i duplicatori, ideati alla
fine del XVIII secolo e utilizzati per "moltiplicare" cariche troppo deboli per essere misurate
direttamente. Attorno al 1830 il fisico Giuseppe Belli (1791-1860) propose la prima macchina a
induzione a disco rotante, ma è solamente nella seconda metà dell'Ottocento che, grazie a fisici quali
Wilhelm Holtz (1836-1913), August Toepler (1836 - 1912), James Wimshurst (1832-1903), questo
 76

tipo di generatori soppiantarono quasi completamente le vecchie macchine a strofinio. Le macchine

elettrostatiche a induzione vennero ampiamente utilizzate, sin dall'inizio del XX secolo, per generare
scariche elettriche, per caricare condensatori, per alimentare i tubi a raggi X e nel campo
dell'elettroterapia. Infine, l'introduzione di sistemi più efficaci per produrre alte tensioni (ad esempio i
trasformatori) fece abbandonare l'uso di queste macchine che oggi hanno un interesse puramente
storico e didattico. Ma c'è un'eccezione: alla fine degli anni 20' del XX secolo il fisico Robert Van de
Graaff (1901-1967) propose un generatore elettrostatico a nastro capace di produrre le altissime
tensioni necessarie nel campo della nascente fisica atomica e nucleare. Oggi questo tipo di macchina,
notevolmente perfezionata, è ampiamente utilizzata nei laboratori di ricerca e in campo industriale.

.................................
 77

Electricity and Magnetism > Electrostatics DCS# 5A40.70

KELVIN WATER DROP ELECTROSTATIC GENERATOR

APPARATUS

Kelvin water dropper 202-18-E

container with plexiglas window 202-18-E
bilge pump 202-18-E
3 A DC power supply 202-08-D

DESCRIPTION
Fill container with water until pump intake is submerged. Adjust flow so that water breaks
into droplets before reaching top cans. Neon bulb should light periodically and spark
should jump gap between balls.

NOTES
This is ordinarily used in the display case. Here is the text that goes with it:
Notice how the two cans into which the streams of water fall are cross-connected to the
two tubes. Assume that the can on the right becomes slightly charged when a stray ion in
the air sticks to it. The left tube becomes charged since it is connected to the can. A
charge of opposite sign is induced on the water stream above the tube. When the water
separates from the stream, it carries this charge down into the left-hand can below and
charges it and the right-hand tube. The result is that the two tubes acquire charges of
opposite sign and induce opposite charges on the two streams of water, thus building up
the charges on the tubes until the electric field between the two metal spheres is strong
 78

enough to cause breakdown of the air so that a spark jumps and the discharge current
lights the neon bulb. The entire process then begins again. Potential differences of
thousands of volts can easily be produced this way. This is a beautiful example of the
action of positive feedback.

REFERENCES
Meiners, pp. 247-250.
http://www.eskimo.com/~billb/emotor/kelvin.html
 79

Die Stacks sind aus konditioniertem Material. Nicht direkt Elektret,

sondern nur "gerade auf der Grenze" - das funktioniert dann als
Einwegventil...
Stell Dir vor - die Elektronen im Dielektrikum sind unfähig etwas zu
übertragen, man muss dem nachhelfen. Die Konditionierung wird
mittels HV DC gemacht, so wie beim Elektret, nur nicht unter so
extrem HV. So entsteht "Dielektrikum+". Man darf NIE Termine
"Dielektrikum" und "Isolant" gleichstellen!!!

Elektrodenmaterial.
Aluminiumplatte zieht (-) ionts an, Messing (Cu, Zn, Ni - nicht jede Mischung ist geeignet, deswegen die
Bemerkung von Cathomen: "Spezialmaterial"...) ist hingegen fast neutral. Die Maschen sind
unentbehrlich! Verteilung der Ladung auf der Elektrode... viele Dipols, nicht praktisch nur ein, wie bei
glatter Metalfläche...
In dem konditionierten Material bilden sich, entsprechend der Gitterlage, unterm Gitter Domänen ....
viele Dipols, und die Ladung baut richtige ausstehende "Würstchen"
oder "Polsterchen" um Metal herum.

Funktion:
Bej jeder Bewegung des Arms kommt Druck ---> einweg "go sub" ---
>, im Moment, wenn ein neue Zuschus - "Druck" von der "Spachtel"
auf die oberste (Al) Auffangelektrode des "stacks" kommt (ich rede
vom "basis experiment"). Die Elektronen werden im "stack" nach
unten verschoben... wie Paste, die mit eine Spachtel durch ein Sieb
passiert ist... Diese "Diode" kann beträchtliche Menge der Ladung
durch den "Sieb" im Dielektrikum+ "passieren" lassen und dann den
Gegendruck, dass von dem Kondensator kommt, zurückhalten - Spannung - je nach Anzahl und
Auffangfläche der Stufen...
Die benützten Kondensatore (von Baumann) sind "autokondensatoren" - Die haben übrigens meistens
eine sehr gute Qualität - und Bauart MP - nicht etwa "elyt". Die Ladung auf dem Arm wird durch Körper
des Manipulators von der Erde gebracht nd erneuert. Keine schnelle Bewegungen... es braucht seine
Regenerationszeit... Deswegen auch die langsame Rotation bei Testa.
Kein Wunder, dass bis jetzt ale Experimentatoren auf die Nase gefallen sind - weil sie immer nur falsche
Material benützt haben und gerade das und Grundverständniss, warum
gerade diese M., ist absolut kritisch!

Linden Experiment - dasselbe konditionierte Material!

Prinzip:
Ein "stack" aus obgenannten Mat. wird in das Feld eines
Hufeisenmagnets gelegt. Aluminium, ausser obgenannten
Gefrässigkeit gegenüber (-) ionten, bekanntlich verstärkt das
Magnetfeld. Nickel im Messing ist magnetisierbar.... Aber wenn das
alles im Stillstand ist, Ladung ist zwar vorhanden, aber es passiert gar
nichts. Was nun?

Ich wickle, auf bekannte Art, zwei Spulen auf die Schenkel des
Magnets. Dann genügt nur noch irgendeine elektrische Störung, die
durch die "Antenne" aufangbar ist, z.B. "Netzbrumm" 50 Hz... und das
Feld zwischen den Schenkeln beginnt zu schwingen. Sehr schwach,
aber jede Schwingung bedeutet ein "go sub Ruck" in dem stack.. (und
die "Elektronen" sind ja sehr klein :) Alles klar? :-)

Jetzt stell Dir vor, dass das ganze im Störungsfeld einer Influenzmaschine oder Funkenstrecke postiert ist.
 80

Huh.. Ich habe neben einer Whimhurst über 3600V gemessen und 4 m davon immer noch fast 2kV!
Soviel zum Erregung... :-) Diese Ladung wird auf die gleiche Art wie beim Basisversuch regelrecht auf
die Sektorlamellen AUFGETRAGEN, und dann durch ausgeklügeltes Sytem von "Tastern" hin und her
geschaltet... Testa ist keine Influenzmaschine, bloss ein elektrostatische Motor und Schaltfeld.

Beide rotierende Scheiben sind auch konditioniert, aber auf eine andere Art. Es hat mir viel
Kopfzerbrechen bereitet, aber ist denkbar einfach.
Bei der Testa kommt dazu noch Compton effect zwischen den Scheiben zu Anwendung... und das ist der
"Endverstärker". Wie und warum, das will ich noch nicht sagen, wir sind noch nicht ganz sicher mit der
Erklärung. Jedenfalls ist es eine neue Betrachtung des CE. Etwas wie "Elektronen Schleudermaschine".

Im jedem "Topf" sind bloss zwei gewöhnliche Dioden und eine Kondensatorkaskade. Sonst nichts. Vor
allem keine einzige Spule.. :o)
Die "elektrostatische" Tourenzahlbegrenzung sieht man ganz oben. Man kann es als eine Art Triode oder
"Glimmlampe" mit Aussenzündung beschreiben. Die Ladung wird auf eine Platte und gleichzeitig in die
"spule", die rundum gewickelt ist, gebracht - und im Moment, wo die Ladug gew. Grenze übersteigt und
die Repulsion wäre zu stark (Geschwidigkeiterhöhung), schlägt es durch die Luft dazwischen gegenüber
zweiter Platte, die parallel zu der anderen ist... und wird irgendwo zurück ins Prozes geleitet. Kein Funke,
nur Feldübertragung.
81
 82

Electric Machines
(Electrostatic Electricity Generators)

An electric machine consists of the

combination of two materials, which when
rubbed together produce static electricity,
and of a third material or object which acts
as a collector for the charges.
The first devices for producing electricity
were very simple. The ancient Greeks
discovered the strange effects of amber
rubbed with fur and other material. In the
17th century, scientists used sticks of resin
or sealing wax, glass tubes and other
objects. By the time of Benjamin Franklin
(Franklin became interested in electricity
about 1745) large glass tubes about three
feet long and from an inch to an inch and a
half in diameter were popular; these were
rubbed either with a dry hand or with
brown paper dried at the fire.

Joseph Priestley Static Machine

There are two major categories of electrical
Reproduction machines: Friction and Influence. A
Click for more information
friction machine generates static electricity
by direct physical contact; the glass sphere, cylinder or plate is rubbed by a pad as it
passes by. Influence machines, on the other hand, have no physical contact. The charge is
produced by inductance, usually between two or more glass plates.

All through the 18th and 19th centuries there was tremendous interest in electricity. Scientists
such as Franklin, Nollet, Coulomb, Volta, Oersted, Ampère, Ohm, Faraday, Joule and others
made major advances. Prior to Faraday's invention of the induction coil in 1831 however, the
only way to generate high voltage electricity was via a static generator such as these.
Rotating the wheel created a static charge, which was available on the "prime collector" (the
brass ball or cylinder at the top or front of the device). The charge could then be stored in a
Leyden jar or measured by an electroscope.
History of the Electrical Machine
 83

Go to the next page for a detailed history of electrical machines.

Below are some examples of the electrical machines in my collection:

Nairne-style Friction Machine

c. 1850

Carre Induction Machine

1880 Early Influence Machine
1st Half 19th Century
 84

Influence Machine
last quarter 19th Century

Ramsden Friction Machine

4th qtr 18th century

Ramsden Friction Machine

19th Century
Topler Influence Machine
(Heavily restored. All brass, glass legs, Henley's
electroscope and table are reproductions built by John
Jenkins)

Plate Electrical Machine

American
1860's
Early Cylinder Friction Machine
 85

Bonetti Influence Machine

1884
This impressive apparatus stands over five
feet tall and contains ten 32" disks. The
Bonetti device and others like it were used
for medical therapy and to power early x-ray
Winter Friction Machines tubes.
ca. 1889
 86

Testatika Small Machine Testbed 1

Description
This is an attempt to duplicate one of the small testatika machines (the one in the picture below). It is a
'testbed' because not enough details are available to duplicate it -- both in terms of parts and why/how it
works. So an experimental approach is taken, testing out theories and components one at a time.
The real testatika small machine. Click on the picture for a big version
(1.4Meg).

Construction

Bare disk on bare stand. Showing what part is stand and what part is disk. The stand
and disk both have a bearing epoxied to them.

April 7 - This disk has the wires attached and the grids that April 7 - Close up. Note the way the wire is threaded through
face the disk have been put in place along with wiring the face of the disk. This is likely done because there will also
suitable for test purposes. be grids mounted behind the disk. Note also the shape of the
 87

side grids. They've been wired from the side so that they can be
flipped around to have their flat end on the side facing the disk
for experimenting purposes.

April 7 - Close up, front view. The grids have been mounted such that when a wire approaches the bottom, inner corner of a
lower, side grid, it also approaches the bottom, inner corner of the corresponding center grid by the same distance.
 88

Retroingegneria di Methernitha - di Paul E Potter

dal sito free electricity; si ringrazia per la traduzione F. V.

Pensare che il dispositivo Testatika del gruppo svizzero Methernitha sia basato su un generatore
elettrostatico Wimshurst è solo una mera approssimazione della realtà.
Della grande moltitudine di strumenti ad influenza elettrostatica sviluppati intorno al 1900, esso si basa
 89

più da vicino sul sistema di separazione e raccolta della carica utilizzato dallo strumento Pidgeon (nota 1)
nel 1898, per quanto concerne il suo circuito elettrico.
Le sue griglie di acciaio (50 per disco), chiamate anche "gitter-grilles" sono evidentemente uniche nel
Methernitha (vedi fig. 1), ma per quanto riguarda il loro principio di funzionamento, esse rappresentano
un'evoluzione delle precedenti ricerche e dei precedenti brevetti sui settori ondulati, che si rivelarono
conduttori di carica più efficaci rispetto a quelli piani (nota 2); da un esempio simile, in tempi più recenti,
si avranno aste di alluminio allungate come raggi di ruote da un nucleo isolante in PERSPEX.

Un'altra caratteristica funzione di queste griglie perforate attaccate ai dischi è il modo in cui inducono la
carica dal disco in rotazione agli speciali elettrodi, chiamati anche "tasten antennae keys" (sono anch'essi
perforati così da raccogliere più rapidamente la carica). In un dispositivo Winshurst vi si trovavano
spatole conduttrici o barre di "sharp point" che toccavano realmente i dischi o che erano situate molto
vicino ad essi. Nel Methernitha la carica deve essere fatta passare attraverso un varco nell'aria, parallelo
ai cuscinetti; per questo motivo le "gitter-grilles" di metallo sono progettate in modo da creare micro
vortici di corrente d'aria carica che circolano dentro e fuori dalle cariche superficiali della superficie
metallica perforata e vengono più facilmente fatte rimbalzare fuori dagli elettrodi. Questo processo è
classificato come "generazione elettrostatica a capacità variabile".
 90

Bisogna fare un appunto preciso a proposito di come il dispositivo Methernitha utilizzi la sua
configurazione di base Pidgeon.
Con riferimento alle sue aste neutralizzanti (che equalizzano e rendono stabili le cariche opposte) - vedi
fig. 2 e a come le cariche vengano raccolte da un'area e accumulate nelle altre, così che le polarità della
carica possano essere distribuite correttamente verso specifiche aree su entrambi i dischi.

Sebbene siano circolate alcune voci e informazioni errate, sul fatto che il dispositivo utilizzi materiali
radioattivi per raggiungere il suo output a caratteristica pulsante, credo fermamente che il circuito
elettromagnetico ausiliario, che si avvolge attorno ai dischi rotanti, rappresenti un approccio elettronico
valido e semplice. Dopotutto chi utilizzerebbe emissioni radioattive accanto a condensatori a bottiglia di
Leida! In ogni modo, più si guarda ad alcuni elementi relativi alla sua costruzione, più ci si accorge che
essi vertono su tre delle maggiori aree dello sviluppo elettronico risalenti al 1900, agli anni 20 e agli anni
'50 / '60.

L'autentico dispositivo Methernitha venne progettato e sviluppato da puristi convinti di avere scoperto un
fenomeno elettronico precedentemente sconosciuto, ma che nello stesso tempo desideravano anche
conservare l'integrità dei primi pionieristici giorni della strumentazione Pidgeon, Wimshurst e Holtz; non
utilizzarono componenti così moderni come i transistor e i chip IC (tanto peggio) ma si servirono, per i
loro circuiti, di un insolito tipo di ingegneria elettronica.
 91

Ovviamente, le parti elettroniche sono due: Il generatore elettrostatico e il suo particolare modo di
dirigere una determinata carica in un certo luogo e il circuito elettromagnetico ausiliario basato
sull'induzione, la capacitanza e la rettificazione, che permette di rendere mobile l'elettricità "statica". Per
capire come essi riescano a convertire l'energia statica in una forza elettromotiva si dovrebbe tornare con
la mente ai primi anni della radio.
Dalle pagine della radio a scintilla si apprende presto quanto i circuiti di oscillazione e i loro rettificatori
a valvola siano importanti e, inoltre, quanto si sia rivelato difficile progettarli.
Sebbene i trasmettitori radio ed i ricevitori del 1900 utilizzassero circuiti a risonanza, le loro oscillazioni
erano controllate da scintille tra due contatti e, naturalmente, erano relativamente inefficienti.
Negli anni '20, nel momento in cui qualcuno mise insieme una valvola rettificatrice, un condensatore e
una resistenza, le prime oscillazioni di corrente elettrica divennero un fenomeno controllato e osservabile
(nota 6).

I primi anni '20 segnarono anche la migliore epoca di sperimentazione e invenzione di nuovi mezzi che
convertivano l'energia statica in energia elettromagnetica utilizzabile; In un brevetto del 1921, un fisico
tedesco, Hermann Plauson, descrisse in modo dettagliato i metodi utilizzati da lui stesso per convertire
l'energia statica non solo partendo da dispositivi ad influenza rotativa, ma anche partendo da palloni in
grado di raccogliere l'elettricità atmosferica nel cielo; tramite l'utilizzo di rettificatori a termoionica,
condensatori a bottiglie di Leida e bobine induttrici, Plauson propose una rete free-energy in grado di
fornire energia alla Germania intera (nota 7)!
La valvola del rettificatore a termoionica determinò una nuova era per la radio e per la fisica ad alto
voltaggio e inoltre, essendo stata oggetto di un così vasto numero di esperimenti e modifiche per
aumentarne l'efficienza, essa spianò la strada a tutti i tipi di nuove sperimentazioni nel campo
dell'elettronica.
In ogni modo, con una simile varietà di analogie tecniche con ciò che si può osservare nelle fotografie
disponibili del Testatika, possiamo desumere senza dubbi che il tubo orizzontale di vetro, situato
all'estremità superiore dei dispositivi Methernitha, sia esattamente uguale ad una valvola rettificatrice a
termoionica a vuoto casereccia, con il suo reticolo di anodi interno, contornato da una rete di rame a
bobina alimentata da un filo catodico incandescente (riscaldante) che corre orizzontalmente attraverso il
suo centro e chiuso ermeticamente da due estremità nere, che sono troppo grosse e bulbose per essere
meri coperchi e quindi devono essere sicuramente coperchi a vuoto di gomma nera che servono a coprire
il tubo di vetro ed i fili di input e output (nota 8).

Con un simile rettificatore, alcune bobine da induzione ed alcuni condensatori a bottiglia di Leida, si
ottiene un circuito che oscilla; questo è ciò che dovrebbe accadere con un dispositivo Methernitha; il
circuito elettromagnetico deve oscillare affinché l'apparecchiatura funzioni, dopodiché le oscillazioni
devono essere rettificate (o persino modulate) così che i risultanti impulsi a singolo polo possano essere
incanalati attraverso i grandi cilindri, che sono sostanzialmente trasformatori ad alta efficienza, e fatti
defluire sotto forma di impulsi di corrente DC più alta a voltaggio ridotto (vedi la figura in alto del
circuito completo).
Non credo che i componenti specifici, utilizzati per fare oscillare il circuito oscillante primario, siano
visibili nelle fotografie disponibili, ma ci sono molti spunti da trarre per quanto riguarda la loro
approssimativa allocazione nel dispositivo.
Per prima cosa, secondo la progettazione elettronica, nelle immediate
vicinanze del rettificatore dovrebbero esserci un condensatore ed una
bobina. Ebbene, nell'immagine "3KWREAR" si possono notare i due
lunghi tubi verticali che, secondo il parere di coloro che l'hanno vista
di prima mano, comprendono una striscia di alluminio avvolta a
spirale (che indica che sono valvole - nota 9), all'interno di un tubo di
vetro, situato all'interno dello stesso tipo di rivestimento esterno dei
grandi cilindri (ciò indica che sono schermaggi elettrostatici),
all'interno ancora di un altro tubo di vetro, chiuse all'estremità da un'asta di connessione in ottone che
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forma una piega ad angolo retto e passa nel lato della torre, solo a due terzi della sua altezza. Questi due
assemblaggi devono formare una connessione con il rettificatore, dato che quest'ultimo è situato
all'estremità della torre; quindi perché questi tubi, sensibili elettrostaticamente, non si estendono per tutta
la sua altezza?
Nuovamente, nelle fotografie della parte posteriore e frontale dei Methernitha, si può osservare un cavo
che esce da un fianco della torre, circa 4 pollici al di sopra dei terminali verticali in ottone; lo stesso cavo
passa poi attraverso un corto tubo nero e infine sulla valvola rettificatrice.
Questo schema, ovviamente, sarebbe valido per ambedue i lati della torre, rendendo possibile una
connessione ad entrambe le estremità del rettificatore.
Per quale motivo però abbiamo un gap nella connessione di circa 4 pollici alla sommità della torre?
All'estremità della torre, in questo spazio intermedio, vi è situato qualcosa di necessario al funzionamento
del circuito; credo che debba essere la posizione della configurazione condensatore/bobina, per fare
oscillare il circuito.
Ecco (fig. 4) come vedrei l'interno dell'estremità delle torri.

Ho visto alcune delle invenzioni brevettate per fare ruotare dischi: tramite l'utilizzo di magneti (il
dispositivo a rotazione permanente suscitata da magneti, di H. Rosenberg, brevetto US 3,411,027) e
tramite l'utilizzo di dischi metallizzati incisi (brevetto US 3,239,705, per esempio); semplicemente però,
non c'è sufficiente spazio per essere messo nel settaggio del disco del Methernitha - inoltre non si vuole
interferire con i campi ES che si muovono velocemente intorno ai dischi in rotazione. Dai commenti di
coloro che hanno visto i piccoli congegni in funzione si evince che i dischi venivano fatti ruotare tramite
piccoli motori elettrici DC dopo essere stati avviati a mano, alcuni venivano riavvolti con un filo più
sottile (presumibilmente per aumentare la loro forza di torsione e caricati direttamente tramite l'elettricità
generata dal disco - ho visto però anche come due dischi possano continuare a ruotare semplicemente per
mezzo di elettrodi curvi sistemati con cura, che agirebbero sulle cariche presenti sui dischi - come i
generatori Destatika della Testatika da 3 kw.
Dopo aver letto i primi numerosi resoconti e alcuni tra i più recenti articoli relativi alle apparecchiature a
rotazione elettrostatica, non si potrà fare a meno che rimanere perplessi dalla velocità incredibilmente
bassa, di appena 60 rpm, del Methernitha (nel 1999 gli ingegneri la riportano come ... 15 rpm!). La
maggior parte degli altri sperimentatori si vantano di aver raggiunto velocità fino a 3000 rpm.
J.G. Trump, nel suo lavoro sulla generazione di alto voltaggio nello spazio (nota 12), fece girare il suo
dispositivo a rotazione a 10.000 rpm (per produrre 433 watt a non meno di 24 kw). Una ragione che
potrebbe spiegare questa bassa velocità può avere a che fare con la stretta prossimità delle 50 lamelle
(gitter-grilles) sui dischi alle loro estremità interne. Sono molto vicine tra loro; penso troppo vicine.
L'aria, normalmente un isolante, si disgrega e conduce a circa 25-35 kv (questo dato è stato piuttosto
costante dal primo giorno di sperimentazione sui dispositivi elettrostatici, arrivando fino ai giorni
presenti, perché l'aria ha una forza di campo di disgregazione di 3x106 volts/metro) e mette in corto
circuito il circuito.
Mi sembra che, dato che questo tipo di progettazione di griglie è incline al corto circuito ad alti voltaggi,
gli ingegneri del Methernitha hanno limitato la sua velocità rotazionale in modo da assicurare un basso
voltaggio operativo ad una velocità che credo di stimare da 12 a 24 kv.
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Non è però questo uno spreco di potenziale extra?

Non necessariamente, perché non credo che l'output di potenza primaria provenga solamente da ciò che i
due dischi a rotazione contraria forniscono.
Credo ci sia un generatore di potenza di gran lunga più importante... il generatore di elettroni a cascata; il
Methernitha ne ha due, contenuti all'interno dei due magneti a ferro di cavallo e a patto che i circuiti,
rispetto ai magneti, siano fatti per oscillare alla giusta frequenza, ad un voltaggio sufficientemente alto,
questi blocchi laminati in perspex metallizzato possono quindi accumulare una quantità molto maggiore
di elettricità rispetto a quanta ne venga immessa.

Questo forse è il fenomeno elettronico precedentemente sconosciuto che il gruppo Methernitha sta
cercando di proteggere in modo così zelante da imprenditori senza scrupoli.

Direi comunque che questa copiosa fornitura di free-energy è già nota al mondo - non è però facilmente
disponibile - e i suoi principi non sono ad ora del tutto compresi, ma solo conosciuti.
Come spiegano le descrizioni (sul sito Testatika), tra le "gambe" del magnete a ferro di cavallo ci sono 4
blocchi di materiale tipo "plexiglass" trasparente alternato con piatti di rame e alluminio (che possono o
non possono essere perforati) nella sequenza C-P-A-C-P-A-C-P-A-C-P-A (vedere anche fig. 6)
[C= rame; P= plexiglass; A= alluminio]

Secondo l'esperimento di Linden, nel quale Paul Baumann indusse una risonanza di circa 80-140 MHz in
una bobina a ferro di cavallo e fece muovere un blocco alluminio-isolante-rame tra le "gambe" dei ferri di
cavallo, un voltaggio di 700 volts (presumibilmente di tipo DC) poteva essere fatto uscire dai piatti del
blocco (nota 13).
Questo incredibile fenomeno non è mai stato replicato da nessun "ricercatore esterno" ed è considerato la
base tramite la quale riuscì ad essere compreso il funzionamento del dispositivo Methernitha [la possibile
chiave per spiegare questo esperimento di principio può essere l'assorbimento a capacità variabile e
dielettrica].
Ma dunque cos'è, vi chiederete, il generatore a cascata di elettroni? Solo per caso, molto recentemente,
mi è capittato di ascoltare una cassetta incisa dal Dr. Flanagan, riguardante acqua cristallizzata; quando
fermai la cassetta alla fine del primo lato, il Dr. Flanagan iniziò a parlare di una configurazione
elettronica che impiegava un'alta frequenza, un campo alternato ad alto voltaggio attraverso un isolante:
questo creava ciò che lui chiamava un effetto a "cascata di elettroni" - Si, pensai, questa è la risposta al
dispositivo Methernitha-.
La cascata di elettroni, o effetto a valanga, avviene quando le molecole dell'aria vengono accelerate verso
i dispositivi ad una velocità talmente alta da farle collidere con altre molecole e atomi presenti nell'aria,
liberando nuovi elettroni, che a loro volta collidono e liberano una quantità persino maggiore di "elettroni
liberi" da altre molecole d'aria (vedi fig. 5). Tutte le molecole vengono accelerate dal campo elettrico e si
verifica una valanga di moltiplicazioni di elettroni nell'intero ambiente circostante (nota 14). E' una
reazione a catena e tra l'altro una reazione completamente sicura. Essa si verifica in maniera più violenta
nei fulmini ed è un fenomeno naturale. Come in questo caso, l'ambiente diviene realmente parte del
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circuito (nota 15) perché il processo consiste nello ionizzare negativamente l'aria circostante i dispositivi
Methernitha.

Questo spiega perché tutti coloro che si sono trovati nei pressi di questi generatori in funzione sostengono
che l'aria intorno ad essi sia fredda e pura (nota 16).
Considerando il fatto che i suoi progettisti hanno scelto di avvolgere del filo isolante (che può o potrebbe
non essere "bifilar") attorno al metallo a forma di ferro di cavallo, è verosimile che questo venga
utilizzato per qualche forma di induzione (nota 17). Potrebbe anche essere possibile attirare, partendo
direttamente da questa zona del circuito, la corrente elettrica extra prodotta da cumuli di elettroni a
cascata, che potrebbe, tramite l'utilizzo di connessioni apposite, essere indirizzata verso il basso,
all'interno della base in legno (dove si crede siano posizionati strati alternati di piatti di metallo perforati
e piatti isolanti - che vanno a formare una grande bobina di immagazzinamento ad alto voltaggio.
Questa energia potrebbe poi essere scaricata sotto forma di output pulsante ad alto wattaggio, soprattutto
se la parte finale di output del circuito elettronico, è configurata come una rete crea impulsi (pulse
forming network), con sezioni multiple della combinazione bobina/induttore (nota 18).
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Le descrizioni riportate sono un po' contraddittorie ma sembrano suggerire la presenza di un'asta di

ingresso centrale o tubo, connesso dal fondo dei contenitori a una catasta di bobine piatte interconnesse,
che sono arrotolate secondariamente all'esterno e primariamente all'interno, sistemato attorno ad un
nucleo formato da 6 magneti ad anello vuoti con guarnizione in gomma, posizionati l'uno sopra l'altro e
separati con spaziatori di plastica, in modo tale da permettere la formazione di vuoti d'aria tra di essi.
Infine, poi, l'output di ogni cilindro è rappresentato da una connessione della bobina superiore dei
"secondaries" delle bobine del pancake ad un anello d'ottone attorno al centro del coperchio superiore in
plastica nera (vedi figura 7). Dalle fotografie si può osservare un filo o un tubo di largo diametro (nota
19), che connette quel terminale output all'anello di ottone del coperchio superiore tramite un terminale
in vite di ottone. Suggerirei che i magneti dell'anello (ferrite anisotropica, forse) siano bucati in questa
maniera in modo da evitare che i campi di flusso magnetico delle bobine piatte (pancake) si congiungano
sotto forma di un unico campo scomposto.
Sarebbe infatti molto vantaggioso e più sicuro che ogni diverso flusso magnetico delle bobine piatte
venga tagliato dalla propria bobina secondaria attigua, in modo da suddividere il voltaggio di output
secondario in quantità di piccoli potenziali, rendendo meno complicate le procedure di rivestimento
isolante che accompagnano i trasformatori primari singoli ad alto voltaggio e i secondari singoli.

L'utilizzo di coperture in reti di alluminio ed in rame solido è comune nella costruzione elettronica, il
cilindro esterno in rete d'alluminio verrebbe utilizzato al fine di schermare le cariche elettrostatiche
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deviate e il cilindro in rame solido servirebbe a schermare la grande quantità di campi elettromagnetici
deviati, prodotti dal processo di trasformazione dalla fase di alto voltaggio/bassa corrente alla fase di
basso voltaggio/alta corrente (nota 20).Ovviamente, non si vuole che si verifichi una contaminazione di
campo tra il sensibile generatore elettrostatico ed i trasformatori.
All'interno di questi due cilindri schermanti esterni vi sono "condensatori a griglia" che, secondo la
relazione dei 30 ingegneri risalente al 1990, possono consistere in 20 strati di lastre perforate
(presumibilmente come cilindri concentrici) che ho indicato (in fig. 7, per esempio) come elettricamente
connessi tra ogni separato avvolgimento secondario - a foggia di una vecchia scoperta risalente ai primi
giorni della telegrafia senza fili e basata sulla "bobina a scarica disgregativa" (progettata da Nikola Tesla)
- che un tal condensatore collegato nel centro di una bobina secondaria raccoglie la quantità massima di
tensione creata da quella secondaria . La configurazione di un condensatore all'interno di un'altro, a sua
volta situato all'interno di un'altro, ecc... ha una similarità impressionante con la configurazione di una
rete a formazione di impulsi (nota 18).
Nel cilindro avvolto da filo rosso il trasformatore è avvolto in modo da produrre una polarità negativa
mentre il trasformatore del cilindro avvolto in filo blu è avvolto in modo da produrre una polarità
positiva.
Una nota speciale andrebbe fatta in merito a questo tipo di accorgimento, che serve a separare
avvolgimenti primari e secondari progettato da Van de Graaff nel suo "Apparato ad acceleratore di
particelle ad alto voltaggio caricato elettromagneticamente e avente un nucleo magnetico isolante" (nota
21) con riferimento a varchi a riluttanza magnetica.
E' stato detto che il disco chiaro in perspex venne definito come disco "cloud" (= "nuvola") e il disco
posteriore scuro come disco "ground" (= "terra, suolo"); (penso che ciò riguardi i differenti tipi di
materiali acrilici o plastici che potrebbero essere caricati a polarità differenti, come nelle serie
"triboelettriche", in cui il caricamento a frizione delle diverse plastiche, e quindi il fatto di portarle vicine
le une alle altre, potrebbe causare una cessione o una ricezione dall'una all'altra; penso quindi che "cloud"
rappresenti un cedente (carica positiva) e che "ground" debba rappresentare, invece, un recettore (carica
negativa).

Qualcuno ha mai provato a combinare un disco in teflon (carica estremamente negativa) con un disco di
vetro (carica altamente positiva)? O magari dischi trattati con particelle paramagnetiche?
Il tipo di progettazione Testatika basata sul dispositivo Pidgeon/Wimshurst è naturalmente solo un tipo di
generatore elettrostatico che lavora intorno a questo sistema. Fin dai primi anni del 1900 tali generatori di
energia sono stati soggetti a un cammino che li ha resi sempre più sofisticati nella produzione di energia e
dispositivi recentemente sviluppati producono 300.000 volt, che possono poi essere trasformati e
utilizzati (nota 23).
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NOTA 1: Pere maggiori informazioni sul macchinario Pidgeon vedere "Electrical Influence Machines" di
John Gray, 1903 pp 206 e "Philosophical Magazine" Dicembre 1898 pp. 564, e ovviamente, il brevetto
Pidgeon.

NOTA 2: Vedere "Modern Hight speed Influence machines" di V.E. Johnson 1921 pp 76. Johnson non
era solo un ricercatore di macchine elettrostatiche ma ne era anche un intraprendente costruttore e poichè
era un tecnico acutoriuscì a costruire un generatore più potente persino della macchina condensatore a
multi dischi di Wommelsdorf. Questo libro è d'obbligo per tutti quelli che vogliono lavorare in questo
campo.

Un'altro punto di riferimento è il sito di Antonio Carlos M. de Queiroz che è pieno di informazioni (e
link) sugli sviluppi odierni nei macchinari elettrostatici.

NOTA 3: Vedere "Self-Excited, Alternating, High-Voltage Generation Using A Modified Electrostatic

Influence Machine" di M. Zahn sull'American Journal of Phisics volume 42 del 1974 pp 289.

NOTA 4: I progettisti del Methernitha hanno preso il sistema elettronico di base della Pidgeon
aggiungendo poche modifiche in modo da bloccare parzialmente una certa polarità della carica ad una
certa zona per poterla così stabilizzare, ed anche spingerecerte aree con carica.

Come nel loro uso, per esempio, di una piastra supplementare situata nella parte centro-alta difronte al
disco anteriore (appena sotto la valvola di rettifica), da notare anche che questa piastra, o antenna chiave,
è accoppiata indirettamente al resto del circuito, con una messa a punto della bobina. Più o meno la stessa
cosa accade con le due piastre di sotto che sono collegate ad un terminale d'ottone collegato ad una
connessione di rame che va giù e si avvolge a bobina intorno ad un tubo di plastica vuoto, e dentro al
tubo ci sarà un'altro collegamento o una piccola bobina che raccoglie la carica elettrica.

NOTA 5: Guardando come ciascuna delle macchine fotografate è stata costruita potete vedere che queste
sono strutture di alta qualità. Penso che chiunque voglia cominciare come sottoinsiemi adattati insieme
dagli accoppiamenti o da piccoli gruppi dei membri, questi sottinsiemi dalla base in legno....

NOTA 6: La valvola di Fleming fu costruita intorno al 1905 e finchè progredì nella valvola termoionica,
dal 1922 l'effetto 'Pearson and Anson' fù scoperto, per cui le correnti oscillanti sono potute essere
prodotte con un resistore, condensatore e valvola termoionica accoppiati insieme.
NOTA 7: Vedere il brevetto americano 1,540,998 (del 9 giugno 1925) 'Conversion of Atmospheric
Electric Energy' (conversione dell'energia elettrica atmosferica) di Hermann Plauson. Plauson nel 1920
scrisse anche un libro intitolato "Gewinnung und Verwertung der Atmospharischen Elektrizitat" in
tedesco.

NOTA 8: Mentre alcuni hanno visto i più piccoli macchinari scaricatore/raddrizzatore da 300 W
abbastanza aperti e non incassati nella valvola a vuoto d'aria, il modello a vuoto d'aria sarebbe molto più
efficiente e sprecherebbe meno corrente. Inoltre, il tubo raddrizzatore deve avere un filamento riscaldato
(che sulla macchina da 3 KW appare come un filamento luminoso che corre lungo tutta la lunghezza
della griglia e le bobine collegate entro i due cappucci neri delle estremità. Nei filmati potete vedere i
flash deboli venire da dietro il raddrizzatore per cui è possibile che il filamento sia avvolto intorno
all'altro lato del complesso griglia/bobine). Coolridge, prima del 1900, scoprì che non avviene nessuno
scarico dal catodo all'anodo , anche a 100,000 volts, a meno che il filamento sia riscaldato (Physics
Review Vol 2 Dic. 1913 p418). La maglia in alluminio emanerà abbastanza prontamente gli elettroni e
può essere usata come un catodo freddo - ma un catodo riscaldato offre il vantaggio di poter controllare
le oscillazioni.
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NOTA 9: I due lunghi tubi dritti sono senza dubbio bobine di arresto, precisamente il giusto posto per
rallentare la corrente farla rettificare e oscillare. In una bobina d'arresto più alto è il flusso della corrente
più grande sarà la relativa resistenza a quel flusso di corrente. Una configurazione ancora migliore della
bobina d'arresto avrà un nucleo di ferro all'interno di essa

NOTA 10: Ho fornito 6 circuiti differenti per questa sezione di oscillazione alcuni dei quali includono
piccoli cristalli di quarzo (vedere note 13 e 16 sulla frequenza di oscillazione). La manopola nera sulla
parte posteriore della macchina da 3 Kw è probabile che serva a selezionare una varietà di capacità così
come a controllare l'oscillazione del circuito, la quale, alternativamente, controlla la velocità di rotazione
del disco.

NOTA 11:

Il fenomeno dei motori elettrostatici è stato ricercato bene nel corso degli anni ( vedere "Electrostatic
Motors" O.Jefimenko in "Physics Teacher" Vol 9 marzo 1971 p121-9, e "Electrostatics – And Its
Applications" di A.D.Moore (1973) p131-147; "Electrostatic Motors" di B.Bollee in "Philips Tech.
Review" Vol 30 1969 p178-194). I generatori Methernitha Testatika gira automaticamente, dopo aver
ricevuto una spinta manuale, per lo stesso principio di questi motori elettrostatici.
NOTA 16
Il Dr. Flanagan utilizza realmente il generatore di campo di elettroni nel suo speciale ionizzatore (vedi
Metodo di Purificazione dell'aria e generatore di campo negativo - Brevetto US 4,391,773).
Come funziona un generatore di elettroni a cascata? Penso che, mentre si ha un movimento alternante di
elettroni sugli elettrodi di metallo (e il Dr. Flanagan riconosce che questo effetto si verifica con un campo
di alto voltaggio alternante a circa 20 Khz), i blocchi in perspex interposti tra essi trasformerebbero
l'elettricità non attraverso la loro massa, bensì attorno ad essa, sotto forma di carica di superficie - in
verità nello strato posizionato proprio a fianco della superficie dell'isolante.
E' lo stesso principio dell'assorbimento dielettrico - i blocchi in perspex non si scaricano abbastanza
velocemente da riuscire a seguire alla pari il voltaggio alternato; in questo modo accumulano sempre più
carica fino a che quest'ultima non si trasforma in uno strato di carica sulla superficie dell'isolante.
Ciò significa che, ad una frequenza sufficientemente alta, le molecole di superficie dell'aria polarizzano e
si ha una separazione degli elettroni, più mobili, dai nuclei, più lenti, di queste molecole. Mentre gli
elettroni vengono spinti avanti e indietro, si sviluppa uno strato secondario di ioni d'aria positivi (più
lenti) e così via; e il processo di polarizzazione ad alta frequenza ed ad alto voltaggio innesca l'effetto di
elettroni a valanga.
Se i blocchi in perspex fossero invece ELECTRETS (come Geoff Egel e altri
ricercatori sulla
free-energy suggeriscono) credo che seguirebbero lo stesso principio di
funzionamento menzionato sopra, per il quale l'assorbimento dielettrico carica i
blocchi prima che essi producano l'effetto a cascata.
Ciò accade perché nell'electret gli elettroni caricati nel perspex/plastica e gli ioni
positivi potrebbero ancora subire una manipolazione da parte del campo
elettromagnetico invertito, che li indirizzerebbe (come con i dipoli) avanti e
indietro, in modo tale da giungere infine al punto in cui essi potrebbero ottenere
risonanza con l'aria immediatamente prossima ad essi (a patto che l'intero circuito
sia regolato in modo appropriato).

Se questo effetto, poi, fosse simile ad una induzione, allora ne potrebbe risultare una forza elettromotrice
di rimando, che andrebbe ad accrescere il voltaggio dell'output in uscita.
In un modo o nell'altro, credo che l'effetto sarebbe sempre una cascata di elettroni attraverso l'ambiente,
ed il prodotto di questo output oscillante (a livello dei blocchi) potrebbe essere condotto in modo simile
all'esterno ed accumulato nel network di bobine a base multistrato.
Alcuni test per scoprire il miglior tipo di blocco potrebbero essere, a mio parere:
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Uno - Provate diversi tipi di materiali come plastica/acrilico/ceramica per i blocchi.

Due - Provate diversi metodi di elettrificazione della plastica (come con gli electrets)
Tre - Provate plastiche trattate con particelle semiconduttrici.
Quattro - Provate plastiche trattate con particelle paramagnetiche.
Cinque - Provate blocchi di plastica vuoti contenenti un liquido elettrostatico.
Si potranno trovare ulteriori informazioni riguardo alle plastiche alla pagina - Electret contro
assorbimento dielettrico.

NOTA 17
Esistono varie definizioni di Bifilar, secondo una di queste, i fili neutralizzano i loro campi magnetici,
mentre secondo un'altra definizione i fili sono avvolti in modo tale da assicurare un accoppiamento del
flusso magnetico con bassa perdita; in questo caso servirà tutto il flusso magnetico possibile, quindi, la
definizione corretta deve essere l'ultima - Vedi "Trasformatori per circuiti elettronici" di Nathan R.
Grossner (1967) pagg. 224, etc ...
Il metallo magnetico usato più comunemente è il Mumetal, che è un materiale magnetico facilmente
saturabile e che fa circolare il flusso magnetico attraverso se stesso piuttosto che nell'aria circostante, così
da rinforzare la reciproca induzione tra i due sistemi di bobine di filo rosso attorno alle basi dei magneti a
ferro di cavallo.

NOTA 18
Per far sì che il voltaggio di output della macchina non si scarichi completamente quando connesso ad
una grossa carica, ciò che serve è un network a formazione di impulsi (o linea di ritardo artificiale).
"Un tale network rappresenta un miglioramento nella capacità di
raccolta di un singolo condensatore a causa della azione a cascata
da un condensatore a quello ad esso vicino lungo la catena.
All'inizio tutti i condensatori vengono caricati allo stesso voltaggio,
ma non appena il primo inizia a perdere voltaggio, il primo dietro
di esso è libero di scaricarlo all'interno di esso.
Questa azione di riempimento, che si propaga all'interno del
network da condensatore a condensatore, è il meccanismo tramite
cui il voltaggio, attraverso i terminali di output, tende a trattenere il
suo livello originale." - "(vedi - "Sistemi di scarico di alta energia" A.P. Stephenson "ETI" (Electronics
Today International) - Marzo 1992 pagg. 24-26).

NOTA 19
Quando il voltaggio di un alto potenziale e di un'alta frequenza scorre lungo un filo, la superficie esterna
si comporta allo stesso modo (chiamato effetto "skin").
Il Methernita userebbe quindi un sistema di spessi fili o persino un sistema di tubi di 1/8" per connettere
il suo circuito.

NOTA 20
Due riferimenti per lo schermaggio sono: "Un loop schermato" di S. Goldman in "Elettronica" Vol. 11
(1938) pagg. 20-22 e "Misurazioni nelle apparecchiature radio" di F.E. Terman (1935) pag. 218 e pag.
341.

NOTA 21
Per informazioni sul voltaggio massimo nel centro di una bobina secondaria vedere: " Manuale di
telegrafia senza fili" di J. Erskine-Murray (1913) pag. 42 e un articolo intitolato: "Isteresi dielettrica alle
frequenze radio" di E.F.W. Alexanderson in "Proc. I.R.E. Volume 2 (giugno 1914) pagg. 137-157. Per il
trasformatore Van de Graaff vedere i brevetti US 3,323,069 (30 maggio 1967) e 3,187,208 (1 giugno
 100

1965). Questi brevetti non furono concepiti unicamente per un generatore di alto voltaggio Van de
Graaff; essi furono concepiti per un sistema speciale escogitato da Van de Graaff, molto dopo che il suo
generatore fosse messo in uso per convertire l'elettricità statica in elettricità corrente - Questo sistema può
essere un po' troppo complicato per il Methernita ma, tuttavia, i principi che egli utilizzava per i suoi
avvolgimenti primari/secondari potrebbero essere di un certo interesse.

NOTA 22
Il Dr. Flanagan modificò i suoi blocchi isolanti, in resina, trattandoli con granuli paramagnetici (come il
carburo di silicone) in modo da potenziare ulteriormente l'effetto a cascata di elettroni; questa è un'idea
che il fisico Thomas Townsend Brown sperimentò per primo (tramite l'utilizzo di granuli di ossido di
piombo con il suo brevetto US n. 3,187,206 (1 giugno 1965) e con buoni risultati.
L'aria circostante potrebbe essere "potenziata" in modo simile così da polarizzare la sua carica elettrica e
migliorarne la performance (coloro che fossero interessati alla spiegazione "fisica" di ciò vedano un
articolo di W.A. Douglas Rudge "Circa alcune fonti di disturbo del gradiente del potenziale atmosferico
normale" in Proc. Royal Soc. A - Vol. 90 (1914) pagg. 571, etc ...).

NOTA 23
Alcuni altri generatori aventi similarità con il dispositivo Testatika sono: il "Sistema di generazione di
potenza di un campo di energia elettrostatica" inventato da William W. Hyde (brevetto US 4,897,592 del
30 gennaio 1990), che è un dispositivo rotore/statore a capacitanza variabile capace di produrre 300 kw.
Altri generatori simili sono: "Dispositivo elettronico parametrico" inventato da Ferdinand Cap (brevetto
US 4,622,510 dell'11 novembre 1986), che ha un circuito risonante in serie (LCR) strutturato all'interno
di esso in modo che oscilli - e funziona davvero A RISONANZA, per assicurare un alto output; "il
Generatore elettrostatico" inventato da Dan B. Le May (e altri) (brevetto US 3,094,653 del 18 giugno
1963); questo è un sistema veramente ingegnoso di capacitanza variabile; il "Dispositivo elettrostatico" di
Noel Felici (brevetto US 2,522,106 del 12 settembre 1950) è un buono standard, che utilizza un
rettificatore a valvola. Il "Generatore elettrostatico" di William S. Spencer (brevetto US 1,415,779 del 9
maggio 1922) è un esempio primitivo di generatore rotore/statore che trasferisce i suoi impulsi elettrici
attraverso un trasformatore per produrre un output di corrente più alta.
 101

August Toepler (Töpler)

b. September 7, 1836 - d. March 6, 1912

August Toepler developed numerous physical instruments and devices

like the mercury air pump and an improved influence engine as well as
experimental methods. With the application of the "streak method" he
succeeded as the first scientist in making acoustic waves in the air
visible. August Toepler is the best known due to electrostatic machines
constructed by him.

August Toepler was born on September 7, 1836. He studied chemistry at the Gewerbe-Institut Berlin
(1855-1858) and graduated from the University of Jena in 1860. Later Toepler turned to experimental
physics. August Toepler was a lecturer of chemistry and physics at the Academy Poppelsdorf (1859-
1864). He received a chair of chemistry and chemical technology at the Polytechnic Institute of Riga and
he hold this position between 1864 and 1868. In 1868 he became a professor at the University of Graz
(Austria) where under his administration a new physical institute has appeared. In 1876 Toepler came to
Dresden where he was offered the chair of Experimental Physics. He was a director of the Physical
Institute at the Dresden Technical University till his retirement in 1900. His son Maximilian Toepler
continued the scientific work independently. Toepler is remembered as an inventor of electrostatic
machines, and for his work with air pumps and acoustic waves.
August Toepler is the best known due to electrostatic machines constructed by him; some of them
are shown below.

The first classic Toepler machine (1865) was

built in this way, with a different
interconnection and disks with two sectors
only.

A scheme of the classic Toepler electrostatic

machine.
 102

The first classic Toepler machine (1865).

Toepler described also a

symmetrical machine (1866) that
is a sectorless machine and a
similar device is used as a
voltage multiplier.

A scheme of the symmetrical Toepler electrostatic machine.

 103

A symmetrical Toepler electrostatic machine (1866).

Toepler's electrostatic machines were made by

different people and companies, e.g. a Toepler
machine can be found in a Welch Scientific
Company (Chicago, USA) catalog. The
differences between a Toepler machine, a Holtz
machine, and a Toepler-Holtz machine are
unclear even in books written when they were
vital, modern technology. Sometimes such a
machine is called a Holtz-Toepler machine
simply because it was made by Holtz, but the
original design is still the same as the Toepler
machine.
 104

Toepler electrostatic generator, built by Holtz,

ca. 1885
The two disk Toepler machine, built by Roger

This model of an electrostatic

induction generator, very much
in vogue for electromedical
purposes towards the end of the
nineteenth century, is based on
the principles of electrophorus
and duplicator function. It is
derived from the mechanical
improvements made between
1865 and 1880 by the physicist
August Töpler, the German
physicist Wilhelm Holtz (1836-
1913) and by J. Robert Voss, a
mechanician from Berlin. Voss
devised this self-excitation
Töpler-Voss electrostatic generator model in 1880, perfecting a
On the walnut base: "A. Dall'Eco, Firenze Viale Principe Eugenio 14- machine presented by Töpler the
30" previous year.
[engraved on a brass ovoidal plaque]
1882, Walnut, glass, brass, ebonite, paper, tinfoil, cork
The machine rests upon a footed walnut base. A column horizontally supports the axis of rotation. Two
thin, shellacked, parallel glass disks in close proximity one to the other are vertically hinged to this axis.
The larger of the two (the rear one), is a fixed disk and rests on the base along the groove of an ebonite
insulation disk; the other (the front one), is a smaller mobile disk and rotates by means of a crank that
controls a pair of pulleys connected by a cord. On its outer side, the fixed disk carries the inductors, two
strips of tinfoil glued in the middle of two, broad paper shields placed diametrically, one beside the other.
The mobile disk carries the Toepler-Voss self-excitation system consisting of six metallic buttons, each
surrounded by a ring of tinfoil, placed equidistantly in a circle. Two small metal brushes rub against the
 105

buttons; the brushes are fixed to a curved conductor (covered with ebonite) that is clamped to the disks at
opposite points and is in contact with the inductor's tinfoil strips. In front of the buttons, fixed to the edge
of the mobile disk towards the horizontal diameter, two brass collection combs, each having 10 points,
are positioned in the direction of the disk. The combs are in contact with the inner shields of two Leiden
jars, and with the arms of the spark-gap, two brass bars equipped with spherules and insulation handles,
into which the sparks are released. The outer shields of the Leiden jars rest on two brass disks electrically
connected by a metallic wire, which passes along the base. A second pair of collection combs, facing the
mobile disk, each with eight points and a central metal brush that rubs against the buttons, comprises the
so-called "diametrical conductor". The "diametrical conductor" is inclined at 45° with respect to the
horizontal diameter and allowed for the polarity of the linings to be maintained unaltered, especially
when the exciting dynamos moved farther away than their normal explosive distance. Not even a weak
initial charge is needed to start the machine; the self-excitation system automatically starts by turning the
mobile disk clock-wise (when viewed from the front of the machine) using the special crank. The
quantity of charge captured thruogh induction by the combs is collected by the two mobile, brass
collection rings, the terminal spherules of the spark-gap are each charged by the opposite sign with
respect to the sign of the comb with which they are in contact.
In this manner the machine is able to produce sparks, at times very long ones, especially if the poles of
the spark-gap are in contact with the internal shields of the two Leiden jars.

Standard direct current was not always available at the turn of

the century so that Toepler-Holtz electrostatic generators were
used to provide physicians with current for treatment as well as
to power the first x-ray devices. They were fairly common and
advertised in the Sears catalogue with numerous accessories.
This machine built in an oak-and-glass cabinet is a Toepler-
Holtz generator made by the Betz company of Chicago (ca.
1900). It was intended for medical use, and has an X-ray tube
controller as an integral part.
 106

This machine is of the Toepler-Holtz

design and comes from the late 1890's. It
was sold to practicing physicians as a
potential source for the excitation of X-
ray tubes. For this it works quite well,
yielding about 1 mA at 80 kV at
moderate rates of rotation. Accessories
to be found in the drawers are for
"electrical treatment" for such things as
baldness, lameness, etc. Most are
systems of points designed to produce
brush discharges. A low table with glass
legs is included for electric isolation of
the patient. Some of the devices look as
though they are instruments of torture
even without the application of
electricity. The case enclosing the plates
should not be opened except for repairs.
The machine is operated by turning the
crank counterclockwise as one looks at
the front. A rotary switch at the center
connects or disconnects the Leyden jars
to the terminals.

The pictured generator is one of the larger

types and is made up of 24 glass plates, 6
sets of four each, which were rotated to
produce current for therapy. It was made by
an unknown maker (Wagner?), ca 1910.

August and Maximilian Toepler started research in the field of gas discharge physics at the Dresden
University of Technology. This research particularly resulted in the development of the Schlieren
technique. With the application of the "streak method" Toepler succeeded as the first scientist in making
acoustic waves in the air visible. This method was found to be also important for the high-speed
cinematography. Motion pictures have also been used to study phenomena that occur so fast that they
cannot be recorded on normal cameras. An immense amount of ingenuity has been applied to the solution
of many problems in this field.
The Schlieren technique was orignally developed for testing lenses (L. Foucault 1859), A. Toepler( 1864)
 107

was the first scientist to develop the technique for observation of liquid or gaseous flow.

Schlieren optical system

Schlieren optics show changes in the condition of a test area of space in the optical path, even when it
remains fully transparent. A simplified outline of the arrangement is shown in the scheme at left. A
source sends out a beam of light through the apparatus to a film. Half the field is cut off by a knife-
edged screen, K1, which is imaged by a lens, L1, to a position, K1', in the same plane as a matching
screen, K2. The knife-edges of image and screen exactly coincide. A test position, T, is sharply focused
on the film. Thus the light flow past K1 to K2 is all cut off from the film if the space at T is completely
uniform. Any nonuniformity, such as caused by a wave front in the air at T, causes a scattered light
beam to evade the screen, K2 (path a), and reach the film.
This text has been compiled from the biographies of Toepler available in the Internet:
( 1, 2, 3, 4 ).

(updated & corrected on March 29, 2003)

108
109
110
 111

Robert Jemison Van de Graaff

b. December 20, 1901, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, U.S.A.
d. January 16, 1967, Boston, U.S.A.

American physicist and inventor of the Van de Graaff generator, a

type of high-voltage electrostatic generator that serves as a type of
particle accelerator. This device has found widespread use not only in
atomic research but also in medicine and industry.

Robert Jemison Van de Graaff was born on December 20,

1901 in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. His mother was Minnie
Cherokee Hargrove and his father was Adrian Sebastian Van
de Graaff. Robert attended the Tuscaloosa public schools
and then attended the University of Alabama where he
received a BS degree in 1922 and an MS degree in 1923.
Both degrees were in mechanical engineering.

Boyhood home of Robert Van de Graaff

After graduating from college he worked for the Alabama Power Company for a
year as a research assistant. He studied at the Sorbonne in Paris from 1924 to 1925
and while there, attended lectures by Marie Curie on radiation. In 1925 he went to
Oxford University in England as a Rhodes Scholar. At Oxford he received a BS in
physics in 1926 and a Ph.D. in physics in 1928. While at Oxford, he became aware
of the hope of nuclear experimenters such as Ernest Rutherford, that particles could
someday be accelerated to speeds sufficient to disintegrate nuclei. By disintegrating
atomic nuclei much could be learned about the nature of individual atoms. It is from
these ideas that Robert Van de Graaff saw the need for a particle accelerator.
Van de Graaff
In 1929 Van de Graaff returned to the United States to join the Palmer Physics Laboratory at Princeton
University as a National Research Fellow. In the fall of that year he constructed the first working model
of his electrostatic accelerator which developed 80,000 volts. Improvements were made to the basic
design and in November, 1931 at the inaugural dinner of the American Institute of Physics, a
demonstration model was exhibited that produced over 1,000,000 volts. The invention was reported at a
meeting of the American Physical Society in 1931.
 112

Van de Graaff fixing Van de Graaff (left) demonstrating

his first generator his first generator to Karl Compton

In 1931, when Karl T. Compton became president of Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, Van de Graaff was invited to come to MIT as a
research associate. In 1931 Van de Graaff constructed his first large
machine in an unused aircraft hangar at Round Hill, the estate of Colonel
E.H.R. Green, in South Dartmouth, Massachusetts. The machine used
two polished aluminum spheres, each 15 feet in diameter mounted on 25
foot high insulating columns, which were 6 feet in diameter. The
columns were mounted on railway trucks that boosted the spheres to 43
feet above ground level. The machine had its debut on November 28,
1933 and was able to produce 7,000,000 volts. This accomplishment was
reported in the New York Times for November 29, 1933 in a story titled
"Man Hurls Bolt of 7,000,000 Volts". In 1937 the machine was moved to
a pressurized enclosure at MIT.

John D. Cockcroft and Ernest Walton of the Cavendish Laboratory in England had built a successful
particle accelerator in 1932. This machine used voltage-multiplier circuits to produce the required high
voltages for particle acceleration. It was bulky and complicated and limited in its voltage capability. In
contrast to the Cockcroft-Walton machine, the Van de Graaff machine was simple and compact and was
easier to regulate and capable of producing higher voltages and therefore higher accelerations.
 113

Van de Graaff generators

The Van de Graaff generator is an impressive electrostatic
generator that is capable of producing enormously large static
electric potentials. In fact, giant Van de Graaff generators can
produce miliions of volts leading to awesome displays of corona
and lightning. More modest "class room" sized Van de Graaff
generators typically produce 100,000 V to 500,000 V. Originally
the generator was built using a pure silk ribbon driven by a small
motor. The charges on the ribbon were collected on a terminal
that actually was a tin can. His early devices were capable of
developing 80,000 volts. Of course, this device was limited by
the edge effects of the tin can. However, his theory lead to Van
de Graaff generators that have produced upwards to 10 million
volts. Interestingly, Van de Graaff may not have been the first to
develop a belt driven electrostatic generator. In 1893, Von
Busch presented a device having two pulleys and a horizontal
belt with a charge collector comb and an insulated sphere. Even
earlier than this, Rouland invented an electrostatic generator in
1785 using a continuous silk ribbon running between two
horizontal pulleys with a collector tube at the center. Regardless
of its "true" inventor, Van de Graaff generators have been
instrumental in a number of fields, including particle
acceleration, electrostatics, ESD, as well as providing an
awesome display of the power of electricity.

In Van de Graaff generators, electric charge is

transported to the high-voltage terminal on a
rapidly moving belt of insulating material
driven by a pulley mounted on the grounded
end of the structure; a second pulley is
enclosed within the large, spherical high-
voltage terminal, as shown at left. The belt is
charged by a comb of sharp needles with the
points close to the belt a short distance from
the place at which it moves clear of the
grounded pulley. The comb is connected to a
power supply that raises its potential to a few
tens of kilovolts. The gas near the needle
points is ionized by the intense electric field,
and in the resulting corona discharge the ions
are driven to the surface of the belt. The
motion of the belt carries the charge into the
high-voltage terminal and transfers it to
another comb of needles, from which it passes
to the outer surface of the terminal. A carefully
designed Van de Graaff generator insulated by
Simplified version of a Van de Graaff
pressurized gas can be charged to a potential
high-voltage electrostatic generator
of about 20 megavolts. An ion source within
the terminal then produces positive particles
that are accelerated as they move downward to
ground potential through an evacuated tube.
 114

In most constant-voltage accelerators, Van de Graaff

generators are the source of high voltage, and most of
the electrostatic proton accelerators still in use are two-
stage tandem accelerators. These devices provide a
beam with twice the energy that could be achieved by
one application of the high voltage. Figure at left is a
diagram of a tandem accelerator. An ion source yields
a beam of protons, which are accelerated to a low
energy by an auxiliary high-voltage supply. This beam
passes through a region containing a gas at low
pressure, where some of the protons are converted to
negative hydrogen ions by the addition of two
electrons. As the mixture of charged particles moves
through a magnetic field, those with negative charge
are deflected into the accelerator tube, and those with
positive charge are deflected away. The beam of
negative ions is then accelerated toward the positive
high-voltage terminal. In this terminal, the particles
pass through a thin carbon foil that strips off the two
electrons, changing many of the negative ions back
into positive ions (protons). These, now repelled by the
positive terminal, are further accelerated through the
second part of the tube. At the output end of the
Two-stage tandem accelerator
accelerator, the protons are magnetically separated, as
before, from other particles in the beam and directed to
the target.
In three- or four-stage tandem accelerators, two Van de Graaff generators are combined with the
necessary additional provisions for changing the charge of the ions. Van de Graaff and Cockcroft-Walton
generators also are utilized for accelerating electrons. The rates at which charge is transported in electron
beams correspond to currents of several milliamperes; the beams deliver energy at rates best expressed in
terms of kilowatts. These intense beams are used for sterilization, industrial radiography, cancer therapy,
and polymerization of plastics.

In 1935 Van de Graaff received a patent for his invention (Patent US 1,991,236).
He was guided in the preparation of the patent application by Karl T. Compton
and Vannevar Bush who was vice president of MIT. Van de Graaff also worked
with John G. Trump, a professor of electrical engineering at MIT and with
William W. Buechner, a professor of physics at MIT in an effort to achieve
higher voltages, more homogeneous particle beams, and more compact designs.
A medical Van de Graaff used to produce X rays for treating cancerous tumors
with precisely penetrating radiation was first used clinically in 1937 at Harvard
Medical School. In 1935 he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences. In 1936 Van de Graaff married Catherine Boyden. They had
Van de Graaff two sons, John and William.
During the 1937 Paris Universal Exhibition, an impressive Van de Graaff was installed in the newly
opened Palais de la Decouverte, which was (and still is) located in the Grand Palais. This apparatus,
built by A. Lazard under the direction of the famous French physicist Frederic Joliot (1900-1958), was
supposed to be used atter the exhibition as a powerful source of radiolelements. This machine was
composed of two Van de Graaff generators accumulating charges of different polarity at a total tension of
5 Mvolt. The generators were 14 meters high and mounted on rails. The spheres at the top of them had a
diameter of 3 metres. Each generator had three independent endless-belts driven by separate motors and
 115

charged by a 10,000 volts direct current source. The system was entirelv enclosed in a gigantic Faradav's
cage. This machine, which amazed visitors to the fair with its spark several metres long was on the front-
page of many magazines, but had unfortunately a sad fate. Because of World War Il it was forgotten in
the Palais de la Decouverte and only in 1942 was it possible to undertake its removal to the Joliot's
laboratorv in Yvry near Paris. The machine had to be overhauled and a few mechanical pieces had to be
substituted, but, due to the shortage and the critical wartime situation, nothing could be done. Therefore,
this spectacular Van de Graaff was never used for any scientific research and it finally scraped.
During WW II Van de Graaff was director of the High Voltage Radiographic Project, sponsored by the
Office of Scientific Research and Development. Along with William W. Buechner he directed the
adaptation of the electrostatic generator to precision radiographic examination of U.S. Navy ordnance.
After the war, in 1945, Van de Graaff received a Rockefeller Foundation grant for the development of an
improved accelerator at MIT. On December 19, 1946 Van de Graaff and Trump formed the High Voltage
Engineering Corporation (HVEC) in Burlington, Massachusetts. HVEC was formed for the commercial
production of particle accelerators. Denis M. Robinson, a professor of electrical engineering from
England, became president of the new corporation. John G. Trump became technical director and Van de
Graaff became chief physicist and a board member. HVEC became the leading supplier of electrostatic
generators that were used in cancer therapy, industrial radiography and in the study of nuclear structure.
In 1947 Van de Graaff received the Duddel Medal of the Physical Society of Great Britain.
In 1951 Luis W. Alvarez of the University of California at Berkeley rediscovered the tandem principle
first developed by Willard Bennett in 1937. A tandem Van de Graaff machine accelerates a negatively
charged particle (typically having a charge of -1 or having 1 extra electron) toward a positively charged
terminal. As the particle passes through the terminal, electrons are removed from the particle. This causes
the particle to become positively charged and therefore accelerated away from the positively charged
terminal. When heavy ions such as gold or uranium are used as many as 25 to 30 electrons may be
removed. The high voltage terminal is thus used to accelerate the ion twice (tandem).
In the late 1950s Van de Graaff invented the insulating core transformer. The insulating core transformer
generated high voltage direct current using magnetic flux rather than electrostatic charging. Van de
Graaff also devised many methods of controlling particle beams during and after acceleration so they
could be adapted to individual research requirements. Using Van de Graaff accelerators physicists
accumulated vast quantities of information on nuclear disintegrations and reactions. This data led directly
to sophisticated theories of nuclear structure.
Van de Graaff published many scientific papers and received numerous patents, including those of the
high-voltage electrostatic generator and the insulating-core transformer. His work on electrostatic
generators was widely recognized within the scientific community. Van de Graaff received several
honorary degrees and awards,
Van de Graaff remained an associate professor of physics at MIT until 1960 when he resigned to devote
himself to his increasing involvement with HVEC. In 1966 he was awarded the Tom W. Bonner Prize for
his contribution and continued development of the electrostatic accelerator, "a device that has
immeasurably advanced nuclear physics" by the American Physical Society. The prize was named for a
scientist who had used the Van de Graaff particle accelerator to achieve the results of his fundamental
research.
Robert J. Van de Graaff died on the morning of January 16, 1967 in Boston at the age of 65. At the time
of his death there were over 500 Van de Graaff particle accelerators in use in more than 30 countries.

This text has been compiled from the biographies of Van de Graaff available in the Internet:
( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 ).
 116

BOBINA DI TESLA
La bobina di Tesla (dal nome dell'inventore, lo scienziato serbo-americano Nikola Tesla) è
un dispositivo adatto a produrre correnti elettriche a tensioni e frequenze molto alte. Sono
state realizzate dall'inventore e da vari appassionati bobine in grado di produrre veri e
propri "fulmini" lunghi alcuni metri, la bobina di cui si propone qui la costruzione è molto
modesta, costruibile con poca o nulla spesa, ma permette di realizzare alcune esperienze
divertenti ed interessanti.
Lo schema dell'apparato è riportato di seguito

Il generatore di alta tensioneè quello descritto in un'altra pagina del sito.

Non riuscendo a trovare un condensatore adatto per la tensione in gioco ho fatto ricorso alla
classica bottiglia di Leida
Lo spinterometro è realizzato come di seguito:
 117

Due squadrette ad L, montate su un supporto di plastica reggono due viti, gli estremi delle
quali sono affacciati ad una distanza di 3-5 mm, la vite collegata al filo ad alta tensione del
generatore avrà l'estremo a forma di sfera (si può realizzare con del foglio di alluminio per
alimenti modellato con le mani) diametro 4-5 mm, l'altra vite avrà l'estremo piatto
(realizzato con il semplice espediente di avvitare un bullone).
Cuore del dispositivo è la bobina vera e propria costituita da un trasformatore, o meglio
autotrasformatore, avvolto in aria.
Per realizzare gli avvolgimenti sono necessari:
Un pezzo di tubo di materiale plastico del diametro di 2-2,5 cm e lungo 30 cm
Un secondo pezzo di tubo di plastica del diametro di 4,5-5 cm lungo 10 cm
Del filo di rame isolato del diametro di 0,3 mm (piccole differenze non sono influenti)
Del filo di rame ad altro isolamento, circa 1 m, dopo aver provato diversi tipi di filo ho
ottenuto il risultato migliore prendendo un pezzo di cavo coassiale per discesa dell'antenna
TV, togliendo la guaina esterna e la calza e tenendo il filo centrale con il suo rivestimento
in polietilene spesso 2 mm.
Sul tubo da 2,5 cm bisogna avvolgere circa 1000 spire di filo di rame da 0,3 mm, è la parte
più faticosa e noiosa di tutto il lavoro, per ottenere migliori risultati bisogna cercare di
avvolgere le spire ben serrate senza sovrapposizioni di filo e senza che il filo formi pieghe o
angoli.
Sul secondo pezzo di tubo si avvolgeranno 8-9 spire di filo ad alto isolamento.
Realizzati gli avvolgimenti il tubo di minor diametro verrà inserito dentro il più largo,
cercate di fare in modo che i due tubi siano coassiali.
Il risultato dovrà essere come quello in figura. I capi inferiori dei due avvolgimenti
verranno saldati insieme e collegati alla massa del Generatore A.T. Al capo superiore
dell'avvolgimento secondario si salderà un comune ago da cucire che servirà da terminale di
alta tensione.
 118

Fatti i collegamenti come indicati nello

schema potete provare a dar corrente al
generatore, nello spinterometro si deve
formare una scintilla continua e sulla punta dell'ago che costituisce il terminale di alta
tensione deve apparire un alone luminoso (se fate la prova al buio l'ago apparirà
completamente circondato da un alone color lavanda); avvicinando un oggetto metallico, ad
esempio un cacciavite tenuto per il manico isolante, dalla punta dell'ago dovrà partire una
scintilla di 5-6 cm. Se questo non accade, la scintilla nello spinterometro scocca ma alla
punta dell'ago non vedete nulla bisognerà provare ad avvicinare maggiormente i due estremi
dello spinterometro FATELO AD APPARECCHIO SPENTO E DOPO AVER
SCARICATO LA BOTTIGLIA DI LEIDA
Precauzioni ed esperienze
PRECAUZIONI: Nonostante la tensione molto elevata eventuali scariche non sono
pericolose data l'elevata frequenza, è bene invece evitare di toccare la bottiglia di Leyda
quando è carica, pena scosse molto dolorose, se si deve operare sul circuito, ad esempio per
regolare la distanza dei due terminali dello spinterometro, bisogna prima scaricare la
bottiglia di Leyda cortocircuitando le due armature o aspettare qualche minuto dopo lo
spegnimento.
La bobina produce una grande quantità di disturbi a radiofrequenza che rendono poco
piacevole l'ascolto AM.
Il funzionamento dell'apparato produce ozono (ossigeno triatomico), questo, se concentrato
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in ambienti ristretti, provoca irritazione delle vie respiratorie, quindi effettuare le esperienze
in un locale ventilato.
Come norma generale tenere l'apparecchio acceso per non più di pochi minuti di seguito.
ACCENSIONE DI UN TUBO FLUORESCENTE
Avvicinando alla bobina in funzione un tubo fluorescente
questo si illumina per effetto dell'eccitazione del gas
contenuto ad opera della corrente ad alta frequenza.

LAMPADA A PLASMA
Avvicinando alla bobina una lampadina ad incandescenza,
anche bruciata, si vedranno comparire all'interno lunghe
scintille che si dirigeranno verso le dita con cui viene tenuto
il bulbo. L'effetto non si verifica con tutti i tipi di lampadina,
dipende dai gas contenuti nel bulbo.