ALTERNATING CURRENT

When a resistor is connected across the terminals of a battery, a current is established in

the circuit. The current has a unique direction, it goes from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal via the external resistor. The magnitude of the current also remains
almost constant. If the direction of the current in a resistor or in any other element changes
alternately, the current is called an alternating current (AC). In this chapter, we shall study
the alternating current that varies sinusoidally with time. Such a current is given by
i = i0 sin(ωt + ϕ).

The current repeats its value after each time interval T = 2π/ω. This time interval is called
the time period. The current is positive for half the time period and is negative for the
remaining half period. This means, its direction reverses after each half time period. The
maximum value of the current is i0 which is called the peak current or the current
amplitude. To get sinusoidally varying alternating current, we need a source which can
generate sinusoidally varying emf. An AC generator, also called an AC dynamo, can be used
as such a source. It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, producing an
alternating emf.

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THEORY
Instantaneous and RMS value of current and voltage
We generally know that there are two types of current which we use in our daily lives,
viz. (1) Direct Current (DC) and (2) Alternating Current (AC). Direct current simply means
a unidirectional flow of charge. In the circuit, the current simply keeps on flowing in the
same direction based on a potential difference applied to it with the same magnitude unit
the source or load is changed. In contrast, an Alternating current is an electric current
that reverses its direction and changes its magnitude over fixed intervals of time. The
graphs below show a clear difference in the pattern of direct current and alternating
current.

Instantaneous Value and Peak Value

As we know that the value of current and voltage in the case of alternating current
changes with time. Hence, for any given time, there exist a different value of current and
voltage according to the nature of the wave of alternating current. Normally, a source
supplies an alternating voltage according to the equation

V=V0sin(ωt)

Here, V0 is the maximum value (peak value) of the voltage supplied, ω is the angular
frequency, and t is time. Hence, for any time t, we can obtain the instantaneous value of
voltage in terms of the peak voltage.

For current, we consider various circuits because it functions in a different way for
resistors, capacitors, and inductors. The phase difference between current and voltage
when an AC source is applied across a resistor is zero. Hence, the instantaneous value of
current in resistor will be i=i0sin(ωt). For a similar case in the capacitor, current leads
voltage by an angle π2, hence the instantaneous value of current across a capacitor
is i=i0sin(ωt+π2) and for the inductor, voltage leads current by the same angle.
Therefore, the instantaneous value of current across the inductor will be i=i0sin(ωt–π2).

But, for a combination of resistor, capacitor, and inductor, the instantaneous current, in
general, will be written as i=i0sin(ωt–φ). Where φ is the phase difference between
current and voltage, which changes according to the value of the components connected
and how they are connected.

Mean Value
Mean value is the average value of alternating current over time. Since an alternating
current has equal values of both in the positive and negative direction, its means values
always come out to be zero.

⟨V⟩=1T∫0TV0sin(ωt)dt

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⟨V⟩=V0T[–cos(ωt)]0T

∴⟨V⟩=0

Therefore, instead of going for the complete cycle, for mean value, we go for the half -
cycle

⟨V⟩=1T2∫0T2V0sin(ωt)dt

⟨V⟩=2V0T[–cos(ωt)]0T2

∴⟨V⟩=2V0π

⟨V⟩=0.637V0

Hence, the mean value over a half cycle is 0.637 times its peak value. This was the
average value for a sinusoidal waveform. Further in this article, we will have a look at
the mean values of other waveforms too.

RMS Value
RMS stands for Root Mean Square, which means the value of steady current or voltage
of DC, which would generate the same amount of heat in a given resistor in a given time
as will be done by AC. As the name suggests, going step by step, first we need to square
the quantity, then take its means, and final root it.

Let us find the RMS value of a sinusoidal wave:

V=V0sin(ωt)

Taking square on both sides:

V2=V02sin2(ωt)

Calculating mean over the time period:

⟨V2⟩=1T∫0TV02sin2(ωt)dt

⟨V2⟩=V02T∫0T(1–cos(2ωt)2)dt

⟨V2⟩=V022

Finally, taking roots on both the sides

⟨V2⟩=V022

∴Vrms=V02

The same will be the case of current if it’s a sinusoidal wave. Hence, the RMS value of
voltage and current for a sinusoidal waveform is approximately 0.71 times its peak
value.

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Summary
From this article, we got to know about instantaneous values for alternating current and
voltage and also learned how to find mean values and RMS values for different types of
waveforms.

For sinusoidal wave:

Mean value: ⟨V⟩=0.637V0
RMS value: Vrms=V02

For triangular wave:

Mean value: :⟨V⟩=0.5V0
RMS value: Vrms=0.577V0
For square wave:
Mean value: :⟨V⟩=V0
RMS value: V0

Circuits containing inductance only

There are two forms of current which include alternating and direct current. In direct
current (DC), the flow of electricity is only in one direction. In contrast, in the case of
alternative current (AC), the flow of charge changes direction periodically. Hence,
there is a reversal in both the voltage level and the current flow.

An AC circuit containing inductance only is a circuit that consists of only the inductor
as a component. We use such inductors in the AC circuit as filters. They are known
to store energy in the form of magnetic energy and hence are known for reducing
fluctuation during the flow of electric current.

The AC circuit containing inductance only means that the AC circuit consists only of
inductors with no influence from resistor or capacitor

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Impact and Use of Inductor in the AC Circuit
In the case of alternating current, as the electric current flows, it sets up a magnetic
effect. This magnetism alters the electromotive force. The primary role of the
inductor is to reduce the fluctuation during the flow of high currents and voltage.

In the AC Circuit containing inductance only, as the applied voltage varies and
reverses polarity, the inductor stores energy continuously only as magnetic energy
without preventing the flow of the electric current.

Inductance also prevents voltage fluctuation. The alternating current’s opposition

caused by inductance is called reactance. In the AC Circuit containing inductance
only, there will be no effect of resistance and capacitance in the circuit. Hence, it will
lag the voltage by an angle of 90°.

AC Circuit Containing Inductance Only Meaning and

Equation
With the AC circuit containing inductance only, as only the inductor is present, it
reserves the electrical energy and converts it into a magnetic field with the current
flow through it. As the direction of current or voltage changes, the impact of the time-
varying magnetic field leads to the electromotive force opposing the current flow.

Hence, it is known to control the current flow’s fluctuation, and opposition is called
inductive reactance.

The equation of the AC circuit containing inductance only meaning proves that the
current in the pure inductive AC circuits lags the voltage by 90°.

Let the voltage in the circuit be

v = VmSin ωt

The electromotive force (EMF) in the inductor is

E = – L x dl/dt

In comparison, the EMF induced in the circuit is equal and opposite to the voltage
applied.

Hence, we can imply that v = E

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 v = – L x dl/dt

Putting the value of v

VmSin ωt = – L x dl/dt

On integrating the sides, we can conclude that in the case of the pure inductive AC
circuits, it lags the voltage by 90°.

Understanding Inductive Reactance

Inductive reactance in the AC circuit containing inductance only is when the
inductance opposes the alternating current. We measure this inductive reactance in
ohms.

Let us consider how XL represents it. The voltage induced in the circuit is the
counter electromotive force known to oppose change. When the flow of current is
maximum, it induces the counter EMF.

In the AC circuit, which consists of only an inductor, the current is lagging compared
to the voltage. The current will flow bound by the circuit’s reactance in the AC circuit
containing inductance only.

It successfully stores the energy into a magnetic field as the circuit flows. It thus
helps in its return if there is a collapse. This process is known as reactive power.

AC Circuit Containing Inductance Only Importance

Let us learn about the importance of such AC circuits.

 The importance of the AC circuit containing inductance only is its ability to convert and store the
electric energy into magnetic energy. Hence, the generation of EMF opposes the change of the
current and controls fluctuation.
 The inductors present in the AC Circuit work and function by dropping a voltage directly
proportional to the current rate of change.
 We can observe the AC Circuit containing inductance is of only importance in various devices
like voltage stabilisers used in many appliances. The pure inductive AC circuit helps with
stabilising fluctuation as the current is lagging the voltage by 90°.
 The instantaneous power in an AC circuit containing inductance only may be positive or
negative. This power is a product of voltage and current. Therefore, it equals zero whenever the
circuit’s instantaneous current or voltage is zero.

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Conclusion
The alternating current circuit has applications in a range of appliances used in our
daily life.

Alternating current involves the flow of current in a way that it changes direction
periodically. As the current changes direction, it periodically reverses the voltage in
the AC circuits. Hence, in the AC Circuit containing inductance only, the current lags
the voltage by 90°.

When the AC circuit consists of only the inductor, it helps store the electric current in
the form of the magnetic field. This aspect leads to altering the electromotive force
and is known to control the voltage fluctuation.

Hence, understanding the AC Circuit containing inductance only means analysing

the AC circuit consisting only of the inductance without the capacitance and
resistance.

Circuits containing capacitance only

An alternating voltage source is connected across a capacitance C capacitor. An

alternating voltage is given by the following:

In Kirchoff’s loop rule, if “q” is the charge on the capacitor at that instant, the
electromotive force across the capacitor is q/C.

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where [Vm] / [1/Cω] = Im ,which is alternating current’s peak value. According to
equations 4.49 and 4.50, current leads to applied voltage by π/2 in capacitive
circuits.

Capacitive reactance XC
The peak value of current Im is given by Im = [Vm] / [1/Cω]. Comparing the equation
with Im = Vm/R from the resistive circuit, the quantity 1/ Cω plays the same role as
the resistance R in the resistive circuit. This is called capacitive reactance (XC), or
the reactance offered by the capacitor. It is measured in ohm.

Hence, a capacitive circuit provides a constant resistance to the steady current,

which is why the constant current cannot flow through the capacitor.

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 Conclusion
Capacitance is charge stored on its plate. On applying AC current a capacitor will
charge alternately and discharge at a frequency of the AC current supplied. The
peak value of current Im is given by Im = [Vm] / [1/Cω]. Comparing the equation with
Im = Vm/R from the resistive circuit, the quantity 1/ Cω plays the same role as the
resistance R in the resistive circuit. This is called capacitive reactance (XC), or the
reactance offered by the capacitor. It is measured in ohm. The expression for the
reactance of a capacitor is Xc = 1C. The phase and current voltages of a full-
resistive circuit are always the same, so we can add voltage to current power to get
the power consumed at any given time.

Circuits containing resistance only

Use of Resistance in the DC circuit:

The resistor is used in the DC circuit to prevent or resist the flow of electric current.
The value of inductance and capacitance is negligible for the AC circuit containing
resistance only. When the resistor is present, electrical energy is converted into heat,
and hence, there is resistance to the flow of electricity.

Here are some components are known for the AC circuit:

 Resistance is the measure that resists the passage of electrical current, and its value is
measured in ohms and represented by R.
 Capacitance is the ability of the capacitor to store energy, an electrical component used in the
electric circuit.

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 The inductor is a passive component used in electronic circuits for storing energy in the form of
magnetic energy on the application of the electric field.

Use of fully resistant AC circuit:

The resistor is a type of passive component used in the electric circuit, and it helps in
regulating and impeding the flow of current. In the AC circuit containing resistance
only, it consists of resistance. In the purely resistive circuit, the power is dissipated
by the resistors, whereas the voltage and current remain the same, which means it
reaches maximum value simultaneously. The sinusoidal voltage is applied to a
resistance in the purely resistive circuit. To find resistance in the AC circuit, the value
of the voltage and current are calculated either in root-mean-square (RMS) values or
peak values. In a pure AC circuit, there is no effect of inductance and capacitance in
the circuit.

Finding an AC circuit containing resistance only:

A circuit consists of AC sinusoidal voltage source and resistance denoted by K.
When the voltage and current flowing through it are in phase, K resists the electric
flow through the circuit.

Here is the method of finding the resistance based on the equation:

The following is the equation for the voltage applied to the resistance of a pure
resistance circuit:

v = Vmsin ωt

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On application of the voltage, it will lead to the flow of the alternating current in the
circuit represented by i.

Hence, the total voltage applied across the resistance is shown by:

v = iR

i = v/R = Vmsin ωt/R = Imsin ωt

Im = Vm /R, which represents the maximum value of the circuit

V-I Phase relationship in Resistance AC Circuit:

The resistance value of the resistor in the AC Circuit is the same despite the AC
supply voltage frequency. The change in direction does not impact the behaviour.
The VI-phase of the AC circuit containing resistance only works in a pattern. As the
voltage and current in the AC circuit reach their maximum, it falls to zero and
reaches the minimum simultaneously. Hence, in a pure AC resistant circuit, as there
is simultaneous rise and fall of the voltage and current, it is known to be in-phase. As
in the case of the AC circuit containing resistance only, the phase difference is zero
with negligible inductance and capacitance effects.

AC circuit containing resistance importance:

The resistance in the AC circuit plays a vital role as it resists the flow of the electric
current. One of the significant AC circuits containing resistance importance is the
circuit consisting of resistors, which means the current and voltage are in phase. The
AC circuit containing resistance only prevents current flow or limits it because of its
ability to convert the electric current into heat energy. In the AC circuit with a resistor,
it does not consist of the inductor and capacitance, and hence it is known to resist
the current flow. The resistor creates a resistance in the circuit and stops the current
flow.

Conclusion:
AC circuit is an electric circuit that flows the alternating current. The AC circuit
containing resistance only consists of only the resistor in the AC circuit, which
prevents the flow of the electric current along the circuit. According to Ohm’s law, as
the resistor is the only component present, it decreases current by reducing the
voltage. The topic helps understand that as voltage and current remain the same in
the pure resistance AC circuit, it reaches a maximum value simultaneously. Hence, it
is found that as the current flows through the pure resistor, it is in phase with the

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voltage across the resistor and hence stops the movement of the electric current.
The AC circuit containing resistance notes summarises all necessary information for
understanding how the pure resistance AC circuit works.

Resistance – Inductance circuit

RL Circuits (resistor – inductor circuit), also called RL network or RL filter, is a type

of circuit having a combination of inductors and resistors and is usually driven by
some power source. As such, an RL circuit has the inductor and a resistor connected
in either parallel or series combination with each other. They are either driven by the
current (parallel) or a voltage (series) source. Besides, the resistor (R), inductor (L),
and capacitor (C) form the basic passive linear circuit elements. They can form an
electrical circuit in four different ways like the RC circuit, the LC circuit and the RLC
circuit.

Alternatively, an RL circuit is also described as an electric circuit with resistance and

self-inductance. We already know that the process of induction occurs when an emf
source is applied by a continuous change in the magnetic flux. The mutual
inductance is an effect of the laws of induction presented by Faraday, while self-
inductance is an effect of the laws of induction of Faraday of a device coming on
itself. The inductor is a circuit or a device component that exhibits self-inductance.
However, since there is a presence of a resistor in the ideal form of the circuit, an RL
circuit will consume energy, akin to an RC circuit or RLC circuit.

Consider the above circuit having a battery, a resistor, and a switch. The switch can
either have the battery in the series connection to the circuit or the battery can be
removed from the circuit. When the switch is closed, the current jumps to the

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maximum value and when the switch is opened, the value of current decreases
immediately.

When an inductor is added in series with the resistor of the circuit, we come to
observe changes in the current. The role of an inductor in the circuit is to oppose the
change in the magnetic flux, i.e., the inductor does not allow the spontaneous
changes in the current. When we close the switch of the circuit, there is a gradual
increase in the value of current to a maximum value. When we open the switch and
remove the battery, the inductor voltage causes the current to reduce gradually to
the value of zero again.

A first-order RL circuit mainly comprises one resistor and one inductor to form an RL
circuit. The power factor of this circuit is low because of the inductive load like a 3-
phase induction motor. Even the lamps, transformers, welding devices operate at
low lagging power factors.

In the RL series circuit, the flow of current is lagging behind the voltage through an
angle ‘ϕ’ due to the inductor effect. So here, the power factor (PF) can be given like
the cosine of lagging angle ‘ϕ’

The power factor = Cos ϕ = Resistance/Impedance = R/Z

RL Series Circuit
A circuit that contains a resistance R connected in series with the coil having an
inductance L is known as an RL Series Circuit. When a supply voltage (V) is applied
across the current element I flowing in the circuit. IL and IR are the currents flowing
in the inductor and resistor, but the current flowing across both the elements are the
same as they are said to be connected in the series connection with each other. The
diagram of the RL Series Circuit is as shown below-

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where VR is the voltage across resistor R

VL is the voltage across inductor L

V(t) is the total voltage across the circuit

In the above simple RL Series circuit where the resistor, R and the inductor, L are
combined in series combination with the voltage source having V volts. The current
flowing in the whole circuit is I amps and the current through the resistor and the
inductor is IR and IL. Since both the resistance as well as the inductor are connected
in the series combination, the current in both of the elements of the circuit remains
the same.

Here, IL = IR = I. Consider VL and VR to be the voltage drops across the inductor and
resistor. By the application of Kirchhoff voltage law (sum of the voltage drops must
be the same across the circuit to apply the voltage) to this circuit, we get,

V(t) = VR + VL

Thus, this is the equation for the voltage across the RL series circuit.

RL Parallel Circuit
The parallel RL circuit is generally of less interest than the series circuit. It can be
interesting until it is fed by a current source. This is the case with a parallel RL circuit

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mainly because the output voltage Vout is equal to the input voltage Vin. As a result,
this circuit does not act as a filter for a voltage input signal.

With complex impedances:

IR=VimR

IL=VimjwL=jVimwL

The inductor lags the resistor (and source) current by 90°.

The parallel circuit can be found on the output of many amplifier circuits. It is
basically used to isolate the amplifier from capacitive loading effects at high
frequencies.

Use of RL Circuit
 In chokes of luminescent tubes.
 For supplying DC power to radio-frequency amplifiers where the inductor is used to pass
DC bias current, and block the RF returning into the power supply.
 RL circuits can form a single-pole filter. The filter is low-pass or high-pass is dictated by
whether the reactive element (C or L) is in series with the load or parallel with the load.
 Radio Wave Transmitters.
 Resonant LC Circuit/RLC Circuit.
 Communication Systems.

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  Processing of Signal.
 Oscillator Circuits.
 Magnification of Current or Voltage.
 Variable Tunes Circuits.
 Filtering Circuits.

Resistance – Capacitance circuit

A resistor-capacitor circuit (RC CIrcuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of passive
components like resistors and capacitors, driven by the current source or the voltage
source.

The capacitor stores energy, and the resistor connected to the circuit controls the
rate of charging or discharging.

The charging and discharging of the capacitor is not an instant process but takes
some time. If the resistor and capacitor are connected in series, the capacitor
charges gradually through the resistor until the voltage across the resistor is equal to
the supply voltage.

Charging of Capacitor

Let us consider that a fully discharged capacitor is connected to the circuit, and the
switch is open. The initial condition of the circuit is time (t) = 0, charge (q) = 0 and

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current (i) = 0. When the switch is closed, the time will start from t = 0, and the
current starts flowing through the capacitor and the resistor. An initially uncharged
capacitor can be assumed to be a connecting wire just after the circuit is completed.

At time t = 0, the potential difference across the capacitor is zero and continues to be
equal to zero just after the time t = 0.

The current flowing at this time is called the charging current, and it is calculated
using Ohm’s law. The value of the current is,

i = i0 = ε/R.

Here, ε is the emf of the cell.

R is the resistance of the resistor.

As time progresses, the capacitor charges up, and a potential difference develops
across the capacitor. Let us consider at any time “t”, the charge across the capacitor
is “q”, and the current in the circuit is “i”. The potential difference across the capacitor
is q/C, and the potential difference across the resistor is iR.

Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law, we get

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Differentiating the above equation, we get the value of current

LCR Circuits
An electronic LCR circuit is a circuit consisting of a resistor, a capacitor, and an
inductor, all of them are connected in a series combination with each other. Since all
these components of the LCR circuit are connected in series, the current passing
through each of them is the same and is equivalent to the total current passing
through the circuit. An LCR circuit is also an electric circuit consisting of the three
components that are the inductor, capacitor, and resistor.

Read on, to know more about LCR circuits, the components that constitute an LCR
circuit, their types, formulas, power of an LCR circuit, and what are their importance
along with FAQs.

LCR circuit stands for inductance-capacitance-resistance and it can act as only of the
three individually. It is also used to improve the voltage and to increase the voltage
passing through the individual parts of the circuit. This voltage can be way larger
than the external voltage applied to the electric circuit.

LCR circuits are also used to change the impedance of the circuit, and to increase or
decrease the resistance of the current of different frequencies present in it. All these
uses can be used individually or they can be used all together to get the wanted
results in an electronic device.

Below is the diagram showing a typical LCR circuit set up with all its components.

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Phasor Diagram of LCR Circuit

There are three conditions possible depending on the values of XLXL and XCXC

o When the inductive reactance (XLXL) is greater than the capacitive reactance
(XCXC), the tangent of the phase angle (θ) is positive, indicating that the
voltage leads the current. This type of circuit is called inductive.
o When the inductive reactance(XLXL) is less than the capacitive reactance
(XCXC), the tangent of the phase angle (θ) is negative, indicating that the
voltage lags behind the current. This type of circuit is called capacitive.

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 o When the inductive reactance (XLXL) is equal to the capacitive reactance
(XCXC), the tangent of the phase angle (θ) is zero, indicating that the voltage
is in phase with the current. This type of circuit is known as a resonant circuit.

Impedance in LCR Circuit

Impedance, represented by Z, is the combined resistance and reactance in an AC
circuit. It cannot be determined simply by adding the resistance and reactance
values. In an LCR circuit, the resistance (R), capacitance (C), and inductance (L) all play
a role and reach their maximum values simultaneously.

When the reactance is greater than the resistance, the phase difference tends to be
larger, reaching approximately 90°. Conversely, when the resistance is larger, the
phase difference tends to be closer to 0°.

The resistance and reactance can be visualized using a right-angle triangle.

In this triangle, if the inductive reactance (XLXL) is greater than the capacitive
reactance (XCXC), the circuit exhibits a lagging phase angle. If XCXC is greater
than XLXL, the circuit is capacitive and exhibits a leading phase angle. When XCXC is
equal to XLXL, the circuit reaches its resonant frequency.

The magnitude of the current in an LCR circuit depends on the frequency. When the
impedance (Z) is at its maximum, the current (I) is at its minimum.

The formula for calculating impedance

is Z=R2+(XL−XC)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√Z=R2+(XL−XC)2.

Resonance in LCR Circuit

Resonance happens when the magnitudes of inductive and capacitive reactances are
equal but with a phase difference of 180°. At this point, they counteract each other,
resulting in the cancellation of their effects. This specific frequency is called the
resonance frequency of a LCR series circuit. Therefore, the circuit can be referred to
as a resonance LCR circuit.

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 Alternating Current Generator
We have already studied the definition of the AC generator in class X, but there we
will study the brief definition, principle, concept, working, and uses of the AC
generator. We have studied that an AC generator is a device that converts
mechanical energy to electrical energy. Here we are going to study its working,
principle, and parts.

Explain AC generator

AC generators are electric generators that convert/change mechanical energy to

electrical energy in an alternating EMF or alternating current. In AC generators the
supply of input is a mechanical energy switch supplied through combustion engines,
gas turbines, and steam turbines. The generated output is alternating electrical
power in the form of current and alternating voltage.

The working principle of the AC generator is based on Faraday’s Law of

electromagnetic induction. The law states that the current will be induced in the
conductor when placed in the magnetic field.

AC Generator Principle, Parts and Working

The different components of an AC generator are mentioned below:-

 Field
 Slip Rings
 Rotor
 Stator
 Prime Mover
 Armature

The AC generator consists of the components listed above. So, lets us discuss the
working of each part briefly:-

 Field: This element of the AC generator comprises the conductor’s coils that receive
the voltage from source & create magnetic flux. Magnetic flux in the magnetic field
steps down the armature to generate voltage. It is the output voltage of the AC
generator.
 Armature: An Armature is a rectangular coil with many turn wounds around a soft
iron core, a shaft it can be rotated rapidly. The voltage is generated in this part of the

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 AC generator. This component comprises coils of wires which are huge enough to
transfer the full-load current of the generator.
 Field Magnet: A field magnet is a permanent solid magnet with concave poles. It has
two slip rings S1 and S2, connected to the armature and thus rotate with it. Two
Brushes B1 and B2 provide electrical contact with the slip ring and load, which may
be a Galvanometer and shore.
 Prime Mover: It is the part used to operate the AC generator is known as the prime
mover. The prime mover could either be a steam turbine, a motor, or a diesel engine.
 Rotor: Roter is the rotating module of a generator. It is one of the essential
components to move the generator primarily.
 Stator: The stationary part of an AC generator is known as Stator. The stator
consists of a lamination of alloys, magnetic iron or steel to expand the loss of eddy
current.
 Slip Rings: Slip rings are electrical connectors that transport electricity from and to
an AC generator’s rotor. They are primarily used to transfer current from a fixed
device to a revolving one.

AC Generator- Working Principle

An AC generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. In

electromagnetic induction, an electric current or EMF is induced in the coil when
there is a relative motion between a coil and a magnetic field.

The magnetic flux associated with an armature changes continually as it rotates

between the poles of the field magnet. As a result, the armature generates an EMF.
As a result, an electric current flows through the armature and galvanometer, and the

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 slip rings and brushes note that the galvanometer needle swings between negative
and positive values, indicating that the galvanometer is receiving alternating current
(AC).

The Direction of Electric Current

The armature ABCD is initially vertical, with its side (AB) up and another side (CD)
down. The direction of the magnetic field is from left to right as the armature
undergoes half rotation clockwise; one arm moves down while the other moves up.
According to Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, the current will flow in the direction of
DCBA. So, the current will flow from B1 to B2 through the Galvanometer during the
next half rotation; arm AB moves up while arm CD moves down. Again from
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, current will flow in the direction of ABCD, from B2 to B1
bond through the galvanometer. Thus, the induced current will change its direction in
every half rotation.

Direct Current electric generator

A direct current generator or DC generator is a device that converts chemical or

mechanical energy into direct current electricity. The electricity produced by this
device is dynamic and has no up and down peaks like an AC generator.

Benefits of the AC Generator over the DC Generator

AC generators have numerous benefits over DC generators. Some significant

advantage of AC generator over DC generator is as follows:-

 The AC is simpler to generate than DC. AC is more cost-efficient than DC

 In AC generators, during the generation of Power, energy wastage is almost
negligible.
 The Size of the AC generator is smaller as compared to DC.
 AC is easy to step up and step down through the transformer.
 Transmission link size in AC generator is thinner due to step-up future.
 AC generator is cheaper than DC.

Uses of the AC Generator

An AC generator is one of the significant energy-generating components of many

electric devices we use in our daily lives. Some of the appliances are as follows:-

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 They work as alternators in automobile devices.
 They work as power generators in a windmill.
 They work as power generators in Hydroelectric dams.

Conclusion

So, in this chapter, we learned that an AC generator is a device that converts

mechanical energy into electrical energy in the form of alternating EMF or alternating
current. It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. In AC generators
the supply of mechanical energy is supplied by combustion engines, gas turbines,
and steam turbines. The working principle of the AC generator is based on
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. The law states that the current will be
induced in the conductor when placed in the magnetic field. AC generators have
many uses in your day-to-day life. It is observed that this particular topic carries five
marker questions in the CBSE Board examination.

Transformer

The transformer, in a simple way, can be described as a device that steps up or

steps down voltage. In a step-up transformer, the output voltage is increased, and in
a step-down transformer, the output voltage is decreased. The step-up transformer
will decrease the output current, and the step-down transformer will increase the
output current to keep the input and output power of the system equal.

The transformer is basically a voltage control device that is used widely in the
distribution and transmission of alternating current power. The idea of a transformer
was first discussed by Michael Faraday in the year 1831 and was carried forward by
many other prominent science scholars. However, the general purpose of using
transformers was to maintain a balance between the electricity that was generated at
very high voltages and consumption which was done at very low voltages.

What Is a Transformer?
A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The
transmission current is AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply
voltage without a change in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer
works on the basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

Transformer Types

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Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution
sector, transmission and electric energy consumption. There are various types of
transformers which are classified based on the following factors:

 Working voltage range

 The medium used in the core
 Winding arrangement
 Installation location

Based on Voltage Levels

Commonly used transformer types, depending on the voltage, are classified as
follows:

 Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the
power grid. The secondary output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
 Step-down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high-
voltage primary supply to low-voltage secondary output.

Based on the Medium of Core Used

In a transformer, we will find different types of cores that are used.

 Air Core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary
winding is through the air. The coil or windings wound on the non-magnetic
strip.
 Iron Core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked
together, which provides a perfect linkage path to generate flux.

Based on the Winding Arrangement

 Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core.
The primary and secondary share the same coil. Auto means “self” in the
Greek language.

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Based on Install Location
 Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations, as they are
suitable for high voltage application
 Distribution Transformer: It is mostly used at distribution lanes for domestic
purposes. They are designed for carrying low voltages. It is very easy to
install and characterised by low magnetic losses.
 Measurement Transformers: They are mainly used for measuring voltage,
current and power.
 Protection Transformers: They are used for component protection
purposes. In circuits, some components must be protected from voltage
fluctuation, etc. Protection transformers ensure component protection.

Working Principle of a Transformer

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

and mutual induction.

There are usually two coils – primary coil and secondary coil – on the transformer
core. The core laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two coils have high
mutual inductance. When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, it
creates a varying magnetic flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
this change in magnetic flux induces an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary
coil, which is linked to the core having a primary coil. This is mutual induction.

Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations:

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 1. Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another
2. Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
3. Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
4. Two circuits are linked with mutual induction

Parts of a Single-phase Transformer

The major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of

1. Core

The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low
reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the core, as
shown in the picture. It is made up of a laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the
losses in a transformer. The factors, such as operating voltage, current, power, etc.,
decide core composition. The core diameter is directly proportional to copper losses
and inversely proportional to iron losses.

2. Windings

Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper wires
are used due to the following:

 The high conductivity of copper minimises the loss in a transformer because

when the conductivity increases, resistance to current flow decreases.
 The high ductility of copper is the property of metals that allows it to be made
into very thin wires.
There are mainly two types of windings: primary windings and secondary windings.

 Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which the supply current is fed.
 Secondary winding: The set of turns of winding from which output is taken.

The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using insulation
coating agents.

3. Insulation Agents

Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from each other and to
avoid short circuits. This facilitates mutual induction. Insulation agents have an
influence on the durability and stability of a transformer.

The following are used as insulation mediums in a transformer:

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  Insulating oil
 Insulating tape
 Insulating paper
 Wood-based lamination

Ideal Transformer
The ideal transformer has no losses. There is no magnetic leakage flux, ohmic
resistance in its windings and no iron loss in the core.

EMF Equation of Transformer

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 THANK
YOU!

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 NCERT TEXTBOOK
 SL ARORA TEXTBOOK
 HC VERMA TEXTBOOK
 WIKIPEDIA
 BYJU’S
 PHYSICS STATION
 PHYSICS LIBER TEXTS
 UNACADEMY

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