Unit 1

Data Processing,
Networking and Recent
trends in computing
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DISTRIBUTED
COMPUTING
SYSTEM
Today, distributed computing is an integral
part of both our digital work life and
private life. Anyone who goes online and
performs a Google search is already using
distributed computing. Distributed system
architectures are also shaping many areas
of business and providing countless services
with ample computing and processing
power.
What is distributed computing
u A distributed computer system consists of multiple software
components that are on multiple computers, but run as a single
system. The computers that are in a distributed system can be
physically close together and connected by a local network, or
they can be geographically distant and connected by a wide area
network. A distributed system can consist of any number of
possible configurations, such as mainframes, personal computers,
workstations, minicomputers, and so on. The goal of distributed
computing is to make such a network work as a single computer.
u A distributed system, also known as distributed computing, is a
system with multiple components located on different machines
that communicate and coordinate actions in order to appear as a
single coherent system to the end-user.
u A distributed computing system provides access to the scarce
computing resources, such as an expensive colored printer, an
expensive software, e.g. an expensive data processor etc. to
multiple users through interconnected networks.
u Example: One network may have the colored laser jet printer
and one of the other networks may have the expensive software
loaded on a single computer. But, the user, whether they are
close to these resources or they are geographically distant,
through distributed computing system can make use of these
resources on their local computer. The distributed computing
systems can be easily expanded by adding more machines to the
networks, as needed.
Advantages of Distributed systems

u Scalability: The system can easily be expanded by adding more machines as

needed.
u Redundancy: Several machines can provide the same services, so if one is
unavailable, work does not stop. Additionally, because many smaller
machines can be used, this redundancy does not need to be prohibitively
expensive.
u Resource Sharing: As already explained, the distributed computing system
allows the nodes (computers) of the networks to share various hardware and
software resources of the organization.
u Information Sharing: The distributed computing system is an open system
that supports communication with other systems and hence, it allows
different computer users to share the information generated by them.
u Higher reliability: A distributed computed system is more
reliable as compared to centralized computing system as
if any computing resource of the network fails it doesn’t
affect the entire network.
u Incremental growth: The power and the functionality of
the distributed computing system can be gradually
increased by simply adding the additional resources to the
system. These resources can be a hardware or a software
or both.
Disadvantages of Distributed Computing
System
u Since distributed computing system is an open system it always
suffers from security issues, such as how data becomes vulnerable to
sabotage and hacking when transferred over public networks.
u The higher cost of implementing and maintaining a complex system
architecture.
u There are timing and synchronization problems between distributed
instances that must be addressed.
u Distributed infrastructures are also generally more error-prone since
there are more interfaces and potential sources for error at the
hardware and software level.
u Problem and error troubleshooting is also made more difficult by
the infrastructure’s complexity.
CLIENT-SERVER
COMPUTING
Client/Server Network
u Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users
called clients, to access the resources from a central computer known as
Server.
u The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in
the network are called clients.
u A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
u A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc.
u All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For
example, if client 1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first
sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends the
response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.
Server:
u The servers are powerful computers which are dedicated to
manage disk drivers, peripherals and network traffic.
u All expensive software are usually loaded on the server which
allows the access of these software to the clients (computer) on
request.
u For security of the network, the security rules are defined one
time on the server and then the server maintains the security of
the entire network on the basis of the defined rules.
Client:
u The client on the other hand are the computers or work-stations
used by the computer users to run their applications.
u Workstations rely heavily on the server for computing resources.
Advantages Of Client/Server network:
u A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore, we
can back up the data easily.
u A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the whole system.
u Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers
the shared resources.
u It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
u Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large
memory.
u A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to
the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
u It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the
resources.
There are mainly three types architecture:
u One Tier Architecture (Single Tier Architecture)
(Also Known As Standalone application)
u Two Tier Architecture of Client-Server Computing
Model
u Three Tier Architecture of Client-Server
Computing Model
One Tier Architecture

u One Tier Architecture is the

simplest architecture in which
the client, server, and Database
all reside on the same machine.
A simple one tier architecture
example would be anytime you
install a Database in your
system and access it to practice
SQL queries. MP3 player, MS
Office are come under one tier
application. The data is stored
in the local system or a shared
drive.
Two-Tier Architecture
Two-tier architecture of Client-Server
Model
The Two-tier architecture is divided into two parts:
u 1. Client Application (Client Tier)
2. Database (Data Tier)
u Client system handles both Presentation and
Application layers and Server system handles Database
layer. It is also known as client server application. The
communication takes place between the Client and the
Server. Client system sends the request to the Server system
and the Server system processes the request and sends back
the data to the Client System
u The server need not call on any other application to serve
the request of the client. In such cases, the server is
versatile and is capable of entertaining all sorts of
requests for resources made by the clients.
u This structure has two essential components a client and
server. Such architecture is simple to structure and
maintain but it suffers from the following limitations:
u 1. Complex application rules are difficult to implement in
database server.
u 2. Complex application rules are difficult to implement in
client and
u 3. Any change in the business logic is not automatically
enforced by the server.
Three-tier Architecture
Three-tier architecture of Client-
Server Model

The Three-tier architecture is divided into three parts:

u 1. Presentation layer (Client Tier)
2. Application layer (Business Tier)
2. Database layer (Data Tier)
u Client system handles Presentation layer, Application
server handles Application layer and Server system
handles Database layer.
Working of Three-tier architecture of Client-Server Model
u In 3-tier architecture of client server computing model, an
intermediary level is introduced in the form of application
software which is also known as ‘Middleware’ in between the
client and the server.
u A client (computer) usually makes a request for resources
through a web browser which is received by the application
server which call another server i.e. database server to provide
the requested resource to the client.
Advantages of Three-Tier Client/Server Structure
Some of the advantages of the three-tier client/server structure
are −
u The three-tier structure provides much better service and fast
performance.
u The structure can be scaled according to requirements without
any problem.
u Data security is much improved in the three-tier structure.

Disadvantages of Three-Tier Client/Server Structure

A major disadvantage of the three-tier client/server structure is −
u Three-tier client/server structure is quite complex due to
advanced features.
PEER-TO-PEER
COMPUTING
Peer-to-Peer Computing
u A peer-to-peer (P2P) architecture consists of a decentralized
network of peers - nodes that are both clients and servers.
P2P networks distribute the workload between peers, and all
peers contribute and consume resources within the network
without the need for a centralized server
u Peer-to-Peer network is a network in which all the computers
are linked together with equal privilege and responsibilities
for processing the data.
u Unlike client server computing, there are no dedicated servers
or hierarchy among the computers. All the computers in the
network serve as a client and a server both.
u Peer-to-Peer computing is good for those small organizations
where the users are allocated in a limited area and there are no
concerns of security of sensitive data.
u To combine computers in a P2P (Peer-to-Peer)
computing environment. P2P software like
BearShare, Kazaa, Limeware, etc. are required.
Once connected to the network each computer in
the network can access the information stored on
the computer in the network.
The computer in P2P network are connected with
two major objectives:
u 1. Sharing files on the other computers in the
network and
u 2. Sharing the valuable CPU resources, for their
optimum utilization, by other computers in the
network.
Advantages of P2P Computing
u It is easier to set up and use than client-server computing.
u It allows sharing of files, printers and other computer resources the
computers across the network.
u It is easy to scale the peer to peer network and add more nodes.
This only increases the data sharing capacity of the system.
u None of the nodes in the peer to peer network are dependent on the
others for their functioning.
u It decentralises the network resources and each computer owns a
small share of the total network resources. In case a system fails to
function properly, the entire network is not damaged and the other
systems continue functioning. This increase the robustness of the
computing network.
u It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
Disadvantages of P2P Computing

u In P2P network unsecured and harmful data can be

distributed which may cause improper functioning of the
affected systems or even the entire network.
u In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain
the centralized system . Therefore, it cannot back up the
data as the data is different in different locations.
u It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
u In P2P computing system it is difficult to keep the
sensitive data secure from unauthorized access.
Transmission Media
Transmission Media

u A transmission medium is a medium of data transfer over

a network. It can be wired or wireless.
u Computers on a network are able to share data and other
resources. They are also able to communicate among
themselves. To make all this possible there must be some
medium over which the data can travel from one
computer to another. A medium of data transmission over
a computer network is called a channel or a transmission
medium.
u Channels may be guided (wired) or unguided (wireless).
 Wired Media
A number of various types of cables are used to transfer data over
computer networks. These are Twisted Pair Cable, Co-axial Cable, and
Optical Fiber Cable. Let us know about these in some details.
Twisted Pair Cable
u This is probably the most widely used cable for creating
small computer networks. It contains four twisted pairs
covered in an outer shield. These pairs are colour coded.
An RJ-45 connecter is used to connect this cable to a
computer.
u It is of two types: UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) and STP
(Shielded Twisted pair)
UTP (Unshielded
Twisted Pair)
u As the name suggests in UTP
cables individual pairs are not
shielded.
Characteristics of UTP cable:
u It is a low-cost cable available for
setting up small networks.
u It is a thin (External diameter
app. 0.43cm) and flexible cable
and therefore it offers ease of
installation.
u It can carry data upto a length of
100m at a stretch.
STP (Shielded Twisted pair)
u It is the same cable as the UTP, but
with each pair shielded individually.
An outer shield then covers all the
pairs like in UTP. STP data connectors
are used to connect STP cable to the
computer. RJ-45 connectors can also
be used to connect this cable to a
computer.
Characteristics of STP cable:
u As compared to UTP, STP offers better
immunity against internal and external
electromagnetic interferences.
u It is expensive than UTP cable.
u As compared to UTP cable, STP cable
is difficult to install.
Co-axial cable (or coax)
u A coaxial cable consists of two conductors that share a common
axis. The inner conductor is a straight wire and the outer
conductor is a shield that might be braided or a foil.

Characteristics of Co-axial cable:

u It can carry data for a larger distance (185m - 500m) at a stretch.
u Less susceptible to electromagnetic fields
u Bulkier and less flexible than twisted pair.
u Due to its thickness (1cm diameter) and less flexibility, it is
difficult to install as compared to twisted pair cable.
u Earlier coaxial cable was also used for connecting computers in
small networks but now UTP/STP cables are more commonly used
for this purpose.
Optical Fiber cable

u Comparison of wired media Cable

Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable,
Optical Fiber Paramater Cable
Cable
u Optical Fibers are long, thin
strands of glass about the
thickness of a human hair. They
are arranged in bundles called
optical fiber cables and used to
transmit data through light
signals over long distances.
An optical fiber has following parts:
u Core - It is the thin glass rod at the center
through which the light travels
u Cladding - It is the outer optical material
surrounding the core that reflects the light
back into the core
u Buffer coating - It is the plastic coating that
protects the cable from damage and moisture
These optical fibers are arranged in bundles of
hundreds and thousands and are protected by the
cable's outer covering, called jacket.
Characteristics of Optical Fiber Cable:
u It can carry data for a very large distance at a stretch.
u Not susceptible to electromagnetic fields
u Specially skilled people are required to install optical fiber
cables.
u Till date it is the most expensive and at the same time the most
efficient cable available for computer networks.
u It has greater band width
u It is eco friendly
u These are inexpensive and light weight
Wireless Media
Wireless Media
Electromagnetic waves are used for wireless
communication over computer networks.
Frequencies of waves are measured in Hertz (Hz).
As the frequencies of electromagnetic waves change,
their properties also change. Based on their
frequencies, electromagnetic waves are categorized
into various categories.
These categories are (in increasing order of
frequencies): radio waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and
Gamma rays.
Radio waves

u Radio waves: The radio waves can be defined as electromagnetic waves

which can be used to transmit the information in any direction without
having any restriction.
u The radio waves are defined as omnidirectional which means the waves
can travel in any direction. The basic frequency range for the radio waves
in between 3 Khz to 1 Khz. I
u n radio waves transmission, there is no necessity that the sending antenna
and receiving antenna should be aligned, the signals can be transmitted to
any receiving antenna. One of the best examples of radio waves signal is
FM radio.

Radio waves application:

u The radio waves are used where there is a requirement of sending the
same information to multiple users from a single source.
u The applications of radio waves are television, FM radio, and cordless
phone.
 Micro waves
u Microwave: The microwave is another type of electromagnetic waves that
have a frequency range of 1 GHz to 300 GHz. The microwave is unidirectional.
u In this transmission, whenever the signals are transmitted through an antenna,
the signals can make narrow to focus to a particular point. And in this
transmission, there is a requirement of proper alignment of sending antenna
and receiving antenna.
u Microwave application:
1. The unicast transmission becomes easier using microwave transmission.
2. The microwaves are used in satellite network communication and wireless
LANs.
u An example of usage of microwaves for communication is as follows:
In the big cities where land is very costly and a lot of formalities have to be
completed to get permission to dig land for cabling, microwave antennas can be
put on top of high rise buildings and communication can be started in a short
time.
Infrared waves
u Infrared waves: The infrared is another category of a wave having the frequency range
between 300 GHz to 400 THz. These types of waves are used when there is a requirement
to have communication for shorter distances.
u As the frequency is very high for infrared waves, the signals cannot penetrate through
walls. Infrared communication can be done for long-range also depending on the
requirements. The infrared waves can be intervening if the sun rays fall on it as the
sunrays also have infrared waves.
Infrared application:
u The data transmission quality for the infrared is comparatively higher than other types of
electromagnetic waves.
u Used in computer system components to have communication between them.

For e.g. Home-entertainment remote-control devices, Cordless mouse, and Intrusion

detectors are some of the devices that utilize infrared communication.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology uses radio waves in the frequency range of 2.402
GHz to 2.480 GHz. This technology is used for short range communication
(approx. 10m) in a variety of devices for wireless communication. Baby
monitors, door openers, and cell phones are some of the devices that
utilize Bluetooth communication.

Characteristics of Bluetooth Transmission:

u Line of sight between communicating devices is not required.
u Bluetooth can connect upto eight devices simultaneously.
u Slow data transfer rate (upto 1Mbps).
Satellite Link
u Satellite links are used for very long distance wireless communication
which may range from intercity to intercontinental.
u Transmission from the earth to a satellite is known as uplink. Transmission
from a satellite to the earth is known as downlink.
u There are multiple micro wave frequency bands which are used for
satellites links. Frequency used for uplink varies from 1.6 GHz to 30.0
GHz and that for downlink varies from 1.5GHz to 20.0GHz.

Characteristics of Transmission using satellite link:

u Satellites cover large area of earth
u Since communication over very long distances is possible, this becomes a
commercially attractive option.
u This system is expensive
u Requires legal permissions.