Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes direction periodically. As a
result, the voltage level also reverses along with the current. AC is used to deliver power to
houses, office buildings, etc.

Generating AC
AC can be produced using a device called an alternator. This device is a special type
of electrical generator designed to produce alternating current.
A loop of wire is spun inside of a magnetic field, which induces a current along the
wire. The rotation of the wire can come from any number of means: a wind turbine, a
steam turbine, flowing water, and so on. Because the wire spins and enters a different
magnetic polarity periodically, the voltage and current alternates on the wire. Here is a
short animation showing this principle:
To generate AC in a set of water pipes, we connect a mechanical crank to a piston that
moves water in the pipes back and forth (our "alternating" current). Notice that the
pinched section of pipe still provides resistance to the flow of water regardless of the
direction of flow.

Waveforms
AC can come in a number of forms, as long as the voltage and current are alternating.
If we hook up an oscilloscope to a circuit with AC and plot its voltage over time, we
might see a number of different waveforms. The most common type of AC is the sine
wave. The AC in most homes and offices have an oscillating voltage that produces a
sine wave.

Other common forms of AC include the square wave and the triangle wave:
Square waves are often used in digital and switching electronics to test their operation.

Triangle waves are found in sound synthesis and are useful for testing linear electronics like
amplifiers.

Describing a Sine Wave

We often want to describe an AC waveform in mathematical terms. For this example, we will
use the common sine wave. There are three parts to a sine wave: amplitude, frequency, and
phase.
Looking at just voltage, we can describe a sine wave as the mathematical function:

V(t) is our voltage as a function of time, which means that our voltage changes as time
changes. The equation to the right of the equals sign describes how the voltage changes over
time.
VP is the amplitude. This describes the maximum voltage that our sine wave can reach in either
direction, meaning that our voltage can be +V P volts, -VP volts, or somewhere in between.
The sin() function indicates that our voltage will be in the form of a periodic sine wave, which
is a smooth oscillation around 0V.
2π is a constant that converts the freqency from cycles (in hertz) to angular frequnecy (radians
per second).
f describes the frequency of the sine wave. This is given in the form of hertz or units per
second. The frequency tells how many times a particular wave form (in this case, one cycle of
our sine wave - a rise and a fall) occurs within one second.
t is our independent variable: time (measured in seconds). As time varies, our waveform
varies.
φ describes the phase of the sine wave. Phase is a measure of how shifted the waveform is
with respect to time. It is often given as a number between 0 and 360 and measured in
degrees. Because of the periodic nature of the sine wave, if the wave form is shifted by 360° it
becomes the same waveform again, as if it was shifted by 0°. For simplicity, we sill assume that
phase is 0° for the rest of this tutorial.
We can turn to our trusty outlet for a good example of how an AC waveform works. In the
United States, the power provided to our homes is AC with about 170V zero-to-peak
(amplitude) and 60Hz (frequency). We can plug these numbers into our formula to get the
equation (remember that we are assuming our phase is 0):

We can use our handy graphing calculator to graph this equation. If no graphing calculator is
available we can use a free online graphing program like Desmos (Note that you might have to
use 'y' instead of 'v' in the equation to see the graph).

Notice that, as we predicted, the voltage rise up to 170V and down to -170V periodically.
Additionally, 60 cycles of the sine wave occurs every second. If we were to measure the
voltage in our outlets with an oscilloscope, this is what we would see (WARNING: do not
attempt to measure the voltage in an outlet with an oscilloscope! This will likely damage the
equipment).
NOTE: You might have heard that AC voltage in the US is 120V. This is also correct. How?
When talking about AC (since the voltage changes constantly), it is often easier to use an
average or mean. To accomplish that, we use a method called "Root mean squared." (RMS). It
is often helpful to use the RMS value for AC when you want to calculate electrical power. Even
though, in our example, we had the voltage varying from -170V to 170V, the root mean square
is 120V RMS.

Applications
Home and office outlets are almost always AC. This is because generating and transporting AC
across long distances is relatively easy. At high voltages (over 110kV), less energy is lost in
electrical power transmission. Higher voltages mean lower currents, and lower currents mean
less heat generated in the power line due to resistance. AC can be converted to and from high
voltages easily using transformers.
AC is also capable of powering electric motors. Motors and generators are the exact same
device, but motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy (if the shaft on a motor is
spun, a voltage is generated at the terminals!). This is useful for many large appliances like
dishwashers, refrigerators, and so on, which run on AC.

Direct Current (DC)

Direct current is a bit easier to understand than alternating current. Rather than oscillating back and forth, DC
provides a constant voltage or current.

Generating DC
DC can be generated in a number of ways:

• An AC generator equipped with a device called a "commutator" can produce direct current
• Use of a device called a "rectifier" that converts AC to DC
• Batteries provide DC, which is generated from a chemical reaction inside of the battery

Using our water analogy again, DC is similar to a tank of water with a hose at the end.

The tank can only push water one way: out the hose. Similar to our DC-producing battery, once the tank is empty,
water no longer flows through the pipes.
Describing DC
DC is defined as the "unidirectional" flow of current; current only flows in one direction.
Voltage and current can vary over time so long as the direction of flow does not change. To
simplify things, we will assume that voltage is a constant. For example, we assume that a AA
battery provides 1.5V, which can be described in mathematical terms as:

If we plot this over time, we see a constant voltage:

What does this mean? It means that we can count on most DC sources to provide a constant
voltage over time. In reality, a battery will slowly lose its charge, meaning that the voltage will
drop as the battery is used. For most purposes, we can assume that the voltage is constant.

Applications
Almost all electronics projects and parts for sale on SparkFun run on DC. Everything that runs
off of a battery, plugs in to the wall with an AC adapter, or uses a USB cable for power relies on
DC. Examples of DC electronics include:

• Cell phones
• The LilyPad-based D&D Dice Gauntlet
• Flat-screen TVs (AC goes into the TV, which is converted to DC)
• Flashlights
• Hybrid and electric vehicles
 DC Voltmeters
DC voltmeter is a measuring instrument, which is used to measure the DC voltage
across any two points of electric circuit. If we place a resistor in series with the
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) galvanometer, then the entire combination
together acts as DC voltmeter.

The series resistance, which is used in DC voltmeter is also called series multiplier
resistance or simply, multiplier. It basically limits the amount of current that flows
through galvanometer in order to prevent the meter current from exceeding the full
scale deflection value. The circuit diagram of DC voltmeter is shown in below figure.

We have to place this DC voltmeter across the two points of an electric circuit, where
the DC voltage is to be measured.
Apply KVL around the loop of above circuit.
V−ImRse−ImRm=0 (Equation 1)
⇒V−ImRm=ImRse
⇒Rse=V−ImRmIm
⇒Rse=VIm−Rm (Equation 2)
Where,
Rse is the series multiplier resistance
V is the full range DC voltage that is to be measured
Im is the full scale deflection current
Rm is the internal resistance of galvanometer
The ratio of full range DC voltage that is to be measured, V and the DC voltage drop
across the galvanometer, Vm is known as multiplying factor, m. Mathematically, it can
be represented as
m=VVm (Equation 3)
From Equation 1, we will get the following equation for full range DC voltage that is
to be measured, V.
V=ImRse+ImRm (Equation 4)
The DC voltage drop across the galvanometer, Vm is the product of full scale
deflection current, Im and internal resistance of galvanometer, Rm. Mathematically, it
can be written as
Vm=ImRm (Equation 5)
Substitute, Equation 4 and Equation 5 in Equation 3.
m=ImRse+ImRmImRm
⇒m=RseRm+1
⇒m−1=RseRm
Rse=Rm(m−1) (Equation 6)
We can find the value of series multiplier resistance by using either Equation 2 or
Equation 6 based on the available data.

Multi Range DC Voltmeter

In previous section, we had discussed DC voltmeter, which is obtained by placing a
multiplier resistor in series with the PMMC galvanometer. This DC voltmeter can be
used to measure a particular range of DC voltages.
If we want to use the DC voltmeter for measuring the DC voltages of multiple ranges,
then we have to use multiple parallel multiplier resistors instead of single multiplier
resistor and this entire combination of resistors is in series with the PMMC
galvanometer. The circuit diagram of multi range DC voltmeter is shown in below
figure.
We have to place this multi range DC voltmeter across the two points of an electric
circuit, where the DC voltage of required range is to be measured. We can choose the
desired range of voltages by connecting the switch s to the respective multiplier
resistor.
Let, m1,m2,m3 and m4 are the multiplying factors of DC voltmeter when we consider
the full range DC voltages to be measured as, V1,V2,V3 and V4 respectively. Following
are the formulae corresponding to each multiplying factor.
m1=V1Vm
m2=V2Vm
m3=V3Vm
m4=V4Vm
In above circuit, there are four series multiplier resistors, Rse1,Rse2,Rse3 and Rse4.
Following are the formulae corresponding to these four resistors.
Rse1=Rm(m1−1)
Rse2=Rm(m2−1)
Rse3=Rm(m3−1)
Rse4=Rm(m4−1)
So, we can find the resistance values of each series multiplier resistor by using above
formulae.
 AC Voltmeters
The instrument, which is used to measure the AC voltage across any two points of
electric circuit is called AC voltmeter. If the AC voltmeter consists of rectifier, then it is
said to be rectifier based AC voltmeter.

The DC voltmeter measures only DC voltages. If we want to use it for measuring AC

voltages, then we have to follow these two steps.
• Step1 − Convert the AC voltage signal into a DC voltage signal by using a
rectifier.
• Step2 − Measure the DC or average value of the rectifier’s output signal.
We get Rectifier based AC voltmeter, just by including the rectifier circuit to the basic
DC voltmeter. This chapter deals about rectifier based AC voltmeters.

Types of Rectifier based AC Voltmeters

Following are the two types of rectifier based AC voltmeters.

• AC voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier

• AC voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier
Now, let us discuss about these two AC voltmeters one by one.

AC Voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier

If a Half wave rectifier is connected ahead of DC voltmeter, then that entire combination together is
called AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier. The block diagram of AC voltmeter using Half wave
rectifier is shown in below figure.

The above block diagram consists of two blocks: half wave rectifier and DC voltmeter. We will get
the corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing each block with the respective component(s) in
above block diagram. So, the circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier will look like
as shown in below figure.
The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is

Vrms=Vm/√2
⇒Vm=√2Vrms
⇒Vm=1.414Vrms
Where,
Vm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
The DC or average value of the Half wave rectifier’s output signal is
Vdc=Vm/π

Substitute, the value of Vm�� in above equation.

Vdc=1.414Vrms/π
Vdc=0.45Vrms
Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal to 0.45 times the rms value
of the sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal

AC Voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier

If a Full wave rectifier is connected ahead of DC voltmeter, then that entire combination together is
called AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier. The block diagram of AC voltmeter using Full wave
rectifier is shown in below figure

The above block diagram consists of two blocks: full wave rectifier and DC voltmeter. We will get the
corresponding circuit diagram just by replacing each block with the respective component(s) in above
block diagram.
So, the circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier will look like as shown in below
figure.

The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is

Vrms=Vm/√2
⇒Vm=√2Vrms
⇒Vm=1.414Vrms
Where,
Vm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
The DC or average value of the Full wave rectifier’s output signal is

Vdc=2Vm/π
Substitute, the value of Vm in above equation
Vdc=(2×1.414Vrms)/π
Vdc=0.9Vrms
Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal to 0.9 times the rms value of
the sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
 Other AC Voltmeters
In previous chapter, we discussed about rectifier based AC voltmeters. This chapter covers the
following two types of AC voltmeters.

• Peak responding AC voltmeter

• True RMS responding AC voltmeter
Now, let us discuss about these two types of AC voltmeters one by one.

Peak Responding AC Voltmeter

As the name suggests, the peak responding AC voltmeter responds to peak values of
AC voltage signal. That means, this voltmeter measures peak values of AC voltages.
The circuit diagram of peak responding AC voltmeter is shown below −

The above circuit consists of a diode, capacitor, DC amplifier and PMMC galvanometer.
The diode present in the above circuit is used for rectification purpose. So, the diode
converts AC voltage signal into a DC voltage signal. The capacitor charges to the peak
value of this DC voltage signal.
During positive half cycle of AC voltage signal, the diode conducts and the capacitor
charges to the peak value of AC voltage signal. When the value of AC voltage signal is
less than this value, the diode will be reverse biased.
Thus, the capacitor will discharge through resistor of DC amplifier till the next positive
half cycle of AC voltage signal. When the value of AC voltage signal is greater than the
capacitor voltage, the diode conducts and the process will be repeated.
We should select the component values in such a way that the capacitor charges fast
and discharges slowly. As a result, the meter always responds to this capacitor voltage,
i.e. the peak value of AC voltage.
True RMS Responding AC Voltmeter
As the name suggests, the true RMS responding AC voltmeter responds to the true
RMS values of AC voltage signal. This voltmeter measures RMS values of AC voltages.
The circuit diagram of true RMS responding AC voltmeter is shown in below figure.

The above circuit consists of an AC amplifier, two thermocouples, DC amplifier and

PMMC galvanometer. AC amplifier amplifies the AC voltage signal. Two
thermocouples that are used in above circuit are a measuring thermocouple and a
balancing thermocouple. Measuring thermocouple produces an output voltage, which
is proportional to RMS value of the AC voltage signal.
Any thermocouple converts a square of input quantity into a normal quantity. This
means there exists a non-linear relationship between the output and input of a
thermocouple. The effect of non-linear behavior of a thermocouple can be neglected by
using another thermocouple in the feedback circuit. The thermocouple that is used for
this purpose in above circuit is known as balancing thermocouple.
The two thermocouples, namely measuring thermocouple and balancing thermocouple
together form a bride at the input of DC amplifier. As a result, the meter always
responds to the true RMS value of AC voltage signal.
 DC Ammeters
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If this electric charge flows only in one
direction, then the resultant current is called Direct Current (DC). The instrument,
which is used to measure the Direct Current called DC ammeter.

If we place a resistor in parallel with the Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
galvanometer, then the entire combination acts as DC ammeter. The parallel resistance,
which is used in DC ammeter is also called shunt resistance or simply, shunt. The value
of this resistance should be considered small in order to measure the DC current of
large value.
The circuit diagram of DC ammeter is shown in below figure.

We have to place this DC ammeter in series with the branch of an electric circuit, where
the DC current is to be measured. The voltage across the elements, which are
connected in parallel is same. So, the voltage across shunt resistor, Rsh��ℎ and the
voltage across galvanometer resistance, Rm is same, since those two elements are
connected in parallel in above circuit. Mathematically, it can be written as
IshRsh=ImRm
⇒Rsh=ImRmIsh (Equation 1)
The KCL equation at node 1 is
−I+Ish+Im=0
⇒Ish=I−Im
Substitute the value of Ish in Equation 1.
Rsh=ImRmI−Im (Equation 2)
Take, Im as common in the denominator term, which is present in the right hand side of
Equation 2
Rsh=ImRmIm(1Im−1)
⇒Rsh=RmIIm−1(Equation 3)
Where,
Rsh is the shunt resistance
Rm is the internal resistance of galvanometer
I is the total Direct Current that is to be measured
Im is the full scale deflection current
The ratio of total Direct Current that is to be measured, I and the full scale deflection
current of the galvanometer, Im is known as multiplying factor, m. Mathematically, it
can be represented as
m=IIm (Equation 4)
Rsh=Rmm−1 (Equation 5)
We can find the value of shunt resistance by using either Equation 2 or Equation 5
based on the available data.
Multi Range DC Ammeter
In previous section, we discussed about DC ammeter which is obtained by placing a
resistor in parallel with the PMMC galvanometer. This DC ammeter can be used to
measure a particular range of Direct Currents.
If we want to use the DC ammeter for measuring the Direct Currents of multiple
ranges, then we have to use multiple parallel resistors instead of single resistor and
this entire combination of resistors is in parallel to the PMMC galvanometer. The circuit
diagram of multi range DC ammeter is shown in below figure.
Place this multi range DC ammeter in series with the branch of an electric circuit, where
the Direct Current of required range is to be measured. The desired range of currents is
chosen by connecting the switch, s to the respective shunt resistor.
Let, m1,m2,m3 and m4 are the multiplying factors of DC ammeter when we consider
the total Direct Currents to be measured as, I1,I2,I3 and I4 respectively. Following are
the formulae corresponding to each multiplying factor.
m1=I1Im
m2=I2Im
m3=I3Im
m4=I4Im
In above circuit, there are four shunt resistors, Rsh1,Rsh2,Rsh2 and Rsh4. Following are
the formulae corresponding to these four resistors.
Rsh1=Rmm1−1
Rsh2=Rmm2−1
Rsh3=Rmm3−1
Rsh4=Rmm4−1
The above formulae will help us find the resistance values of each shunt resistor.
 AC Ammeter
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If the direction of this electric charge
changes regularly, then the resultant current is called Alternating Current (AC).

The instrument, which is used to measure the Alternating Current that flows through
any branch of electric circuit is called AC ammeter.
Example − Thermocouple type AC ammeter.
Now, let us discuss about Thermocouple type AC ammeter.

Thermocouple Type AC Ammeter

If a Thermocouple is connected ahead of PMMC galvanometer, then that entire
combination is called thermocouple type AC ammeter. The block diagram of
thermocouple type AC ammeter is shown in below figure.

The above block diagram consists of mainly two blocks: a thermocouple, and a PMMC
galvanometer. We will get the corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing each
block with the respective component(s) in above block diagram. So, the circuit
diagram of thermocouple type AC ammeter will look like as shown in below figure.

Thermocouple generates an EMF, e�, whenever the Alternating Current, I flows

through heater element. This EMF, e� is directly proportional to the rms value of the
current, I that is flowing through heater element. So, we have to calibrate the scale of
PMMC instrument to read rms values of current.
So, with this chapter we have completed all basic measuring instruments such as DC
voltmeters, AC voltmeters, DC ammeters and AC ammeters. In next chapter, let us
discuss about the meters or measuring instruments, which measure resistance value.

Multimeter
A Multimeter is an electronic instrument, every electronic technician and engineer’s
widely used piece of test equipment. A multimeter is mainly used to measure the three
basic electrical characteristics of voltage, current, and resistance. It can also be used to
test continuity between two points in an electrical circuit. This post mainly introduces the
basic information of multimeters, applications, and types of multimeters are in. Let’s see
all of these.

The multimeter has multi functionalities like, acts like ammeter, voltmeter,
and ohmmeter. It is a handheld device with positive and negative indicator needles over
a numeric LCD digital display. Multimeters can be used for testing batteries, household
wiring, electric motors, and power supplies.
The essential parts of the multimeter mainly include a display, power source, probes,
and controls.

How to use a Multimeter?

The function and operation of a multimeter are similar for both analog and digital types.
This instrument includes two leads or probes namely red and black & three ports. The
black color lead is used to plug into the common port, whereas the red color leads plug
into other ports based on the requirement.

Once the leads are plugged in, the knob can be switched ON in the center of the
instrument so that the appropriate function can be done for the specific component test.
For instance, once the knob is situated to 20V DC, then the multimeter will notice DC
voltage up to 20V. To calculate low voltages, then set the knob in the multimeter to the
2V/200mV range.
To obtain a reading from the meter, you need to touch the end of each probe to the
end of the terminals of components. Types of multimeter devices are very safe to
utilize on devices and circuits to provide the current or voltage that does not go above
the highest rating of the meter.
While measuring, we must be very cautious so don’t touch the bar ends of the metal in
the tester when activated otherwise you will get an electrical shock.

Functions of Multimeters
These instruments are capable of different readings based on the model. So basic
types of multimeter are mainly used to measure amperage, resistance, voltage, checks
continuity and a complete circuit can be tested like the following.

• Resistance in Ohms
• Capacity in Farads
• The temperature in Fahrenheit/ Celsius
• AC Voltage & Amperage
• Inductance Henrys
• DC Voltage & Amperage
• Frequency in Hz
• Conductance in Siemens
• Decibels
• Duty Cycle
To some types of multimeters, special sensors or accessories can be attached for
extra readings like acidity, light level, alkalinity, wind speed & relative humidity.

Types of Multimeter
There are different types of multimeters like Analog, Digital, and Fluke multimeters.

Analog Multimeter
The Analog Multimeter or VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter) is constructed using a moving
coil meter and a pointer to indicate the reading on the scale. The moving coil meter
consists of a coil wound around a drum placed between two permanent magnets.

As current passes through the coil, the magnetic field is induced in the coil which reacts
with the magnetic field of the permanent magnets and the resultant force causes the
pointer attached to the drum to deflect on the scale, indicating the current reading. It also
consists of springs attached to the drum which provides an opposing force to the motion
of the drum to control the deflection of the pointer.

For the measurement of DC, the D Arsonval movement described above can be directly
used. However, the current to be measured should be lesser than the full-scale deflection
current of the meter. For higher currents, the current divider rule is applied. Using
different values of shunt resistors, the meter can also be used for multi-range current
measurements. For current measurement, the instrument is to be connected in series
with the unknown current source.

For measurement of DC voltage, a resistor is connected in series with the meter, and the
meter resistance is taken into account such that the current passing through the resistor
is the same as the current passing through the meter and the whole reading indicates
the voltage reading. For voltage measurement, the instrument is to be connected in
parallel with the unknown voltage source. For multirange measurement, different
resistors of different values can be used, which are connected in series with the meter.
For measurement of resistance, the unknown resistance is connected in series with the
meter and across a battery, such that the current passing through the meter is directly
proportional to the unknown resistance. For AC voltage or current measurement, the
same principle is applied, except for the fact that the AC parameter to be measured is
first rectified and filtered to get the DC parameter and the meter indicates the RMS value
of the AC signal.
Advantages of an Analog Multimeter are that it is inexpensive, doesn’t require a battery,
can measure fluctuations in the readings. The two main factors affecting the
measurement are sensitivity and accuracy. Sensitivity refers to the reciprocal of the full-
scale deflection current and is measured in ohms per volt.

Digital Multimeters
We mostly used a multimeter is a digital multimeter (DMM). The DMM performs all
functions from AC to DC other than analog. It has two probes positive and negative
indicated with black and red color is shown in the figure. The black probe connected to
COM JACK and the red probe connected by user requirement to measure ohm, volt, or
amperes.

The jack marked VΩ and the COM jack on the right of the picture are used for measuring
voltages, resistance, and for testing a diode. The two jacks are utilized when an LCD
shows what is being measured (volts, ohms, amps, etc.). Overload protection prevents
damage to the meter and the circuit and protects the user.

The Digital Multimeter consists of an LCD, a knob to select various ranges of the three
electrical characteristics, an internal circuitry consisting of a signal conditioning circuitry,
an analog to digital converter. The PCB consists of concentric rings that are connected
or disconnected based on the position of the knob. Thus as the required parameter and
the range are selected, the section of the PCB is activated to perform the corresponding
measurement.

To measure the resistance, current flows from a constant current source through the
unknown resistor, and the voltage across the resistor are amplified and fed to an Analog
to Digital Converter and the resultant output in form of resistance is displayed on the
digital display. To measure an unknown AC voltage, the voltage is first attenuated to get
the suitable range and then rectified to DC signal and the analog DC signal is fed to an
A/D converter to get the display, which indicates the RMS value of the AC signal.

Similarly to measure an AC or DC, the unknown input is first converted to a voltage signal
and then fed to an analog to digital converter to get the desired output(with rectification
in case of AC signal). Advantages of a Digital Multimeter are its output display which
directly shows the measured value, high accuracy, ability to read both positive and
negative values.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Definition : The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a versatile electrical instrument used for
displaying, measuring, and analyzing waveforms and various other electrical phenomena. It
functions as a fast X-Y plotter, displaying input signals versus time or other signals. The CRO is
typically divided into four sections: display, vertical controllers, horizontal controllers, and
triggers. Probes are often utilized for input and enable the analysis of waveforms by plotting
amplitude along the X and Y axes. With applications in radio, TV receivers, and laboratory
research and design, the CRO plays a significant role in modern electronics. Its accuracy,
stability, and ease of operation make it an ideal general-purpose laboratory instrument,
capable of handling a broad range of frequencies.
A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is an instrument that makes use of an electron beam and a
cathode ray tube to display and analyze waveforms from electrical circuits. It is basically a very
fast X-Y plotter that can display an input signal versus time or another signal. The voltage and
time describe a shape and are continually graphed next to a scale because the oscilloscope
monitors change in electrical signals over time.

Application of CRO
1. There are huge applications of CRO in Radio stations. It is true that our conventional CRO
is not used in those radio station but they almost the same to our conventional CRO. The
CROs are used in the radio station to observe the sending and receiving signal properties.

2. CRO helps to view the characteristics and property of a signal that is why it also helps to
control the analog signals.

3. The shape of voltage and current waveform can be observed by CRO which helps to take
the necessary decision in a radio station or communication station.

4. CRO is used for research purposes. When scientists are designed a new circuit, they check
voltage, current waveforms of each part of the circuit using the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
5. CRO is used with the resonance circuit to observe the bandwidth, wave shape, etc.

6. CRO also used to observe the characteristics of Amplitude Modulation Circuits, Frequency
Modulation Circuits, etc.

Use of CRO(Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)

Current Measurement: We can measure the value of current or magnitude and direction of
current using CRO. By calculating the amplitude variation, horizontal and vertical cells in the
CRO screen we can measure the current. We can measure both AC and DC in CRO.

Voltage Measurement: We can measure AC voltage as well as DC voltage in CRO. Here also
the same procedure should be followed to measure the voltage that is calculating horizontal
and vertical cells in the CRO screen.

Frequency Measurement: We not only measure voltage and current using CRO, but we can
also measure the frequency of a signal by calculating the time period. Once we measure the
time period of a signal then we can easily measure the frequency. The measurement of the
time period using CRO also very easy.

Phase Difference Measurement: Most of the CROs has two channels. We can apply two
different signals at a time on the CRO. And we can measure easily the phase difference
between the two different signals. Lissajous figures in the CRO screen helps us to measure
the phase difference between two signals. Using this method we can also measure the
frequency of two signals at a time.

Function Generator
Definition: Function Generator is basically a signal generator that produces different
types of waveforms at the output. It has the ability to produce waveforms such as
sine wave, square wave, a triangular wave, sawtooth wave etc. An adjustable
frequency range is provided by the function generator which is in the range of some Hz
to several 100KHz.

There exist various function generators that have the ability to produce two different
waveforms simultaneously by using two different output terminals.

Function Generator is a versatile instrument as an extensive variety of frequencies

and waveforms are produced by it. The various waveforms generated by the function
generator are suitable for various applications. It provides adjustment of wave shape,
frequency, magnitude and offset but requires a load connected before adjustment.

This instrument not only varies the characteristics of the waveform but also has the
capability to add a dc offset to the signal. Mostly these are only able to operate at low
frequency but some costly models can also be operated at the higher frequency.

As we have discussed earlier that it can generate 2 different waveforms simultaneously

at the two different terminals. So, it can be a useful feature as different output are
required for particular applications. It provides another important feature as they have
the capability of phase locking to an external source.

This implies that a function generator can phase lock another function generator and
the output of both can be displaced in phase.

Block Diagram and Working of Function Generator

The figure below shows the block diagram of the function generator-

A frequency control network used here whose frequency is controlled by the variation
in the magnitude of current. The current sources 1 and 2 drives the integrator.

By using Function Generator, we can have a wide variety of waveforms whose

frequency changes from 0.01 Hz to 100 KHz. The two current sources are regulated by
the frequency controlled voltage.
A constant current is supplied to the integrator by current supply source 1. Due to this,
the voltage of the integrator rises linearly with respect to time. This linear rise is

according to the output signal voltage equation: Any increase or

decrease in the current will resultantly increase or decrease the slope of the voltage at
the output and thus controls the frequency.

The Voltage Comparator Multi-vibrator present here cause variation in the

state of the integrator output voltage at a previously determined maximum level. Due
to this change of state, the current supply from source 1 cuts off and switches to supply
source 2.

A reverse current is supplied to the integrator by current source 2. This reverse current
cause drops in the output of integrator linearly with time. As before this time also, when
the output attains a predetermined level, the comparator again changes its state and
switches to current supply source 1.

Thus we will have a triangular wave at the output of the integrator whose frequency
depends on current by the supply sources as we can see in the block diagram shown
above. A square wave signal is obtained at the output of the comparator.

The resistance diode network employed in the circuit changes the slope of that
triangular wave with distortion less than 1%. The output amplifier thus helps to
provide two waves at the output simultaneously. This captured signal can be displayed
by using an oscilloscope.

Applications Of Function Generator

Function generator provides a wide variety of applications such as in RF-related
operations, automotive applications, in educational, medical and industrial fields etc.

ICL 8083 Function Generator

Intersil manufactured IC 8083 known as ICL 8083 has a tremendous capability of
generating various types of waveforms. It uses 3 separate output terminals over a
frequency range from 0.0001 Hz to 1 MHz

The frequency of the circuit is controlled by an external voltage and may be determined
by an externally connected resistor-capacitor combination.

The 8083 is basically a relaxation oscillator that produces a triangular waveform.

Voltage comparators and digital type storage devices then internally convert triangular
pulses into a rectangular waveform. When there is a need to convert a triangular wave
into sinusoidal wave 16 internal transistors are needed to be employed.
Let’s have a look at the Pin diagram of ICL 8083 shown below:

Sine Wave Adjust Pins 1 and 12:

These are used for connecting external resistors to minimize sinusoidal waveform
distortion.

Duty Cycle and Frequency Adjust Pins 4 and 5:

These are used to connect external resistors with that to external capacitors C known
as timing capacitor, connected to pin 10 to determine the duty cycle and frequency of
the outputs.
FM Sweep Input Pin 8:

This pin is connected with an external voltage to adjust the output frequency.

NC Pins 13 and 14:

These two pins denote no connection.

Signal Analyzer
A signal analyzer is an instrument that measures the magnitude and phase of the input signal
at a single frequency within the IF bandwidth of the instrument. It employs digital techniques
to extract useful information that is carried by an electrical signal.[1] In common usage the
term is related to both spectrum analyzers and vector signal analyzers. While spectrum
analyzers measure the amplitude or magnitude of signals, a signal analyzer with appropriate
software or programming can measure any aspect of the signal such as modulation. Today’s
high-frequency signal analyzers achieve good performance by optimizing both the analog front
end and the digital back end.[2]
Theory of operationEdit

Fig : Modern Signal Analyzer Architecture

Modern signal analyzers use a superheterodyne receiver to downconvert a portion of the
signal spectrum for analysis. As shown in the figure to the right, the signal is first converted to
an intermediate frequency and then filtered in order to band-limit the signal and
prevent aliasing. The downconversion can operate in a swept-tuned mode similar to a
traditional spectrum analyzer, or in a fixed-tuned mode. In the fixed-tuned mode the range of
frequencies downconverted does not change and the downconverter output is
then digitized for further analysis. The digitizing process typically involves in-phase/quadrature
(I/Q) or complex sampling so that all characteristics of the signal are preserved, as opposed to
the magnitude-only processing of a spectrum analyzer. The sampling rate of the digitizing
process may be varied in relation to the frequency span under consideration or (more typically)
the signal may be digitally resampled.

Typical usage
Signal analyzers can perform the operations of both spectrum analyzers and vector signal
analyzers. A signal analyzer can be viewed as a measurement platform, with operations such as
spectrum analysis (including phase noise, power, and distortion) and vector signal analysis
(including demodulation or modulation quality analysis) performed as measurement
applications. These measurement applications can be built into the analyzer platform as
measurement firmware or installed as changeable application software.

Spectrum Analyzer
A spectrum analyzer measures the magnitude of an input signal versus frequency within the
full frequency range of the instrument. The primary use is to measure the power of the
spectrum of known and unknown signals. The input signal that most common spectrum
analyzers measure is electrical; however, spectral compositions of other signals, such as
acoustic pressure waves and optical light waves, can be considered through the use of an
appropriate transducer. Spectrum analyzers for other types of signals also exist, such as optical
spectrum analyzers which use direct optical techniques such as a monochromator to make
measurements.
By analyzing the spectra of electrical signals, dominant
frequency, power, distortion, harmonics, bandwidth, and other spectral components of a signal
can be observed that are not easily detectable in time domain waveforms. These parameters
are useful in the characterization of electronic devices, such as wireless transmitters.
The display of a spectrum analyzer has frequency displayed on the horizontal axis and
the amplitude on the vertical axis. To the casual observer, a spectrum analyzer looks like
an oscilloscope, which plots amplitude on the vertical axis but time on the horizontal axis. In
fact, some lab instruments can function either as an oscilloscope or a spectrum analyzer.
The electronic instrument, used for analyzing waves in frequency domain is
called spectrum analyzer. Basically, it displays the energy distribution of a signal on its
CRT screen. Here, x-axis represents frequency and y-axis represents the amplitude.

Types of Spectrum Analyzers

We can classify the spectrum analyzers into the following two types.
• Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer
• Superheterodyne Spectrum Analyzer
Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer
The spectrum analyzer, used for analyzing the signals are of AF range is called filter
bank spectrum analyzer, or real time spectrum analyzer because it shows (displays)
any variations in all input frequencies.
The following figure shows the block diagram of filter bank spectrum analyzer.

The working of filter bank spectrum analyzer is mentioned below.

• It has a set of band pass filters and each one is designed for allowing a
specific band of frequencies. The output of each band pass filter is given to
a corresponding detector.
• All the detector outputs are connected to Electronic switch. This switch
allows the detector outputs sequentially to the vertical deflection plate of
CRO. So, CRO displays the frequency spectrum of AF signal on its CRT
screen.
Superheterodyne Spectrum Analyzer
The spectrum analyzer, used for analyzing the signals are of RF range is
called superheterodyne spectrum analyzer. Its block diagram is shown in below
figure.

The working of superheterodyne spectrum analyzer is mentioned below.

• The RF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to input attenuator. If the
signal amplitude is too large, then it can be attenuated by an input
attenuator.
• Low Pass Filter (LPF) allows only the frequency components that are less
than the cut-off frequency.
• Mixer gets the inputs from Low pass filter and voltage tuned oscillator. It
produces an output, which is the difference of frequencies of the two signals
that are applied to it.
• IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal, i.e. the output
of mixer. The amplified IF signal is applied to detector.
The output of detector is given to vertical deflection plate of CRO. So, CRO displays the
frequency spectrum of RF signal on its CRT screen.
So, we can choose a particular spectrum analyzer based on the frequency range of the
signal that is to be analyzed.