GENERAL TOPICS Tutorial 496

The Diagnosis and Management of a

Perioperative Thyrotoxic Crisis
Dr Johannes J le Roux1†, Dr Cara Redelinghuys2
1
Anaesthetic Registrar, Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, Johannesburg,
South Africa
2
Specialist Anaesthetist, Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, Johannesburg,
South Africa

Edited by: Dr Luke Baitch, Specialist Anaesthetist, Department of Anaesthesia, Albury

Wodonga Health, Australia
†
Corresponding author email: kobusleroux@hotmail.co.uk

Published 9 May 2023

KEY POINTS
• Thyroid storm is a life-threatening condition characterised by overt thyrotoxicosis in the setting of longstanding
untreated or undertreated hyperthyroidism.
• It may be triggered by an acute stress event such as abrupt discontinuation of antithyroid medication, infection, or surgery.
• In the awake patient, neurological, cardiovascular, thermoregulatory, and gastrointestinal dysfunction characterise the
predominant clinical abnormalities.
• In the anaesthetised patient, intraoperative signs may be limited to pyrexia, tachycardia, and atrial fibrillation, making
the diagnosis more difficult.
• The differential diagnosis for an intraoperative thyroid storm should include sepsis, malignant hyperthermia, neuroleptic
malignant syndrome, serotonin syndrome, pheochromocytoma, and anticholinergic syndrome.
• Perioperative management should include general supportive measures (airway, breathing, circulation, and temperature
management) as well as specific pharmacological interventions (beta-blockade, thionamide, iodine, and glucocorticosteroids).

INTRODUCTION
A paucity of literature exists regarding the intraoperative recognition and management of a thyrotoxic crisis, more commonly
known as a thyroid storm. Due to the rarity of this condition1-3 and the various nonspecific clinical manifestations of a thyroid
storm under anaesthesia,4 prompt diagnosis and initiation of treatment remain a challenge but are very important.5 This tutorial
will focus on this rare but life-threatening complication of thyrotoxicosis, provide a stepwise approach to supportive and
pharmacological management, and provide guidance on the optimisation of patients in the perioperative period.

Definition
Hyperthyroidism, thyrotoxicosis, and thyroid storm are 3 separate clinical conditions that should not be confused with one
another.
• Hyperthyroidism is a biochemical diagnosis that is defined by an increase in circulating thyroid hormone levels.6

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ATOTW 496 — The Diagnosis and Management of a Perioperative Thyrotoxic Crisis (9 May 2023) Page 1 of 9
• Thyrotoxicosis refers to a group of signs and symptoms induced by the thyroid hormones’ inappropriate activation in the
tissue and should be seen as the clinical manifestation of hyperthyroidism.6
• A thyroid storm is an acute life-threatening endocrine emergency resembling an exaggerated presentation of
thyrotoxicosis. 7

Basic Thyroid Physiology

The thyroid’s main function is to convert iodine into thyroid hormones: the prohormone thyroxine (T4) and the bioactive
hormone triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroid cells combine iodine and tyrosine to form T3 and T4. The normal thyroid gland produces
about 80% T4 and 20% T3. The majority of T3 is produced by enzymatic deiodination of T4 in peripheral tissues by
iodothyronine deiodinases. The thyroid gland is under the control of the anterior pituitary gland, which secretes thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH) and stimulates the production of T3 and T4. TSH is produced and released from the anterior
pituitary gland in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) released from the hypothalamus and carried to the pituitary
via the hypothalamohypophyseal portal system. The hypothalamus can also inhibit TSH secretion via the effects of released
somatostatin, in the same way that growth hormone inhibition occurs. Free T3 and free T4 in the plasma exert a negative
feedback effect on the hypothalamus and the pituitary to regulate the circulating levels.8

Incidence and Mortality

The majority of epidemiological data on thyroid storm are from national surveys in Japan and the United States. Thyroid storm
incidence ranges from 0.20 to 0.76 per 100 000 people per year.9,10 Intraoperative and postoperative thyroid storm following
nonthyroid surgery has rarely been reported, with 24 cases identified in the literature between 1930 and 2018.5 The rarity of this
intraoperative emergency is due to the widespread use of antithyroid medication to achieve a euthyroid state prior to surgery.
Mortality rates of thyroid storm range between 10% and 30% despite early diagnosis.1,7,9

Clinical Features
Symptoms of thyrotoxicosis include heat intolerance, palpitations, anxiety, fatigue, weight loss, muscle weakness, and, in
women, irregular menses. Clinical findings may include tremors, tachycardia, lid lag, and warm moist skin. The clinical picture
of thyroid storm is characterised Cby nonspecific signs ranging from thermoregulatory dysfunction to thyrotoxic heart disease
(cardiothyreosis)1 (Table 1).

CLINICAL MANIFESTATION
The exact mechanisms underlying the development of a thyroid storm are poorly understood. Thyroid storm occurs in
undiagnosed or uncontrolled hyperthyroidism or thyrotoxicosis in the presence of a trigger.11 A heightened cellular response to
thyroid hormone is implicated, as seen during acute stress. The increased or abrupt availability of free hormones results in
enhanced responsiveness to catecholamines. It is postulated that a rapid increase in thyroid hormone, rather than the actual
hormone level, leads to the development of a thyroid storm. A thyroid storm must be triggered regardless of the aetiology of
hyperthyroidism and thyrotoxicosis; however, in up to 30% of patients no trigger can be identified.

Triggers
Thyroid storm can develop in untreated or poorly controlled hyperthyroidism but it is more commonly precipitated by an
acute event. The literature describes several precipitating factors, or triggers, including abrupt discontinuation of
antithyroid medication, infection, surgery (thyroid and nonthyroid), trauma, preeclampsia, parturition, hyperemesis
gravidarum, diabetic ketoacidosis, and acute iodine overload (radioactive iodine treatment, iodine in contrast studies, and
oral iodine) (Table 2).2,3

Organ System The Awake Patient The Anaesthetised Patient

Central nervous system Confusion, agitation, delirium, psychosis, seizure, Seizure, delayed emergence
stupor, coma
Cardiovascular system Sinus tachycardia, hypotension, dysrhythmias (especially atrial fibrillation), congestive
cardiac failure
Thermoregulation Pyrexia, dehydration
Gastrointestinal system Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, Hepatocellular dysfunction (jaundice)
hepatocellular dysfunction (jaundice)
Table 1. Clinical Features of Perioperative Thyroid Storm

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ATOTW 496 — The Diagnosis and Management of a Perioperative Thyrotoxic Crisis (9 May 2023) Page 2 of 9
 General Triggers
Nonthyroid surgery
Trauma
Infection
Pulmonary embolism
Myocardial infarction
Diabetic ketoacidosis
Pregnancy related:
Preeclampsia
Parturition
Hyperemesis gravidarum
Thyroid-Related Triggers
Thyroid surgery
Abrupt discontinuation of antithyroid medication
Overdose of thyroid hormone
Acute iodine load:
Radioactive iodine treatment
Contrast dye
Oral iodine
Table 2. Thyroid Storm Triggers

Diagnosis
The diagnosis of thyroid storm is challenging due to the nonspecific clinical features and rarity. The diagnosis is further
hampered due to the continuum of severity ranging from thyrotoxicosis to thyroid storm. No laboratory abnormalities are
specific to thyroid storm. Hyperthermia, mental state changes (irritability, delirium, psychosis, lethargy, coma), hypotension,
tachycardia, dysrhythmias, and gastrointestinal and hepatocellular dysfunction characterise the clinical scenario in an awake
patient with thyroid storm (Table 1).9
The diagnosis of intraoperative storm is a difficult task as the only clues may be intraoperative pyrexia and tachycardia. Mental
state changes and gastrointestinal dysfunction will not be detected in a patient under general anaesthesia. Tachycardia has
numerous causes and may indicate pain, awareness, hypovolemia, haemorrhage, medication side effects, or bladder
distension. A rise in temperature and end-tidal carbon dioxide may be a sign of sepsis, malignant hyperthermia, neuroleptic
malignant syndrome, serotonin syndrome, pheochromocytoma, or anticholinergic syndrome.12 Atypical presentations have
been described under general anaesthesia in which the patient does not develop a fever. In the setting of a caesarean section
under neuraxial anaesthesia, haemorrhage and hormonal changes can obscure the symptoms of thyrotoxicosis, making the
intraoperative diagnosis even more challenging.
A stepwise diagnostic approach should be followed when a patient under general anaesthesia develops intraoperative
tachycardia or pyrexia (Figure).13,14 The differential diagnosis for pyrexia and tachycardia should be considered initially
(Table 3).12

Diagnostic Tools
Certain diagnostic tools can aid in diagnosing a thyroid storm in the awake patient in the preoperative and postoperative
periods. The Burch and Wartofsky point scale (BWPS) described in 1993 uses nonspecific features to predict the likelihood
of a thyroid storm (Table 4).3 The BWPS has been widely applied for the diagnosis of thyroid storm for more than 2 decades.
Central nervous system disturbances are heavily weighted in the BWPS; however, in the anaesthetised patient these
disturbances will not be detected. In 2012, the Japanese Thyroid Association proposed diagnostic criteria (the Akamizu
diagnostic criteria) that include thyrotoxicosis as a prerequisite condition (Table 5).13 Using both scores to evaluate an
awake patient’s condition is recommended to increase diagnostic accuracy. These diagnostic criteria are helpful because
they provide a systematic framework to think about the diagnosis. However, we are not forced to rigidly adhere to these
criteria for 2 reasons. Firstly, the diagnosis of thyroid storm is partially a diagnosis of exclusion. For example, sepsis with
multi-organ failure could easily score . 45 on the BWPS. Therefore, a score . 45 does not prove a diagnosis of thyroid
storm. Secondly, treatment for thyroid storm is reasonable in any patient with severe hyperthyroidism causing organ failure
(especially heart failure). Therefore, even if the patient does not have a score . 45 on the BWPS, it may be prudent to
initiate therapy for thyroid storm.

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ATOTW 496 — The Diagnosis and Management of a Perioperative Thyrotoxic Crisis (9 May 2023) Page 3 of 9
 Figure. Diagnostic algorithm in perioperative thyroid storm.

MANAGEMENT OF INTRAOPERATIVE THYROID STORM

Once the preliminary diagnosis of a thyroid storm has been made, prompt initiation of treatment is of utmost importance. The
treatment options for thyroid storm are expanded from those used for uncomplicated hyperthyroidism. The principles of

Mental Status Pupils (If No Muscle Tone Reflexes

in Awake Opioids Are in Unparalyzed Mucosa in Awake
Diagnosis Exposure Patient Given) Patient and Skin Patient
Sepsis Infection Potentially Normal Normal Wet or Dry Normal
impaired
Thyroid storm Trigger Potentially Normal Normal Normal Normal
impaired
Malignant hyperthermia Volatiles, succinylcholine Impaired Normal Rigid Wet Decreased
Neuroleptic malignant Antipsychotics Impaired Normal Rigid Wet Decreased
syndrome
Serotonin syndrome Serotonergics (antidepressants, Impaired Dilated Rigid Wet Increased
fentanyl, tramadol, linezolid,
sumatriptan, ondansetron)
Anticholinergic Anticholinergics Impaired Dilated Normal Dry Normal
syndrome
Pheochromocytoma Trigger Normal Dilated Normal Normal Normal
Iatrogenic Forced air warmer, increased Normal Normal Normal Normal/Dry Normal
ambient temperature
Table 3. Differential Diagnosis for Intraoperative Pyrexia and Tachycardia

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ATOTW 496 — The Diagnosis and Management of a Perioperative Thyrotoxic Crisis (9 May 2023) Page 4 of 9
 Criteria Points
(1) Thermoregulatory dysfunction
Temperature (°C)
37.2-37.7 5
37.8-38.3 10
38.4-38.8 15
38.9-39.3 20
39.4-39.9 25
. 40.0 30
(2) Cardiovascular
Tachycardia (beats/min)
90-109 5
110-119 10
120-129 15
130-139 20
. 140 25
Atrial fibrillation
Absent 0
Present 10
Congestive heart failure
Absent 0
Mild 5
Moderate 10
Severe 15
(3) Gastrointestinal-hepatic dysfunction
Absent 0
Moderate (diarrhoea, abdominal pain, nausea/vomiting) 10
Severe (jaundice) 20
(4) Central nervous system disturbance
Absent 0
Mild (agitation) 10
Moderate (delirium, psychosis, extreme lethargy) 20
Severe (seizure, coma) 30
(5) Precipitating event
Absent 0
Present 10
Total score
. 45: Thyroid storm
25-44: Impending storm
, 25: Storm unlikely
Table 4. The Burch and Wartofsky Point Scale

treatment outlined below are based on clinical experience, case studies, the 2016 Japan Thyroid Association Guideline,13 and
the 2016 American Thyroid Association Guideline.14
Management principles can be divided into general considerations and specific considerations (Table 6),13,14 and encompass
the following:
(1) Consideration and exclusion of the differential diagnoses,12
(2) If thyroid storm is likely, implementation of the “ABCs of the Convulsing Hot Hormonal heart” (Table 6), and
(3) Consideration of thyroidectomy in refractory cases and plasma exchange in thyroid storm complicated with acute hepatic failure.13

OPTIMISATION PRIOR TO SURGERY

If hyperthyroidism or thyrotoxicosis is diagnosed in the preoperative period in a patient scheduled for elective surgery, it is
recommended that surgery and anaesthesia be postponed until the patient is clinically and biochemically euthyroid. Achieving a
euthyroid state can take anything from 6 weeks up to 18 months. In consultation with an endocrinologist the patient should be

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ATOTW 496 — The Diagnosis and Management of a Perioperative Thyrotoxic Crisis (9 May 2023) Page 5 of 9
 Prerequisites
Thyrotoxicosis with elevated levels of free triiodothyronine (FT3) or free thyroxine (FT4)
Manifestation Symptom
CNS Restlessness, delirium, psychosis, lethargy, coma
Fever Temperature . 38°C
Tachycardia Heart rate . 130 beats/min or heart rate . 130 beats/min in atrial fibrillation
CHF Pulmonary oedema, rales over more than half of the lung field, cardiogenic shock, or
Class IV by the New York Heart Association13 or . Class III in the Killip classification13
Gastrointestinal (GI) or Hepatic Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, or a total bilirubin . 3.0 mg/dL
Grade of
Thyroid Storm Combination of Features Requirements for Diagnosis
1 First combination Thyrotoxicosis and at least one CNS manifestation and fever,
tachycardia, CHF, or GI or hepatic manifestations
1 Alternate combination Thyrotoxicosis and at least 3 combinations of fever, tachycardia,
CHF, or GI or hepatic manifestations
2 First combination Thyrotoxicosis and a combination of 2 of the following: fever,
tachycardia, CHF, or GI or hepatic manifestations
2 Alternate combination Patients who met the diagnosis of thyroid storm Grade 1 except
that serum FT3 or FT4 level are not available
Table 5. Akamizu Diagnostic Criteria: Symptoms. Grade 1 indicates a definite thyroid storm and Grade 2 a suspected thyroid
storm. Cases are excluded if other underlying diseases clearly cause any of the following symptoms: fever (eg pneumonia and
malignant hyperthermia), impaired consciousness (eg psychiatric disorders and cerebrovascular disease), heart failure (eg
acute myocardial infarction), and liver disorders (eg viral hepatitis and acute liver failure). Therefore, it is difficult to determine
whether the symptom is caused by a thyroid storm or is simply a manifestation of an underlying disease; the symptom should
be regarded as being due to a thyroid storm that is caused by these precipitating factors. Clinical judgement in this matter is
required. CNS indicates central nervous system; CHF, congestive heart failure; FT3, free triiodothyronine; FT4, free thyroxine;
GI, gastrointestinal

followed up initially after 4 to 6 weeks, then at month 3, month 6, and then at yearly intervals. In the setting of emergency surgery
where optimisation might not be an option, a perioperative thyroid storm should be anticipated and adequately prepared for.
Premedication in the form of a beta-blocker (propranolol 0.1-0.15 mg/kg intravenously [IV]), antithyroid drug (propylthiouracil 200-
400 mg orally), and a corticosteroid (hydrocortisone 300 mg IV) should be administered. Where possible, regional anaesthesia
and peripheral nerve block are preferable to general anaesthesia. If the surgical procedure does not allow for a regional
anaesthetic technique, proceed with general anaesthesia ensuring that the intubation response is blunted, analgesia and
depth of anaesthesia are adequate, and a smooth emergence and extubation are performed.15 Vigilance regarding thyroid
storm should extend into the postoperative care period; therefore it is recommended that the patient be monitored in a
high-dependency unit.

SUMMARY
Thyroid storm in an awake patient remains an elusive diagnosis. In an anaesthetised patient, the diagnosis is even
more challenging, and the pharmacological treatment options are limited to a few intravenous medications. In the
awake patient, the BWPS and the Akamizu’s diagnostic criteria should form part of the anaesthetist’s assessment.
When tachycardia and pyrexia are noted in the patient receiving general anaesthesia, the differential diagnosis
including thyroid storm should be considered.
And the waters leapt,
And the wild winds swept,
And blew out the moon in the sky,
And I laughed with glee,
It was joy to me
As the storm went raging by!
The rising of the storm, by Paul Laurence Dunbar

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ATOTW 496 — The Diagnosis and Management of a Perioperative Thyrotoxic Crisis (9 May 2023) Page 6 of 9
 Table 6. Management Principles: The “ABCs of the Convulsing Hot Hormonal Heart”

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ATOTW 496 — The Diagnosis and Management of a Perioperative Thyrotoxic Crisis (9 May 2023) Page 7 of 9
 Specific
Considerations

Table 6. Continued.

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