INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY,

ANATOMY which is a word of Greek Origin, Is derived from the prefix "ana"meaning "up", while
"tome" means “a cutting up”.in essence, Anatomy means, a cutting up'.

Anatomy is the branch of Science that deals with the study of structures of the body including their
arrangements and relationship to one another, and the microscopic aspects of each structure.

Physiology- is the scientific study of the functions of these structures.

CLASSIFICATIONS OR BRANCHES OR SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY

-Gross anatomy or Macroscopic Anatomy

- Microscopic Anatomy

-Comparative Anatomy

-Developmental Anatomy.

1. GROSS ANATOMY: This is the scientific study of the various structures of the body as seen by the
bare eyes. The approaches to the study of Gross Human Anatomy include the Regional or Topographical
Anatomy and Systemic Anatomy.

(A).Regional or Topographical Anatomy: - This is the scientific study of the various divisions of the
human body including their structures and inter-relationships. These divisions include Head, Neck, thorax,
Abdomen, Pelvis, Upper and Lower Extremities.

(B).Systemic Anatomy: - This is the scientific study of the various systems of the body which could
involve more than one region. These body systems include the Skeletal, Muscular, Circulatory,
Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, Nervous, Endocrine, Reproductive and integumentary system.

Branches of Systemic Anatomy

Neurology------------------------------------The study of Nerves

Myology--------------------------------------The Study of Muscles

Urology --------------------------------------The stiudy of Genito-urinary tract.

Endocrinology -----------------------------The study of Ductless or Endocrine glands.

Cardiology-----------------------------------The study of the Heart

Haematology-------------------------------The Study of the Blood

Osteology -----------------------------------The study of bones.

Arthrology------------------------------------The study of the joints

Splanchnology-------------------------------The study of the viscera organs

2. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY: - This is the scientific study of the minute Structures of the body with
the aid of the microscope.

This branch is further subdivided into three main areas namely:

a. Cytology--------------------------The microscopic study of body cells

b. Histology-------------------------The microscopic study of body tissues

c. Organology ----------------------The microscopic study of body organs.

3. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY: This is the scientific study of the gross Structures of a mammal in
relation to the human body.

4. DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY: this is the study of the development of the human body from the
fertilization of the Ovum (egg) by the spermatozoon until the matured being is formed. This Branch
includes.

(a).Embryology or Prenatal Development - This is the study of the origin, growth and development of an
organism from fertilization until birth

(b).Postnatal Development - This is the study of the body development after birth.
TERMS OF POSITIONS USED IN ANATOMY

Parts of the body are symmetrically and asymmetrically arranged.

The symmetrical parts are the similar ones like the right and left eyes, limbs, ears, lungs and kidneys.

The Asymmetrical parts are those organs or parts of the body which lack similarity. Examples are: the
single Liver with its greater part lying within the right side of abdominal cavity; the spleen lying entirely
on the left side while the pancreas lies partly occupying the left and right parts of the abdominal cavity.

1. ANATOMICAL POSITION: This is the term used when the human body is in the standing or upright
position facing forward, with the two arms by the sides of the body, the palms of the hands facing forward,
while the two feet are placed together.

2. FUNDAMENTAL PLANES:
(a).Median Plane or Mid-sagital Plane: This is the longitudinal imaginary division of the body into two
equal parts (i.e right and left parts) when the body is in an anatomical position.

(b).Medial:- This is the position of a structure nearer to the median plane of the body than another
structure.

(c).Saqittal or Parasagittal Plane: median plane: This is any plane which is parallel to the median plane

(d).Frontal or Coronal Plane: This is any plane dividing the body or part into Anterior and Posterior
portions.
(e).Transverse or Horizontal plane: This is any plane which is at right angles to both the sagittal and
frontal planes and which divide the body into superior and inferior portions.

3. LATERAL: This indicates a structure farther away from the median plane or midline of the body. It
also means at the side of the body.

4. ANTERIOR OR VENTRAL: - This indicates a structure nearer to the Front of the body when in the
anatomical position.

5. POSTERIOR OR DORSAL: - This indicates a structure nearer to the back of the body when in the
anatomical position

6. PROXIMAL: - This is the term used to describe especially the part of a limb which is nearest to the
point of origin of the limb.

7. DISTAL : which is farthest away from the point of origin of the limb

9 SUPERIOR:- This indicates the position of a structure which is nearer to the head.

10. INFERIOR: This indicates the position of a structure which is farther from the head.

11. SUPERFICIAL:- This denotes the position of a structure nearer the surface of the body.

12. DEEP:-This denotes the position of a structure farther from the surface of the body.

14. CAUDAL: - This means towards the feet.

12. VISCERAL: -This refers to the internal organs within the body cavity.

13. CRANIAL:- This means towards the head end.

BODY CAVITIES AND THEIR CONTENTS

WHAT ARE BODY CAVITIES?

A body cavity is a fluid-filled space inside the body that holds and protects internal organs. Human body
cavities are separated by membranes and other structures.
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF BODY CAVITIES.

1. VENTRAL CAVITIES: These are further subdivided by a muscular partition Called the Diaphragm into
The Thoracic Cavity, Abdominal Cavity and the Pelvic Cavity.

(1) The Thoracic Cavity: This is a cavity that is located within the Thorax, It contains the pleural cavity
which surrounds each lung and the pericardial cavity which surrounds the Heart. The portion of the
thoracic cavity between the two lungs is called the MEDASTINUM.

The walls of the thoracic cavity are formed as follows:

-Superiorly :by organs forming the root of the neck.

-Anteriorly :by Sternum, costal cartilages, ribs and Intercostal muscles.

-Posteriorty : by Thoracic Vertebrae, Intervertebral discs, ribs and Intercostal muscles.

Laterally : by Ribs and Intercostal Muscles.

CONTENTS OF THE THORACIC CAVITY

-Heart - Thoracic Duct –Trachea, -Great Blood vessels, Aorta, superior and inferior venae cavae.

-Vagus and Phrenic Nerves -Bronchi -Paratracheal lymph nodes, Oesophagus, Thymus gland.

(2) ABDOMINAL CAVITY

This is located inferior to the Diaphragm, occupying the greater part of the body trunk. Within this cavity
is the peritoneal cavity, which is a potential space between the layers of the Peritoneum covering the
abdominal organs, as well as, lining the Abdominal and Pelvic cavities. The walls of the abdominal cavity
are formed:

Anteriorly : by muscles torming the anterior abdominal wall

Posteriorly :by muscles formiing the posterior abdominal wall, the Lumbar Vertebrae and Intervertebral
discs.

Inferiorly: by the Pelvic Cavity and its contents.

Laterally: by the lower ribs and muscles forming the lateral abdominal wall.

Contents Of Abdominal Cavity

Gall bladder, Spleen –Pancreas, Small intestine, Liver, -Blood Vessels, Lymphatic Vessels and lymph
nodes

For the purposes of easy identification or location and description of the abdominal organs, the abdominal
cavity has been divided into nine anatomical parts as shown in the diagram below:
(3) THE PELVIC CAVITY This is a cavity that is located within the bony pelvis. The walls of this
cavity are formed:

Anteriorly : by pubis symphysis

Posteriorly: sacrum and coccyx

Superiorly :by abdominal cavity.

Inferiorly : by muscles forming the pelvic floor.

Laterally: by bones forming lateral parts of pelvis Anteriorly by Pubes and Symphysis pubis.

Posteriorly :by Sacrum and Coccyx.

CONTENTS OF PELVIC CAVITY

-Sigmoid colon -Rectum -Urinary Bladder

-ln addition to the above in females are: Ovaries. Fallopian or Uterine tube-

Vagina and Uterus.

-In addition to the above in Males are: Prostate gland, Seminal vesicles, and Part of the Ductus Deferens

N.B:- The organs within the Abdomino-Pelvic cavities are collectively referred to as the VISCERAL.

THE DORSAL CAVITY

The dorsal cavity is at the posterior, or back, of the body, including both the head and the back of the
trunk. The dorsal cavity is subdivided into the cranial and spinal cavities.

-The Cranial Cavity is a cavity that is located within the skull. Its walls are formed.

Superioly: by the Parietal bones.

Inferiorly :by Sphenoid bone, Ethmoid bone, and parts of Frontal, Temporal and Occipital bones

Anteriorly: by Frontal bone.

Posteriorly: by Occipital bone.

Laterally : by Temporal bones.

CONTENTS OF CRANIAL CAVITY

These include the Brain and Blood vessels

(2). VERTEBRAL CAVITY

This cavity is located within the vertebral column and its walls are formed

Anteriorly :by the bodies of vertebrae and intervertebral discs.

Posterio-laterally : by the Neural arches of vertebrae.

CONTENTS OF VERTEBRAL CAVITY:

This cavity contains the spinal cords and the meninges.

ORGANISATION OF THE HUMAN BODY

CELL: this is defined as the basic structural unit of the body which is capable of carrying out all the vital
functions in the body. The cells differ in the size and functions and can only be seen with the aid of a
microscope.

TISSUE: this is defined as the collection of similar cells joined together either loosely or closely
including their living and non-living intercellular substances. These tissues include. Epithelial, Muscular,
Connective, Nervous tissues

ORGAN: this is a collection of tissues for the performance of specific function. e.g liver is an organ for
hemopoieses.

SYSTEM: this is a collection of organs of similar or related functions working together as a unit. Each of
these organs performs its specific functions so as to enable the body accomplish its overall tasks.
Examples Skeletal System, Muscular System

Circulatory System, Respiratory System, Digestive System, Nervous System

Endocrine System, Reproductive System, Integumentary System, Reticuloendothelial System

Urinary System
 BODY CELLS

Course outline

 Cell Definition/What is a Cell?

 Functions of a Cell

 Cell Structure

 Characteristics of Cells

 Types of Cells

 Classifications Of A Cell

 Discovery of cells

 Cell Theory

 Cell Transports

Definition: The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room" ) is the basic structural, functional, and
biological unit of all known organisms. A cell can be said to be the building blocks and the
smallest unit of life because it forms a very foundation on which every other structures of the body
is built. Thus the study of cells is called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL

The reasons cells are known as the structural and functional unit of life is because they are responsible for
providing structure to the organisms and perform several functions necessary for carrying out life’s
processes. The Important functions of cell are as follows:

A. Provides Support and Structure to the body

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms. The cell wall
and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support and structure to the
 organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants is
made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

B. Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply and
facilitate the growth in an organism.

C. Allows Transport of Substances

Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on inside the
cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive
transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell membrane
along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport. The larger molecules diffuse across
the cell membrane through active transport where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the
substances.

D. Energy Production

Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the cells through
a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

E. Aids in Reproduction

A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as the
asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the daughter
cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.

Characteristics of Cells

Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

 The cell interior is organized into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
  The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and cell
growth.

 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.

 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy

transactions vital for the survival of the cell.

 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.

 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organization of the cell by
synthesizing selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their appropriate
locations.

Types of Cells

Cells are similar to factories with different laborers and departments that work towards a common
objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular structure, there are two
types of cells:

 Prokaryotes

 Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells is a primitive type of cell that is characterized by the absence of a nucleus without
membrane-bound cellular organelles. Prokaryotes are exclusively unicellular.
 Characteristics of prokaryotic cells

1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a region
within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is called the nucleoid.

2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and cyanobacteria.

3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.

4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.

5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction. They are also
known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual
reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).

EUKARYOTIC CELLS: are cells that possess a true nucleus along with membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryotes can either be unicellular or multicellular.

Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells

1. Eukaryotic cells are characterized by a true nucleus.

2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.

3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.

 4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and electrolytes in
and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell communication.

5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.

6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant cell
contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells do not

Similarities between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Both has cell membranes and ribosomes.

Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular

Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 μm in Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm in
diameter diameter

Cell wall Usually present; chemically complex in When present, chemically simple in
nature nature

Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have a nucleoid region Present

in the cell

Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and spherical in Present. Comparatively larger in size and
shape linear in shape

DNA arrangement Circular Linear

Mitochondria Absent Present

Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present

Endoplasmic Absent Present

reticulum

Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes

Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes

Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are absent Lysosomes and centrosomes are present

Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis

Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size

Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual

Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

CELL STRUCTURE

The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out life’s
processes.

These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell organelles.
Cell Membrane

 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in and
out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is present
in all the cells.

 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the
cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.

 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of selective
substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular
component from damage and leakage.

 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its surroundings.

 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external factors.
The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall

 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.

 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other
cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.

 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.

 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and injuries.

Cytoplasm

 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.

 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.

 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus

 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
  It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.

 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the
cell.

 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

Cell Organelles

Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out life’s
processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as follows:

Cell Organelles and their Functions

Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and cellular
reproduction.

Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell organelles.

Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes.

Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role
in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.

Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials within the cell.

Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.

Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP – the cell’s energy
currency.
 Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell renewal. Therefore, they
are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called chlorophyll.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF A CELL

Cells of Organisms can be classified as

1. Unicellular (consisting of a single cell such as bacteria) Most unicellular organisms are
classed as microorganisms.
2. Multicellular (including plants and animals).
Note: The number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species; it has been estimated that
humans contain somewhere around 40 trillion cells. The human brain accounts for around 80 billion of
these cells

CELL DISCOVERY

Who discovered cells?

Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665 when he observed a piece of bottle cork under a compound
microscope and noticed minuscule structures that reminded him of small rooms. Consequently, he named
these “rooms” as cells. However, his compound microscope had limited magnification, and hence, he
could not see any details in the structure. Owing to this limitation, Hooke concluded that these were non-
living entities.

Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound microscope with higher
magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells exhibited some form of movement (motility). As a
result, Leeuwenhoek concluded that these microscopic entities were “alive.” Eventually, after a host of
other observations, these entities were named as animalcules.
In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into the cell structure. He was
able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.

CELL THEORY

Cell Theory was proposed in 1839 by the German scientists; Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and

Rudolf Virchow.

The cell theory states that:

 All living species on Earth are composed of cells.

 A cell is the basic unit of life.

 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it contains the following postulates:

 Energy flows within the cells.

 The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.

 Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.

 CELL CYCLE

A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides.

The life cycle of a cell has two stages:

A. Interphase: A cell spends most of its time in what is called interphase, and during this time it

grows, replicates its chromosomes, and prepares for cell division.

B. Cell Division: The cell leaves interphase, undergoes mitosis, and completes its division.

A.

B. CELL DIVISION
Cell division happens when a parent cell divides into two or more cells called daughter cells. Cell division
includes mitosis, the division of the nucleus, and cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm

Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. All cells reproduce by splitting into two, where
each parental cell gives rise to two daughter cells. These newly formed daughter cells could themselves
divide and grow, giving rise to a new cell population that is formed by the division and growth of a single
parental cell and its descendant.

In other words, such cycles of growth and division allow a single cell to form a structure consisting of
millions of cells.

Types of Cell Division

There are two distinct types of cell division out of which the first one is vegetative division,

C. Mitosis. Where each daughter cell duplicates the parent cell into two

D. Meiosis, which divides into four haploid daughter cells.

Mitosis: Mitosis is a process of asexual reproduction observed in unicellular organisms where the newly
formed DNA is separated and two new cells are formed with the same number and kind of chromosomes
as the parent nucleus. Mitosis is observed in almost all the body’s cells, including eyes, skin, hair, and
muscle cells.

Meiosis: In this type of cell division, sperm or egg cells are produced instead of identical daughter cells
as in mitosis.

Binary Fission: Single-celled organisms like bacteria replicate themselves for reproduction.

Phases of the Cell Cycle

There are two primary phases in the cell cycle:

1. Interphase: This phase that was thought to represent the resting stage between subsequent cell
divisions, but new research has shown that it is a very active phase.

2. M Phase (Mitosis phase): This is where the actual cell division occurs. There are two key steps
in this phase, namely cytokinesis and karyokinesis.

The interphase further comprises three phases:

1. G0 Phase (Resting Phase): The cell neither divides nor prepares itself for the division.

2. G1 Phase (Gap 1): The cell is metabolically active and grows continuously during this phase.

3. S phase (Synthesis): The DNA replication or synthesis occurs during this stage.

4. G2 phase (Gap 2): Protein synthesis happens in this phase.

5. Quiescent Stage (G0): The cells that do not undergo further division exits the G1 phase and
enters an inactive stage. This stage is known as the quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle.

There are four stages in the M Phase, namely:

1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telophase
Features of Mitosis

1. two daughter cells are formed from the parent cell In each cycle of cell division,
2. The cell is also known as equational cell division because the chromosome number in the parent
cell and daughter cell is the same.
3. In plants, mitosis leads to the growth of vegetative parts of the plant like root tip, stem tip, etc.
4. Segregation and combination do not occur in this process.

Functions of Mitosis

Following are the two important functions of mitosis:

1. Mitosis is the process of asexual reproduction which helps in the development of a single-celled
organisms,
2. Mitosis helps in the replacement of damaged tissues.

Significance of Mitosis

1. Mitosis is responsible for the development of the zygote into an adult.

2. Equal distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell.
3. It is responsible for the growth and development of an individual.
4. It maintains the constant number of chromosomes in all body cells of an organism.
5. Mitosis is required for asexual reproduction, vegetative propagation in plants and is also
responsible for the repair and regeneration of damaged tissues.
6. Mitosis helps in maintaining the purity of the genome as no recombination or crossing over takes
place.
7. It is responsible for the repair and regeneration of old and damaged cells in animals e.g. gut
epithelium, blood cells, etc.

Stages of Mitosis

The different stages of mitosis occurring during cell division are given as follows-

i. Interphase

ii. Prophase
 iii. Metaphase

iv. telophase

Interphase

During the interphase stage, the cell grows and carries out its normal life functions, such as
transporting materials into and out of the cell as well as undergoing cellular respiration. At some
point during interphase, each chromosome in the cell makes an exact copy of itself so that—by the
end of interphase—the cell has two identical sets of chromosomes. Each duplicated chromosome
consists of two identical chromatids joined together by a centromere. Also during interphase, the
cell’s organelles replicate themselves. Among these are the centrosomes, which will play a critical
role during mitosis.

Before entering mitosis, a cell spends a period of its growth under interphase. It undergoes the following
phases when in interphase:

 G1 Phase: This is the period before the synthesis of DNA.

 S Phase: This is the phase during which DNA synthesis takes place.
 G2 Phase: This is the phase between the end of DNA synthesis and the beginning of the
prophase.
PROPHASE: During this stage the replicated chromatin becomes tightly coiled and easier to see
under the microscope. Each of the original 46 chromosomes (called a chromatid at this stage) is
paired with its copy in a double chromosome unit. The two chromatids are joined to each other at
the centromere

The mitotic apparatus appears; this consists of two centrioles separated by the mitotic spindle, which is
formed from microtubules. The centrioles migrate, one to each end of the cell, as the nuclear envelope
disappears

Metaphase

At this stage ; The chromatids align on the center of the spindle fiber and are attached by their
centromeres.
Anaphase
The centromeres separate, and one of each pair of sister chromatids (now called chromosomes again)
migrates to each end of the spindle as the microtubules that form the mitotic spindle contract.

Anaphase

TELOPHASE: The mitotic spindle disappears, the chromosomes uncoil and the nuclear envelope reforms.
Following telophase, cytokinesis occurs which denotes the division of the cytoplasm to form two
daughter cells: the cytosol, intracellular organelles and plasma membrane split forming two identical
daughter cells.
What is Meiosis?

Meiosis is the process in eukaryotic, sexually-reproducing animals that reduces the number of

chromosomes in a cell before reproduction. Many organisms package these cells into gametes, such as

egg and sperm. The gametes can then meet, during reproduction, and fuse to create a new zygote.

Because the number of alleles was reduced during meiosis, the combination of two gametes will yield a

zygote with the same number of alleles as the parents. In diploid organisms, this is two copies of each

gene.

Function of Meiosis

Meiosis is necessary for many sexually-reproducing animals to ensure the same number of chromosomes

in the offspring as in the parents. The act of fertilization includes two cells fusing together to become a

new zygote. If the number of alleles of each gene is not reduced to 1 in the gametes that produce the

zygote, there will be 4 copies of each gene in the offspring. In many animals, this would lead to many

developmental defects.

In other organisms, polyploidy is common and they can exist with many copies of the same gene.

However, if the organism cannot survive if they are polyploidy, meiosis must occur before reproduction.

Meiosis occurs in two distinct divisions, with different phases in each.

Phases of Meiosis

Meiosis then consists of two cell divisions, known as meiosis I and meiosis II. In the first division, which

consists of different phases, the duplicated DNA is separated into daughter cells. In the next division,

which immediately follows the first, the two alleles of each gene are separated into individual cells.
The following are descriptions of the two divisions, and the various phases, or stages of each meiosis.

Remember, before meiosis starts the normally diploid DNA has been duplicated. This means there are 4

copies of each gene, present in 2 full sets of DNA, each set having 2 alleles. In the diagram below, the red

chromosomes are the ones inherited from the mother, the blue from the father.

At the start of the following diagram, the DNA has already been replicated, which is why the red and blue

chromosomes look like the letter “X”. Each one of these “X” chromosomes consists of two sister

chromatids – cloned DNA from replication. They are connected at the centromere for storage but can

separate into individual chromosomes

Prophase I

Prophase I, the first step in meiosis I, is similar to prophase in mitosis in that the chromosomes condense

and move towards the middle of the cell. The nuclear envelope degrades, which allows the microtubules

originating from the centrioles on either side of the cell to attach to the kinetochores in the centromeres of

each chromosome. Unlike in mitosis, the chromosomes pair with their homologous partner. This can be

seen in the red and blue chromosomes that pair together in the diagram. This step does not take place in

mitosis. At the end of prophase I and the beginning of metaphase I, homologous chromosomes are primed

for crossing-over.

Between prophase I and metaphase I, homologous chromosomes can swap parts of themselves that house

the same genes. This is called crossing-over and is responsible for the other law of genetics, the law of

independent assortment. This law states that traits are inherited independently of each other. For traits on

different chromosomes, this is certainly true all of the time. For traits on the same chromosome, crossing-

over makes it possible for the maternal and paternal DNA to recombine, allowing traits to be inherited in

an almost infinite number of ways.

Metaphase I

In metaphase I of meiosis I, the homologous pairs of chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate, near

the center of the cell. This step is referred to as a reductional division. The homologous chromosomes that

contain the two different alleles for each gene are lined up to be separated. As seen in the diagram above,

while the chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate with their homologous pair, there is no order upon

which side the maternal or paternal chromosomes line up. This process is the molecular reason behind the

law of segregation.

The law of segregation tells us that each allele has the same chance of being passed on to offspring. In

metaphase I of meiosis, the alleles are separated, allowing for this phenomenon to happen. In meiosis II,

they will be separated into individual gametes. In mitosis, all the chromosomes line up on their

centromeres, and the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate into new cells. The homologous

pairs do not pair up in mitosis, and each is split in half to leave the new cells with 2 different alleles for

each gene. Even if these alleles are the same allele, they came from a maternal and paternal source. In

meiosis, the lining up of homologous chromosomes leaves 2 alleles in the final cells, but they are on sister

chromatids and are clones of the same source of DNA.

Anaphase I

Much like anaphase of mitosis, the chromosomes are now pulled towards the centrioles at each side of the

cell. However, the centrosomes holding the sister chromatids together do not dissolve in anaphase I of

meiosis, meaning that only homologous chromosomes are separated, not sister chromatids.

Telophase I

In telophase I, the chromosomes are pulled completely apart and new nuclear envelopes form. The plasm

membrane is separated by cytokinesis and two new cells are effectively formed.
Transport Across Membranes

If a cell were a house, the plasma membrane would be walls with windows and doors. Moving things in
and out of the cell is an important role of the plasma membrane

. It controls everything that enters and leaves the cell

There are two basic ways that substances can cross the plasma membrane. They include:

Passive transport, which requires no energy and active transport, which requires energy

Passive transport (Transport Without Energy)

Occurs when substances cross the plasma membrane without any input of energy from the cell.
No energy is needed because the substances are moving from an area where they have a higher
concentration to an area where they have a lower concentration. Water solutions are very important in
biology.

When water is mixed with other molecules this mixture is called a solution. Water is the solvent and the
dissolved substance is the solute. A solution is characterized by the solute.

For example, water and sugar would be characterized as a Sugar solution. More the particles of a solute in
a given volume, the higher the concentration. The particles of solute always move from an area where it is
more concentrated to an area where it is less concentrated. It’s a little like a ball rolling down a hill. It
goes by itself without any input of extra energy
.

The different categories of cell

 CELL TRANSPORT CONCEPT MAP

CELL TRANSPORT CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:

 Passive Transport which includes

o Simple
o Diffusion
o Osmosis
o Facilitated Diffusion

 Active Transport can involve either a pump or a vesicle

 Pump Transport can be

 primary
 secondary

 Vesicle Transport can involve

 Exocytosis
 Endocytosis which includes
 Pinocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 Receptor
-Mediated Endocytosis

SIMPLE DIFFUSION is defined as the net movement of particles from an area of greater concentration
to an area of lesser concentration.
Diffusion timeline shows that at the outside of the cell (extracellular space) is separated from the inside of
the cell (intracellular space) by the cell membrane.

In the beginning of the timeline there are many molecules outside of the cell and none inside. Over time,
they diffuse into the cell until there is an equal amount outside and inside.

Thus, unequal distribution of molecules is called a concentration gradient. Once the molecules become
uniformly distributed, a dynamic equilibrium exists. The equilibrium is said to be dynamic because
molecules continue to move, but despite this change, there is no net change in concentration over time.
Both living and non-living systems experience the process of diffusion

In living systems, diffusion is responsible for the movement of a large number of substances, such as
gases and small uncharged molecules, into and out of cells.

Osmosis

is a specific type of diffusion which involves the passage of water from a region of high water
concentration through a semi-permeable membrane to a region of low water concentration. Water moves
in or out of a cell until its concentration is the same on both sides of the plasma membrane.

Semi-permeable membranes are very thin layers of material that allow some things to pass through
them but prevent other things from passing through. Cell membranes are an example of semi-permeable
membranes. Cell membranes allow small molecules such as oxygen, water carbon dioxide, and oxygen to
pass through but do not allow larger molecules like glucose, sucrose, proteins, and starch to enter
the cell directly.
The classic example used to demonstrate osmosis and osmotic pressure is to immerse cells
into sugar solutions of various concentrations. There are three possible relationships that cells can
encounter when placed into a sugar solution.

A. The concentration of solute in the solution can be greater than the concentration of solute in the
cells. This cell is described as being in a hypertonic solution (hyper = greater than normal). The
net flow or water will be out of the cell

.
B. The concentration of solute in the solution can be equal to the concentration of solute in cells. In
this situation, the cell is in an isotonic solution (iso = equal or the same as normal). The amount
of water entering the cell is the same as the amount leaving the cell

.
C. The concentration of solute in the solution can be less than the concentration of solute in the cells.
This cell is in a hypotonic solution (hypo = less than normal). The net flow of water will be into
the cell
 .

NOTE;
Hypertonic solution. Is a solution that has a higher solute concentration than another solution. Water
particles will move out of the cell, causing crenation.

Isotonic solution. Is a solution that has the same solute concentration as another solution. There is no net
movement of water particles, and the overall concentration on both sides of the cell membrane remains
constant.

Hypotonic solution. Is a solution that has a lower solute concentration than another solution. Water
particles will move into the cell, causing the cell to expand and eventually become plasmolysed.

DEMONSTRATION OF SPECIFIC OUTCOMES OF OSMOSIS IN RED BLOOD CELLS.

A. Hypertonic solution. The red blood cell will appear to shrink as the water flows out of
the cell and into the surrounding environment.
 B. Isotonic solution. The red blood cellwill retain its normal shape in this environment as the
amount of water entering the cell is the same as the amount leaving the cell

.
C. Hypotonic solution. The red blood cell in this environment will become visibly swollen and
potentially rupture as water rushes into the cell
.

FACILITATED DIFFUSION.

Facilitated diffusion is a process by which solutes diffuse across membranes that they wouldn't normally
get through on their own. They pass through with the aid of transport proteins.
The transport proteins are "substrate specific", which means they=re set up to transport just certain
molecules or ions and block the rest. As with "regular" diffusion, solutes move along the concentration
gradient.

Thus, Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion are passive means to get things across the membrane.
There are energy consuming means also. These would fall under the heading of active transport.

Exocytosis and Endocytosis

EXOCYTOSIS is the process by which large molecules leave the cell. Vesicles from inside fuse with the
plasma membrane and empty their contents. Examples of exocytosis: Secretory cells of the pancreas
export insulin, nerve cells release chemical signals across synapse, plants make cell walls.

In ENDOCYTOSIS the plasma membrane forms a vesicle around the particle. Endocytosis can be
divided into three types. Phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor mediated endocytosis.

Phagocytosis is the cells engulfing process.

pinocytosis the cell shrinking.

Receptor mediated endocytosis is similar except the exterior part of the cell that gets drawn in has specific
receptors which only bond to specific substances. This allows the cell to bring in only the substance it
wants, often in much higher concentration than the surrounding fluid.