Introduction to

Human Anatomy

Dr. Dalia Aiad

Assistant lecturer of Anatomy and Embryology
Medicine Faculty
Port Said University 24th October 2021
Anatomical Direction

• Superior/Inferior – Equivalent to above and below when moving along

the long axis of a body in anatomical position.

• Proximal/Distal – Equivalent to near and far. Usually used to orient the

positions of structures and features along the limbs with respect to the
trunk of the body.

• Medial/Lateral – Equivalent to towards the middle or towards the edge.

Used with respect to the midline of the trunk of a body in anatomical
position
• Anterior/Posterior–Equivalent to the front and back of a body in
anatomical position. A structure that is anterior to another is closer to
the front of the body when the body is in anatomical position.

• Ventral/Dorsal–Equivalent to belly-side and back-side of a body in

anatomical position. For a human in anatomical position, this pair of
terms is equivalent to anterior and posterior.

• Superficial/Deep–Equivalent to closer to the surface and farther from

the surface.

• Cephalic/Caudal–Equivalent to closer to the head and closer to the

tail.
Anatomical Planes
A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body.
There are three planes commonly referred to in anatomy and medicine, as
illustrated:

1. The sagittal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically
into right and left sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of
the body, it is called the midsagittal or median plane. If it divides the body
into unequal right and left sides, it is called a parasagittal plane or less
commonly a longitudinal section.
2. The coronal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ into an
anterior portion and a posterior portion. (“Corona” is Latin for “crown.”)
3. The transverse plane is the plane that divides the body or organ horizontally
into upper and lower portions. Transverse planes produce images referred
to as cross sections.
Body Cavities

 The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes,

sheaths, and other structures that separate compartments.

 The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest
body compartments. These cavities contain and protect delicate internal
organs, and the ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size and
shape of the organs as they perform their functions.

 The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and
contract without distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby
organs.
Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and
Anterior (Ventral) Cavities
 The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) cavities are each
subdivided into smaller cavities. In the posterior (dorsal) cavity

* Cranial Cavity houses the brain.

* Spinal Cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord. Just as
the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted
structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also
continuous. The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of
the skull and vertebral column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless
fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord
within the posterior (dorsal) cavity.
The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions: the
thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.

* Thoracic Cavity is the more superior subdivision of the

anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The
thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart. The
diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and
separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity.

* Abdominopelvic Cavity is the largest cavity in the

body. Although no membrane physically divides the
abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish
between the abdominal cavity, the division that houses the
digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that
houses the organs of reproduction.
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants

 To promote clear communication, for instance about the location

of a patient’s abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, health care
providers typically divide up the cavity into either nine regions or
four quadrants .
Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body
Cavity

 A Serous Membrane is one of the thin membranes that cover

the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities. The parietal layers of the membranes line the walls of the
body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall). The visceral layer of
the membrane covers the organs (the viscera). Between the
parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space,
or cavity
 There are three serous cavities and their associated membranes.

 The pleura is the serous membrane that encloses the pleural cavity;
the pleural cavity surrounds the lungs.
 The pericardium is the serous membrane that encloses the
pericardial cavity; the pericardial cavity surrounds the heart.

 The peritoneum is the serous membrane that encloses the

peritoneal cavity; the peritoneal cavity surrounds several organs in
the abdominopelvic cavity. The serous membranes form fluid-filled
sacs, or cavities, that are meant to cushion and reduce friction on
internal organs when they move, such as when the lungs inflate or
the heart beats. Both the parietal and visceral serosa secrete the
thin, slippery serous fluid located within the serous cavities. The
pleural cavity reduces friction between the lungs and the body
wall.
 The peritoneal cavity reduces friction between the
abdominal and pelvic organs and the body wall. Therefore,
serous membranes provide additional protection to the
viscera they enclose by reducing friction that could lead to
inflammation of the organs.
Tissue organization

 Before you begin to study the different structures and

functions of the human body, it is helpful to consider its
basic architecture; that is, how its smallest parts are
assembled into larger structures. It is convenient to
consider the structures of the body in terms of
fundamental levels of organization that increase in
complexity: subatomic particles, atoms, molecules,
organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems,
organisms.
Skeletal System
 The skeletal system is the organ system that provides an internal framework
for the human body.

 Components of the Skeletal System.

 In adults, the skeletal system includes 206 bones . Bones are organs made
of dense connective tissues, mainly the tough protein collagen. Bones
contain blood vessels, nerves, and other tissues. Bones are hard and rigid
due to deposits of calcium and other mineral salts within their living tissues.
Locations, where two or more bones meet, are called joints. Many joints
allow bones to move like levers. For example, your elbow is a joint that
allows you to bend and straighten your arm.
 Functions of the Skeletal System
 The skeletal system has many different functions that are necessary for
human survival. Some of the functions, such as supporting the body, are
relatively obvious. Other functions are less obvious but no less important.
For example, three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) inside the
middle ear transfer sound waves into the inner ear.

 Support, Shape, and Protection

 The skeleton supports the body and gives it shape. Without the rigid bones
of the skeletal system, the human body would be just a bag of soft tissues,
as described above. The bones of the skeleton are very hard and provide
protection to the delicate tissues of internal organs. For example, the skull
encloses and protects the soft tissues of the brain, and the vertebral column
protects the nervous tissues of the spinal cord. The vertebral column, ribs,
and sternum protect the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels. Providing
protection to these latter internal organs requires the bones to be able to
expand and contract. The ribs and the cartilage that connects them to the
sternum and vertebrae are capable of small shifts that allow breathing and
other internal organ movements.
Movement
The bones of the skeleton provide
attachment surfaces for skeletal muscles.
When the muscles contract, they pull on
and move the bones. The bones at joints
act like levers moving at a fulcrum point,
and the muscles attached to the bones
apply the force needed for movement.
Axial and Appendicular Skeletons

 Theskeleton is traditionally divided into two

major parts: the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
 The axial skeleton forms the axis of the body. It includes the skull, vertebral
column (spine 33 bones)

 Cervical vertebrae (7 bones) *Thoracic vertebrae (12 bones) *Lumbar

vertebrae (5 bones) *Sacrum (5 bones at birth, fused into one after
adolescence) *Coccygeal vertebrae (set of 4 bones at birth; some or all
fuse together, and rib cage.

 The bones of the axial skeleton, along with ligaments and muscles, allow
the human body to maintain its upright posture. The axial skeleton also
transmits weight from the head, trunk, and upper extremities down the
back to the lower extremities. In addition, the bones protect the brain and
organs in the chest.

 The appendicular skeleton forms the appendages and their attachments

to the axial skeleton. It includes the bones of the arms and legs, hands and
feet, and shoulder and pelvic girdles. The bones of the appendicular
skeleton make possible locomotion and other movements of the
appendages. They also protect the major organs of digestion, excretion,
and reproduction.
Muscle Fiber Architecture
Parallel muscle architecture is found in muscles where the fibers are parallel to the force-
generating axis. These muscles are often used for fast or extensive movements and can be
measured by the anatomical cross-sectional area .

Parallel muscles can be further defined into three main categories:

Strap, Fusiform, or Fan-shaped.

 Strap muscles are shaped like a strap or belt and have fibers that run longitudinally to the
contraction direction. These muscles have broad attachments compared to other muscle
types and can shorten to about 40%-60% of their resting length. Strap muscles, such as the
laryngeal muscles, have been thought to control the fundamental frequency used in speech
production, as well as singing.[5] Another example of this muscle is the longest muscle in the
human body, the sartorius.

 Fusiform muscles are wider and cylindrically shaped in the center and taper off at the ends.
This overall shape of fusiform muscles is often referred to as a spindle. The line of action in this
muscle type runs in a straight line between the attachment points which are often tendons.
Due to the shape, the force produced by fusiform muscles is concentrated into a small area.
An example of this architecture type is the biceps brachii in humans.
 Convergent:
 The fibers in convergent, or triangular muscles converge at one end
(typically at a tendon) and spread over a broad area at the other end in a
fan-shape. Convergent muscles, such as the pectoralis major in humans,
have a weaker pull on the attachment site compared to other parallel
fibers due to their broad nature. These muscles are considered versatile
because of their ability to change the direction of pull depending on how
the fibers are contracting.
Pennate fibers in pennate muscles are at an angle to the force-
generating axis (pennation angle) and usually insert into a central
tendon. Because of this structure, fewer sarcomeres can be found in
series, resulting in a shorter fiber length. This further allows for more fibers to
be present in a given muscle; however, a trade-off exists between the
number of fibers present and force transmission. Pennate muscles can be
further divided into uni-, bi- or multipennate.

* Unipennate muscles are those where the muscle fibers are oriented at one fiber angle to
the force-generating axis and are all on the same side of a tendon.[1] The pennation angle in
unipennate muscles has been measured at a variety of resting length and typically varies from
0° to 30°.[1] The lateral gastrocnemius is an example of this muscle architecture.

* Bipennate muscles that have fibers on two sides of a tendon are considered bipennate.[1]
The stapedius in the middle ear of humans, as well as the rectus femoris of the quadriceps are
examples of bipennate muscles.

* Multipennate The third type of pennate subgroup is known as the multipennate

architecture. These muscles, such as the deltoid muscle in the shoulder of humans, have fibers
that are oriented at multiple angles along the force-generating axis.[1]
Types of muscles in bases of function
Classification of Joints
Central Nervous System
Cranial Nerves
Thank you!