Arteries

As they move further from the heart, arteries increase in number because they ramify, but they
progressively decrease in caliber. Accordingly, arteries are classified into three types based on
caliber, namely, small, medium, and large. The three types of arteries, however, differ not only
with respect to caliber but also with respect to other structural features. They also differ
functionally.Small Arteries (Arterioles)Small arteries are better known as arterioles.

Medium Arteries
(Muscular Arteries; Distributing Arteries)Medium arteries are often called muscular arteries
because they have a well-developed tunica media. They distribute blood to the different parts of
the body, hence, they are also known as distributing arteries. The volume of blood delivered to
the target tissues or organs by a muscular artery is determined by the state of contraction of the
muscles in its tunica media.

Vasa Vasorum
are small blood vessels that are present within the wall of large blood vessels. They supply the
tissues of the blood vessel wall that are unable to get oxygen and nutrients by affusion from the
blood that circulates in the vessel lumen.Large Arteries (Elastic Arteries; Conducting Arteries)A
large artery, of which the aorta is the best example, has a wall that is relatively thin pared to the
caliber of the vessel.
Grossly, a fresh specimens, its wall is yellowish due to the presence of an abundant amount of
elastic eThe tunica intima of a large artery consists of an endothelium, a subendothelium that
made up of loose connective tissue that has sprinkling of smooth muscle cells, and about on the
innermost elastic lamella of the The tunica media is the thickest of the three histologic layer of a
large artery
Its most notable feature is the presence of concentrically- arranged sheets of elastin called
elastic lamellae. The elastic lamellae, the reason why large arteries are better known as elastic
arteries, increase in number with age, 40 to 70 in adults. In between the elastic lamellae is a
variable amount of connective tissue and smooth muscle cells, the main cellular component of
the layer.

The arteries within the skull have thin walls but their internal elastic membrane is conspicuous
while those within the lungs resemble veins by having thin walls marked by reduced amounts of
muscle fibers and elastic tissue.The tunica media of the arteries of the lower limbs are better
developed than those of the arteries of the upper limbs while the tunica media of the umbilical
arteries is composed of two layers of smooth muscle fibers:

an inner layer where the fibers are longitudinally arranged and an outer layer where the fibers
are circularly-arranged.The coronary arteries have thick walls that contain more than the usual
amount of elastic tissue.

Sensory Organs Associated with Arteries

Sensory organs are associated with arteries. The more important of these sensory organs are
the carotid bodies, aortic bodies, and carotid sinuses. The carotid and aortic bodies are
sensitive to changes in the O, and CO, tension of blood while the carotid sinus is sensitive to
changes in arterial blood pressure.

Carotid and Aortic Bodies

The carotid and aortic bodies have similar structure and function. They consist of two type 11
connective types of cells, type I (glomus) and (sheath), that are embedded in a tissue stroma
that is studded with fenestrated capillaries,The glomus cells in routine histologic preparations.

They resemble the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla in that they have dense-core
cytoplasmic granules that contain catecholamines.The sheath cells, on the other hand, are glial
like and they function merely as supportive cella In routine histologic preparations, compared to
glomus cells, their nucleus is more irregular in shape and they do not contain dense-core
granules in their cytoplasm.

In addition, they have more cytoplasmic processes than glomus cells. Typically, the cytoplasmic
processes of a sheath cell envelop 4 to 6 glomus cells.The afferent nerve endings in the carotid
bodies are branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) while those in the aortic bodies
come from the vagus nerve (CNX).

They are baroreceptors that are sensitive to stretch and hence, are able to detect changes in
blood pressure within the arteries,VeinsAs they travel towards the heart, veins typically merge
and re-merge to form vessels that have progressively bigger caliber and thicker walls.Veins
usually accompany arteries but they are more numerous and their distribution and courses are
more variable.

LYMPH VASCULAR SYSTEM

lymphatic vesseleen theel.When blood reaches the capillaries, it is still under pressure, albeit
very much reduced. Consequently, a substantial amount of water and some plasma proteins
leak out from the (ie, the s cardiovascular system into the interstitial space espace between the
cells in the different tissues of the body) through the walls of the

A portal system where an artery is between two capillary beds is found in the kidney where the
efferent arteriole, which is formed by the union of the glomerular capillaries, breaks up into
another set of capillaries in the area around the kidney tubules. In this portal system, the
efferent arteriole is the portal vessel.

into sinusoids (sinusoidal capillaries)

In the pituitary gland, a plexus of veins, the hypophyse portal system drains the capillaries of the
median eminence (ie, into sinusoids in the anterior and superior portion of the pituitary gland)
then breaks posterior lobes of the gland.
Lymphatic Capillary (Lacteal).
In the small intestine, lymphatic capillaries, called lacteals, start as blind tubes at the end of the
intestinal villi then unite to form lymphatic vessels. At unlabeled arrow is an endothelial cell that
lines the lacteal. Jejunum, H&E x400.the arteries and veins, lymphatic capillaries start blindly.
Furthermore, compared to blood capillaries, lymphatic capillaries branch and anastomose more
freely and are more variable in shape and caliber.Like blood capillaries, the wall of lymphatic
capillaries consists simply of endothelium, but the endothelium of lymphatic capillaries is thinner
than that of blood capillaries because the basal lamina is thin and often incomplete. Also, they
have no associated pericytes

relatively large lymphatic vessels

three poorly defined layers corresponding the histologic layers of blood vessels may be consist
underlying thin appreciated: a tunica intima that of endothelium and an connective tissue layer;
a tunica media that made up of one or two layers of smooth muscle cells, and a tunica
adventitia that is composé of bundles of elastic and collagen fibers the blend with the
surrounding connective tissue.Many lymphatic vessels, like the medium veins, are provided with
valves. These valves, a in veins, are reduplications of the tunica intima that encloses an internal
framework of dense connective tissue.Lymphatic vessels are interrupted along their course by
lymph nodes (see chapter on lymphoid system).

Lymphatic Vessel
can easily distinguished from blood vessels by the size of their lumens in relation to the thick of
their walls.The wall of small lymphatic vessels is only slightly thicker than the wall of lymph
capillaries. It is composed of endothelium and an underlying thin layer of connective ti that is
mainly made up of collagen and elan fibers among which are occasional smoot muscle cells
HEMOPOIESIS
HEMOPOIESIS OR HEMATOPOIESIS - THE FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLULAR
COMPONENTS OCCURS DURING EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT AND THROUGHOUT
ADULTHOOD TO PRODUCE AND REPLENISH THE BLOOD SYSTEM.

HEMOPOIESIS ENCOMPASES THE PRODUCTION:

❑ RED BLOOD CELLS( ERYTHROPOIESIS)
❑ PLATELETS (THROMBOPOIESIS)
❑ GRANULOCYTES (GRANULOPOIESIS)
❑ MONOCYTES (MONOPOIESIS)
❑ LYMPHOCYTES (LYMPHOPOIESIS)

HEMOPOIETIC TISSUE:
refers to the tissue where hemopoiesis takes place where the elements of blood develop from
primitive cells(stem cells) to mature the forms.

2 TISSUE
LYMPHOID TISSUE
▪ Only lymphocytes are produced.
MYELOID TISSUE
▪ All formed elements of blood , including lymphocytes, are produced.
From birth onwards, myeloid tissue is synonymous with bone marrow.In newborns, all the
cavities in practically all the bones in the body are filled with red bone marrow. But as the bones
increase in size, adipose tissue invades most cavities in bones.

Red bone marrow in these cavities becomes yellow bone marrow and ceases to be a site for
hemopoiesis. In adults, red bone marrow is confined to the spongy portion of flat bones, notably
the sternum and ilium, vertebral bodies, and the upper part of the humerus and femur.

Examples of multipotent stem cells are mesenchymal cells which, as discussed in the
chapter on connective tissue, are committed to produce bone, cartilage, muscle, and certain
connective tissue cells; neuronal stem cells that give rise to neurons; glial stem cells that bring
about a variety of glial cells; and hemopoietic stem cells that produce the formed elements of
blood.

Hematopoietic Stem Cells(Hemocytoblast)

HEMO – BLOOD CYTO – CELLS BLAST – IMMATURE CELL

3 POSSIBLE FATES OF HSC’s

⮚ Self renewal
⮚ Differentiation
⮚ Apoptosis (programmed cell death)
Progenitor cell is a biological cell that can differentiate into a specific cell type. Stem cells and
progenitor cells have this ability in common. However, stem cells are less specified than
progenitor cells. Progenitor cells can only differentiate into their "target" cell type.

the following progenitor cells:

Myeloid stem cell, B stem cell, T stem cell, and DC stem cell. The B stem cell and T stem
cell are committed to become B-cell and T-cell, respectively. The DC stem cell is committed to
become a lymphoid related dendritic cell while the myeloid stem cell is committed to give rise to
the other formed elements of blood.

There are two kinds of progenitor cells:

➔ Early progenitor cells which are still multipotent and/or have extensive proliferative
capacity, and
➔ Late progenitor cells which can transform only to cells of a specific lineage and have
limited proliferative capacity

ERYTHROPOIESIS
Erythropoiesis is your body’s process of making red blood cells (erythrocytes). Erythropoiesis
ensures you have the right number of blood cells — not too few or too many. Red blood cells
are important because they:
•Transport oxygen you breathe in through your lungs to tissues throughout your body.
•Transport carbon dioxide from tissues throughout your body to your lungs so you can breathe it
out.

GRANULOPOIESIS
The neutrophilic, eosinophilic, and basophilic myeloblasts go
through several stages of differentiation before they become
mature granulocytes.

These stages consist of the following: promyelocyte,

myelocyte, and metamyelocyte. In routine bone marrow
smears, the neutrophilic, eosinophilic, and basophilic
myeloblasts look alike despite the fact that they arose from
different progenitor cells. Nevertheless, they can be
distinguished from the precursor cells of the other cell lineages.
The same is true with the neutrophilic, eosinophilic, and
basophilic promyelocytes. They cannot also be distinguished
from each other in routine bone marrow preparations.
THROMBOPOIESIS
Is the process through which thrombocytes are generated.

Thrombopoiesis encompasses:
1. The development of a megakaryocyte; and
2. The process of forming platelets from a megakaryocyte.
Platelets
• Smallest cells of cellular component of blood
• Disc shaped, anuclear
• Reddish purple
• 2 - 3 micron
• Life span - 2 to 9 days
• Released from bone marrow to enter peripheral blood (2/3) and few seized in spleen (1/3)
• Plays important role in haemostasis
• Structure - basically they are pieces of megakaryocyte having cytoplasm covered with plasma
membrane
• 1 megakaryocyte produces about 4,000 platelets.

MEGAKARYOPOIESIS
Is the process by which bone marrow progenitor cells develop into mature megakaryocytes, which in
turn produce platelets required for normal haemostasis.

MONOPOIESIS
Is the process by which monocytes are formed.

Monocyte - A type of immune cell that is made in the bone marrow and travels through the blood to
tissues in the body where it becomes a macrophage or a dendritic cell.

Macrophages surround and kill microorganisms, ingest foreign material, remove dead cells, and boost
immune responses.
STAGES

LYMPHOPOIESIS
Refers to the production of new lymphocytes, including B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, and natural killer
(NK) cells.

Two main types of lymphocytes:

B cells - The B cells produce antibodies that are used to attack invading bacteria, viruses, and toxins.
T cells - The T cells destroy the body's own cells that have themselves been taken over by viruses or
become cancerous.

Takes place:
Central Lymphoid Organs
Peripheral lymphoid tissues and organs
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Internal Respiration
- Exchange of gasses between blood and the cells.

External Respiration
- Exchange between blood and inhaled air.

Internal respiration occurs in all tissues of the body but external respiration –the function of
respiratory system occurs only in the lungs, specifically across the ultra-thin blood air barrier
that separates the blood in the capillaries from the air in the air sacs (alveoli) in these organs.

Component organs of The Respiratory System

• Lungs
• Organs that conduct air to and from the lungs. (nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea and main bronchi.

Nose
- Hollow organ whose cavity is divided into two irregular-shaped
spaces (nasal cavities or fossae) by a common cartilaginous
wall (nasal septum).

Each nasal cavity is bounded anteriorly by an orifice (Anterior

naris;nostril) and posteriorly, where it is continuous with the
pharynx, by another orifice (posterior naris)

Externally, the nose is covered by skin while internally, it is lined

by mucous membrane(mucosa) except at the vestibule which is
lined by skin.

The term mucosa refers to the moist lining not only of the nasal
cavities but also of the luminal surface of the respiratory, digestive
and genitourinary tract.

The hairs of the skin that lines the vestibule are coarse and
stiff. They act as gross filter for inhaled air.

Respiratory epithelium
- Epithelium of nasal mucosa.
Except:
• At the junction of the vestibule and the rest of the
nasal cavity.
• At the roof of the cavity and adjacent areas.

The secretions of the glands in the lamina propria and of the

goblet and serous cells in the epithelium keeps the nasal
cavity moist while the venous plexuses serve to warm the air
that passes through the nose.
RESPIRATORY EPITHELIUM
Respiratory epithelium refers to the ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium that lines
not only the greater part of the nasal cavities but also many segments of the conducting portion
of the respiratory system.

Cell types that rest on Basal Lamina

• Ciliated columnar cell
• Goblet cell
• Brush cell
• Serous cell
• Basal cell
• Granule cell (Kulchitsky cell)

Olfactory Epithelium (organ of Olfaction)

- The epithelium at the roof of the nasal cavity and over the superior turbinate and
adjacent parts of the nasal septum.
- Yellowish brown.
- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
- No goblet cell.
- Basement membrane indistinct.

3 Types of Cells that all rest on the same basal lamina comprise the olfactory epithelium:
• Sustentacular cell
• Olfactory cell
• Basal cell

Sustentacular cell
- Or supporting cells are tall, slender cells that are broad at
their apices and narrow at their bases.

Olfactory cells
- Spindle shaped, bipolar neurons that lie between the
sustentacular cells.
The dendrite of the olfactory cells passes between two
adjacent sustentacular cells to terminate in a small bulbous expansion, the olfactory vesicle,
on the surface of the epithelium.
The axon (olfactory nerve fiber) of the olfactory cell is unmyelinated and about 0.2 um in
diameter.

The Basal Cells

- Are small, rounded or conical, deeply-staining cells that occupy the area between the bases of
the sustentacular cells and olfactory cells.
Paranasal Sinuses
Paranasal sinuses
- Which are named according to the bone where they are located .
- Frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal and sphenoidal.
- Make the face lighter by reducing its bony mass.
- Also serve as resonating chambers for speech.
Pharynx
- Funnel-shaped fibromuscular tube that extends from the base of the skull to
the skull of the level of the hyoid bone where it is continuous with the
esophagus.

From above downwards, the pharynx is successively behind the nasal cavity
(nasopharynx), oral cavity (oropharynx), and the Larynx (laryngopharynx).

Histologic layers that make up the wall of the digestive tract are:
• Mucosa (tunica mucosa; mucous membrane)
• Submucosa (tunica submucosa)
• Muscularis externa
• Adventitia
• Mucosa of Pharynx consists only of an epithelium and lamina
propria.
• Nonkeratinized stratified squamous in the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx.

Submucosa
- Exist in the pharynx in only two areas, the lateral wall of the
nasopharynx and terminal portion of the laryngopharynx.
- Or Lamina propria blends with the connective tissue that
envelops the muscle bundles of the underlying muscularis
externa.

Muscularis externa of the pharynx

Consists of two layers of named skeletal but involuntary muscle
fibers:
• An inner layer (where muscle fibers are longitudinally
arranged).
• Outer layer where the muscle fibers are circularly or obliquely
arranged)

Adventitia of the pharynx

- Blends with the surrounding structures.
Larynx (voice box)
- Connects the pharynx to the trachea and serves an
important role in phonation.

Framework of the Larynx

Unpaired cartilage:
• Thyroid
• Cricoid
• Epiglottic
Paired cartilage:
• Corniculate
• Cuneiform
• Arytenoid

Extrinsic muscles
- Connect the larynx to the surrounding structures.
Intrinsic muscles
- Originate and insert within the larynx.

Trachea
- Is permanently patent tube that extends from the cricoid cartilage where
it communicates with the larynx to the level of the sternal angle where it
bifurcates to form two (left and right) main bronchi.
4 histologic layer of the wall of Trachea:
• Mucosa
• Submucosa
• Cartilage and muscle layer
• Adventitia
The tracheal mucosa consist of a respiratory epithelium that has a very
thick basement membrane and an abundance of goblet cells and a
lamina propria and MALT that exhibit occasional lymphoid nodules.
The tracheal submucosa consist of loose connective tissue where
numerous mixed tubuloalveolar glands (tracheal glands; bronchial
submucosal glands) are embedded.
The tracheal Cartilages are enveloped by perichondrium which merges with the underlying
submucosa and the underlying adventitia.
The tracheal adventitia blends with the surrounding structures.
Main Bronchi
The main bronchi (right and left) that supply the right and left lungs,
respectively, are morphologically identical with the trachea, except in
few aspects. They have smaller caliber, thinner respiratory epithelium,
and fewer submucosal glands. Furthermore, in the main bronchi, a
discontinuous thin smooth muscle layer, instead of elastic tissue,
separates the mucosa from the submucosa. The cartilages, instead of
being open posteriorly, form discontinuous rings around the lumen.

Lungs
● are a pair of conical organs that occupy the greater part of
the thoracic cavity
● separated from each other by the heart and other structures in the mediastinum
● each lung has an apex that rises to the neck and a base that rests on the diaphragm, three borders
(anterior, inferior, and posterior), and two surfaces (costal and mediastinal)
1. costal surface of either lung is related to the ribs and the costal cartilages
2. mediastinal surface is related to the mediastinal structures, and presents a triangular
depression called hilus where the structures that comprise the root of the lungs enter and
leave the organ

● Structures that comprise the root of the lung:

1. Main bronchus
2. Pulmonary artery and veins
3. Bronchial arteries and veins
4. Lymphatic vessels
5. Nerves

● Lungs are divided by fissures into lobes

○ Right Lung has three lobes
○ Left Lung has two lobes

Pleura
● a double layer of fibrous tissue that enveloped each lung
● Parietal pleura – outer layer of pleura that adheres to the thoracic wall
● Visceral pleura – inner layer of pleura that adheres to the substance of the lung
● Parietal and visceral pleura
○ continuous with each other at the root of the lungs, they are separated
by space (pleural cavity), which contains a small amount of serous
fluid
○ Histologically, made up of connective tissue that has an abundance of
elastic fibers and relative paucity of cellular elements that consist
mainly of fibroblasts and macrophages
○ richly supplied with lymphatic and blood vessels and nerve fibers
○ their free surface (related to plural cavity) is lined with mesothelium
whose cells are responsible for the minimal amount of fluid in the
pleural cavity
Bronchial Tree
● refers to these generations of branches
● main bronchus ramifies dichotomously a variable number of times-often
more than 20
○ immediately upon entering the lung, main bronchus divides and form
secondary bronchi (lobar bronchi) (right lung has 3 lobes, left lung
has 2 lobes)
■ secondary bronchi divide further into tertiary bronchi
(segmental bronchi) (right lung has 10, left lung has 8)

Bronchial Tree
● a tertiary bronchus and the area of the lung that it supplies
comprise a bronchopulmonary segment (right lung has 10,
left lung has 8)
○ tertiary bronchi ramify into few generations of
progressively smaller bronchi before giving off
bronchioles
■ bronchioles ramify a few times and then give
rise to lobular bronchioles
● lobular bronchioles supplies a lung
lobule, of which there are 30-60 per
bronchopulmonary segment

● lung lobules are separated from each other by incomplete

fibrous septa, they vary greatly in size and shape
● peripheral lobules tend to be pyramidial, centrally located are
irregular in shape
● lobular bronchiole enters a lung lobule at its apex in the
company of the interlobular branches (branches that supply the
lobule) of the pulmonary and bronchial arteries, within lobule,
the branching pattern of these arteries mirrors the branching
pattern of the bronchial tree
● lobular bronchiole give off terminal bronchioles which, in turn,
give rise to respiratory bronchioles
● A few alveoli and alveolar sacs (clusters of alveoli) arise directly
from the wall of respiratory bronchioles, but respiratory
bronchioles end by giving off alveolar ducts (tiny tubes from
which numerous alveolar sacs and alveoli arise)
Bronchi
● either extrapulmonary or intrapulmonary in terms of location
● Extrapulmonary bronchi – refer to the main bronchi
● Intrapulmonary bronchi
○ refer to all the bronchi that are within the lung including secondary, tertiary and their
subsequent branches
○ Bigger intrapulmonary bronchi - the epithelium is lower and the mucous membrane is
thrown into folds, perhaps as a consequence of the contraction of the smooth muscle layer
○ Smaller intrapulmonary bronchi – cartilages are in the form of irregular plated, the circular
band of smooth muscle that separates the lamina propria from the submucosa is more
prominent

■ Exhibit less and less cartilage, progressively lower epithelium, and gradual loss of
goblet cells

Bronchioles
● less than 1 mm in diameter
● easy to tell apart from the intrapulmonary bronchi because their
wall has no cartilage, submucosal gland, or lymphoid nodule
● bifurcate repeatedly before ending as lobular bronchioles
● its epithelium is still ciliated but it progressively diminishes in
height and transforms from pseudostratified proximally to
simple columnar and to simple cuboidal distally
● large bronchioles – epithelium consists essentially of the same
cells that are present In typical respiratory epithelium except that
there are no serous cells anymore and the goblet cells are few
● smaller bronchioles – epithelium are no more goblet cells but there is population of tall cuboidal,
slender, non-ciliated cells called Clara cells whose rounded apices possess microvilli that often jut out
of the surface of epithelium
● Clara cells
○ have dense secretory cytoplasmic granules that contain
surface active lipoproteins that are evidently similar
to pulmonary surfactant that reduces surface tension
○ also stem cells that can divide to replace the other
existing cells in the epithelium
○ in humans it is present only in bronchioles, but in lower
animals they are also present even in bronchi
○ its lamina contains loose collection of MALT
○ it is separated from the submucosa by a distinct
smooth muscle layer where the muscle fibers are
irregularly arranged
○ its submucosa consist of loose connective tissue,
merges with the lung parenchyma

1. Terminal bronchioles
● 5 to 7 arise from lobular bronchiole shortly after entering a lung lobule
● Small tubes less than 0.5 mm in diameter
● Considered as last segment of the conducting portion of the respiratory
system
● Their epithelium is simple cuboidal
● Largely non-ciliated
● Smooth muscle fibers that form bands that separated the lamina propria
from the submucosa are still prominent
● Ciliated cells are present together with brush cells, granule cells, basal
cells and clara cells
● No goblet cells

2. Respiratory bronchioles
● 2 or more are given off by each terminal bronchiole
● Short (1-4) mm) tiny tubes
● Walls consists of simple epithelium and a thin layer of connective tissue
● Epithelium is simple cuboidal, but becomes simple squamous distally
● populated by granule cells, basal cells, brush cells, numerous clara cells
● In bigger respiratory bronchioles – occasional ciliated cells exist but none in
smaller
Alveolar Ducts
● thin-walled conical tubes that are lined by simple
squamous epithelium
● walls of it contains scanty connective tissue elements
where occasional smooth muscle fibers are embedded
● Alveoli and alveolar ducts arise are so numerous that their
openings occupy practically the entire wall of the alveolar
ducts
● Wall of alveolar ducts is seen as consisting simply of
knob-like structures that guard the entrances into the
alveoli and alveolar sacs

Alveolar Sacs and Alveoli

● Alveoli arise individually or in clusters known as alveolar sacs from either respiratory bronchioles or
alveolar ducts
● Alveoli are thin-walled polyhedral sacs that are 200-250 um in diameter. They are open on one side
to allow entry of air from either a respiratory bronchiole or an alveolar duct, depending on which tube
they arise from.
● Alveoli in 2 lungs estimated to number around 300 million, they are very closely packed and share with
adjacent alveoli a common wall (interalveolar septum) that is perforated by round or oval holes
(alveolar pores)—up to 7 per alveolous—that are 2-13 um in diameter.
● The pores usually unclogged with pulmonary surfactant, may serve as alternate routes for passage of
air into alveoli that have an obstructed main supply route; as migration routes for the pulmonary
alveolar macrophages; and/or as storage of pulmonary surfactant.

Interalveolar Septum (Alveolar Wall)

● very thin wall merely a little over 0.2 um wide in most
places
● consists of a core/framework of connective tissue
that is overlaid on its luminal surfaces with a simple
squamous epithelium
● Connective tissue core of alveolar septum contains:
collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers, several types
of cells: mast cells, plasma cells, lymphocytes, and
interstitial fibroblasts which differ from ordinary
fibroblasts in that they contain more actin filaments,
suggestive of the possibility that they are contractile,
and numerous blood capillaries (pulmonary
capillaries)
Interalveolar Septum
Epithelial cells of the Interalveolar Septum
1. Type I alveolar cell
○ pneumonocyte type 1
○ pulmonary epithelial cell
○ small alveolar cell
● stretched very thinly in such a way that they cover 95%
of the alveolar surface
● less than 0.2 um thick, except in areas where the nucleus
is present
● they form tight junctions with each other and with the type II alveolar cells
● rest on a basal lamina that is supported by a small amount of connective tissue, except in those
areas of the epithelium that are associated with capillaries where the basal lamina of the epithelium is
in direct contact often fuses with basal lamina of the capillary endothelium

Interalveolar Septum
Epithelial cells of the Interalveolar Septum
2. Type II alveolar cell
○ pneumonocyte type II
○ great alveolar cell
● more numerous (60% of epithelial cells) than the type I
alveolar cells
● account for only 5% of the epithelial cover of the alveoli
● much larger
● occur among the type I alveolar cells either singly or in
groups or 2 or 3
● they bulge into the alveolar lumen or occupy niches in the
alveolar wall
● seen in LM preparations as cuboidal or round cells with a large,
round nucleus and prominent nucleolus
● free surface contains short microvilli
● Lamellar bodies – ovoid, membrane-bound inclusions that is
most distinctive feature of their cytoplasm which are the
secretory granules for pulmonary surfactant (substance that
reduces alveolar surface tension and prevents collapse of the
alveoli at the end of expiration
Pulmonary Alveolar
Macrophages
● most numerous cells in the alveoli but they do not form part of
the interalveolar septum, some attached but most float free in
the alveolar lumens
● vary in size from 15 to 40 um
● they are avid phagocytes and comprise the first line of
defense of the lungs
● contain numerous membrane-bound cytoplasmic inclusion

○ phagocytosed materials, mainly dust particles

(reason why pulmonary alveolar macrophages often
called dust cells)
 
Blood-Air Barrier
● ultra-thin tissue in the interalveolar septum that separates
the blood in pulmonary capillary from the air in an alveolus
● consists of the:
● pneumonocyte type I (pulmonary epithelial cell)
● basal lamina of the alveolar epithelium
● basal lamina of the capillary endothelium
● capillary endothelial cell
● often, the 2 basal laminae fuse together to form a common
basal lamina for the epithelial and endothelial cells

Blood and Lymphatic Vessels of the Lungs

Two sets of arteries that supply the lungs:
1. Pulmonary arteries
● arise from the pulmonary trunk, bring venous blood to the lungs
for oxygenation
● their branches accompany the bronchial tree as far as the
respiratory bronchioles, then they break up into capillaries
(pulmonary capillaries) that form a rich network in the interalveolar
septa where the blood they contain is oxygenated and the CO2 in
their plasma is released

○ Oxygenated blood is collected by venules (tributaries of the

pulmonary veins) that run along the interlobular connective
tissue
 2. Bronchial arteries
● arise directly or indirectly from the aorta
● they carry oxygenated blood that supplies the wall of the
different segments of the bronchial tree as far distally as the
respiratory bronchioles, the rest of the lung parenchyma, the
pleura, and the connective tissue of the lung
● much of blood from bronchial arteries is drained by the
pulmonary veins, the rest is drained by the bronchial veins
which in turn, drain into azygos system

Blood and Lymphatic Vessels of the Lungs

There is no communication between the pulmonary and bronchial
arteries except in their terminal branches. In routine histologic
sections, the branches of 2 arteries are distinguishable from each
other because the branches of the bronchial artery are considerably
smaller. In addition, they have thick walls in relation to their lumens.
 
The branches of the 2 that supply a lobule enter the lobule at the
apex together with the bronchiole. Within lobule, the branching
patterns of the bronchial and pulmonary arteries mirror those of the
bronchial tree.

The vein that drains the lobule joins the branches of the pulmonary
and the bronchial arteries at the apex of the lobule, and from there
on, the three vessels travel together proximally as far as the hilus of
the lung
 
● Lymphatic vessels – travel in the interlobular septa and are the continuous with the bigger lymphatic
vessels beneath the pleura.