Anatomy Lab Notes

Human anatomy is the scienti c study of the body’s structures.
In the past,
anatomy has primarily been studied via observing injuries
Human physiology is the scienti c study of the chemistry and physics of the
structures of the body. Physiology explains how the structures of the body work
together to maintain life.
Structural Organization of the Human Body

Figure. 1 Levels of Organization of the Structural Organization of
the Human
Body
A cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism which

can include independently living single cell organisms like bacteria
A tissue is a group of multiple similar cells (these cells can either be of the
same
cell type or can consist of a few related cell types)
An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or

more tissue types that performs one or more speci c functions.
Language of Anatomy
Anatomical terms are made up of roots, pre xes, and suf xes. The root of a
term often refers to an organ, tissue, or condition, whereas the pre x or suf x
often describes the root. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the pre x
“hyper-” means “high” or “over,” and the root word “tension” refers to
pressure, so the word “hypertension” refers to abnormally high blood pressure.
2. **Anatomical Position:**
- Anatomical position is a standardized way of describing the human
body in which the body is standing upright, facing forward, arms at the
sides, with palms facing forward, and feet parallel to each other.
A body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine. Prone

describes a face-down orientation, and supine describes a face up
orientation.
Directional Terms
• Anterior (or ventral) – Describes the front or direction toward the front of the
fi
body. For example, the toes are found on the anterior portion of the foot.
• Posterior (or dorsal) – Describes the back or direction toward the back of the
body. For example, the spinal column is posterior to the sternum.
• Superior (or cranial) – Describes a position above or higher than another part of
the body. For example, the eyes are superior to the mouth. Superior and cranial
can
often be used interchangeably though cranial is used to speci cally refer to a
structure near or toward the head. In quadrupeds the terms sometimes cannot be
used interchangeably.
• Inferior (or caudal) – Describes a position below or lower than another part of
the body. For example, the pelvis is inferior to the abdomen. Inferior and caudal
can often be used interchangeably though caudal is used to speci cally refer to a
fi
structure near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the
fi
spinal
column). In quadrupeds the terms sometimes cannot be used interchangeably.
• Lateral – Describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. For
example, the thumb is lateral to the other digits.
• Medial – Describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. For
example, the big toe is the most medial toe.
• Proximal – Describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment
or the trunk of the body. For example, the upper arm is proximal to the wrist.
• Distal – Describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment
or the trunk of the body. For example, the foot is distal to the thigh.
• Super cial – Describes a position closer to the surface of the body. For example,
the skin is super cial to the bones.
• Deep – Describes a position farther from the surface of the body. For example,
the brain is deep to the skull.
• Contralateral – Describes structures found on opposite sides of the body (right
vs. left side). For example, the right foot is contralateral to the left arm.
• Ipsilateral – Describes structures found on the same side of the body. For
example, the right hand and right shoulder are ipsilateral
Body Sections & Planes
• Sagittal plane – Divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left
sides.
If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body, it is called
the
midsagittal or median plane. If it divides the body into unequal right and
left sides,
it is called a parasagittal plane.
• Frontal plane – Divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front)
portion and
a posterior (rear) portion. The frontal plane is sometimes referred to as a
coronal
plane.
• Transverse plane – Divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and
lower
portions. Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross sections.
Planes of the Body. The three planes

most commonly used in anatomical
and medical imaging are the sagittal,
frontal, and transverse planes
. The dorsal (posterior) cavity
and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest body compartments (Figure 4).
These cavities contain delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for
signi cant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their
functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can change
their shape considerably during expansion or contraction without distorting
other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs since they are found in
cavities.
Figure 4 Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities. The ventral cavity includes the
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions. The dorsal cavity
includes the cranial and spinal cavities.
The dorsal and ventral cavities are each subdivided into smaller cavities. In the
dorsal cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the vertebral (spinal) cavity
encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous,
uninterrupted structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also
continuous. The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and
vertebral column and by cerebrospinal uid, a colorless uid produced by the
fl
fl
brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within the dorsal cavity.
The ventral cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the
abdominopelvic cavity. The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of
the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity
contains the lungs (each found in a pleural cavity) and the heart (found in a
pericardial cavity). The diaphragm forms the oor of the thoracic cavity and
fl
separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominopelvic
cavity is the largest cavity in the body. Although no membrane physically
divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the
abdominal cavity, the division that primarily houses the digestive organs, and
the pelvic cavity, the division that primarily houses the organs of reproduction.
Figure 5 Regions and Quadrants of the Peritoneal/Abdominopelvic
Cavity. There are (a) nine abdominal regions and (b) four abdominal
quadrants in
the peritoneal cavity.
The more detailed regional approach subdivides the cavity with one
horizontal
line immediately inferior to the ribs and one immediately superior to the
pelvis,
and two vertical lines drawn as if dropped from the midpoint of each
clavicle
(collarbone). There are nine resulting regions. The simpler quadrants
approach,
which is more commonly used in medicine, subdivides the cavity with one
horizontal and one vertical line that intersect at the patient’s umbilicus
(navel)

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Human anatomy is the scienti c study of the body’s structures.

Structural Organization of the Human Body

A cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism which

An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or

A body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine. Prone

Planes of the Body. The three planes

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