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CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science History
Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Chapter 1 of CBSE Class 10 History deals with many of the issues visualised by
Sorrieu and will look at the diverse processes through which nation-states and
nationalism came into being in nineteenth-century Europe. The topics covered in this
chapter are Rise of Nationalism in Europe, French Revolution, Nationalism and
Imperialism. CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes Chapter 1 - The Rise of
Nationalism in Europe are prepared by our subject matter experts. By going through
these notes, students can get a good grip and a clear insight into all the essential
concepts. These CBSE notes will help students to understand the chapter in a better
way. It works as the best revision resource during board exams.
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Frédéric Sorrieu vision of World
Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, in 1848 prepared a series of four prints visualising his
dream of a world made up of democratic and Social Republics.
1. The first print shows the people of Europe and America marching in a long train and
offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass it. The torch of Enlightenment
was carried by a female figure in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in
the other.
2. On the earth in the foreground lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist
institutions.
3. In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as distinct nations,
identified through their flags and national costume.
4. The procession was led by the United States and Switzerland, followed by France
and Germany. Following the German people are the people of Austria, the Kingdom
of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
5. From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene. They
have been used by the artist to symbolise fraternity among the nations of the world.
During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought huge
changes in the political and mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was
the emergence of the nation-state.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

1. In 1789 Nationalism came with French Revolution and the political and constitutional
changes led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French
citizens. Various measures and practices were introduced such as the ideas of la
patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen). A new French flag, the tricolour
was to replace the former one.
2. Democracy destroyed in France by Napoleon and the Civil Code of 1804 known as
Napoleonic Code did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality
before the law and secured the right to property.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe
Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose
rulers had their autonomous territories.
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
The Aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent politically and socially. The
majority of the population was made up of the peasantry. Industrialisation began in
England in the second half of the eighteenth century. New social groups came into being: a
working-class population and middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen,
professionals.
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

1. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free. The right to vote
and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men. Men without
property and all women were excluded from political rights.
2. In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and
joined by most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers and
reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
A New Conservatism after 1815

1. In 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
Conservatives believed in monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and
that the family should be preserved.
2. A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of
feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
3. In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and
Austria met in Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
4. The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power and France lost the territories it had
annexed under Napoleon.
5. The major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticised the new
conservative order, was freedom of the press.
The Revolutionaries
1. In 1815, secret societies were formed in many European states to train

revolutionaries and spread their ideas. Revolutionary opposed monarchical forms,
fight for liberty and freedom.
2. The Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, founded two
more underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles.
3. Secondly, he founded Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded
young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.
The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

In July 1830, Bourbon Kings were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed
a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. The July Revolution sparked
an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom
of the Netherlands. In 1821, Greeks struggled for independence.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories
and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings.
Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist

sentiment. Language also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
Russian language was imposed everywhere and in 1831 an armed rebellion against
Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed.
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
Europe faced economic hardships in the 1830s. The first half of the nineteenth century saw
an enormous increase in population all over Europe. The rise of food prices or a year of
bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country. In 1848, food shortages and
widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads.
The Revolution of the Liberals
In 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was underway. Men and women
of the liberal middle class demanded creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles
– a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
A large number of political associations came together in Frankfurt to vote for an all-
German National Assembly. On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched to
take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul.
The Constitution drafted for German nation was headed by a monarchy, subject to a
Parliament. The Crown was offered to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia but he rejected
it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. The Middle Class dominated
the Parliament and a large number of women participated in liberal movement.
Women formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and took part in
political meetings and demonstrations, but they were still denied suffrage rights during the
election of the Assembly.
In the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to
introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815. Thus,
serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in
Russia.
The Making of Germany and Italy

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

Nationalism in Europe moved away after 1848 and Germany and Italy came to be unified
as nation-states. Prussia took over the leadership of the movement for national unification.
The architect of this process was its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, carried out with the
help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
In January 1871, the Prussian King, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor. An
assembly was held to proclaim the new German Empire. The process of nation-building
demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power. The currency, banking, legal and
judicial system in Germany were modernised.
Italy Unified
Italy was divided into seven states, in the middle of the nineteenth century, and among all
the seven states, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. All the regions
were dominated by different kings. In the 1830's Giuseppe Mazzini formed a secret society
called Young Italy.
The movement was led by Chief Minister Cavour. In 1859, Sardinia-Piedmont defeated
Austrian forces. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II
was proclaimed king of united Italy.

The Strange Case of Britain
Great Britain was the model of the nation and prior to the eighteenth century there was no
British nation. The nation became powerful as it steadily grew in wealth, importance and
power. The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of
the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its
influence on Scotland. In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom.
The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God
Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted.
Visualising the Nation
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries artists represented a country as a person and
nations as female figures. During the French Revolution, female figures portray ideas such
as Liberty, Justice and the Republic. Liberty is represented as a red cap, or the broken
chain, Justice a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.
Nationalism and Imperialism

Nationalism no longer retained after the last quarter of the nineteenth century. After 1871,
the most tensioned area was called the Balkans a region comprising modern-day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia,
Serbia and Montenegro.
Ottoman Empire made the Balkans region explosive and all through the nineteenth century
they strengthened themselves through modernisation and internal reforms. Due to various
conflicts the Balkan became an area of intense conflict.
During this period, intense rivalry built among the European powers over trade and
colonies as well as naval and military might which led to a series of wars in the region and
finally the First World War.
In 1914, Europe was disastered because of Nationalism, aligned with imperialism. Anti-
imperial movements were developed but they all struggled to form independent nation-
states. But the idea of ‘nation-states’ was accepted as natural and universal.
CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes
Chapter 2 - Nationalism in India
Indian nationalism developed as a concept during the Indian independence movement fought
against the colonial British Raj. In this chapter, students will get to know the story from the 1920s
and study about the nonCooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements. Students will also get to
explore how Congress sought to develop the national movement, how different social groups
participated in the movement, and how nationalism captured the imagination of people. Learn
more about Nationalism in India by exploring CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes
Chapter 2. These notes are comprehensive and detailed, yet concise enough to glance through
for exam preparations.
In India, the growth of modern nationalism is connected to the anti-colonial movement. Due to
colonialism, many different groups shared bonds together, which were forged by the Congress
under Mahatma Gandhi.
The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

The war created a new economic and political situation in the years after 1919. Income tax
introduced and the prices of custom duties were doubled between 1913 and 1918 which led to a
very difficult life for common people. In 1918-19 crops failed in India, resulting in shortage of food
accompanied by an influenza epidemic. At this stage, a new leader appeared and suggested a
new mode of struggle.
The Idea of Satyagraha
In January 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa and started the movement
Satyagraha. Satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
According to Mahatma Gandhi, people can win a battle without non-violence which will unite all
Indians. In 1917, he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against
the oppressive plantation system. In the same year, he organised satyagraha to support the
peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat. In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to
organise a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.
The Rowlatt Act
In 1919, Mahatma Gandhi launched a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act.
The Act gives the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed
detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. The British government decided to
clamp down on nationalists by witnessing the outrage of the people. On April 10th, police in
Amritsar fired on a peaceful procession, which provoked widespread attacks on banks, post
offices and railway stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.
On 13th April Jallianwala Bagh incident took place. A large crowd gathered in the Jallianwala
Bagh where a few people came to protest against the government’s new repressive measures,
while some came to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. General Dyer blocked all the exit points and
opened fire on the crowd killing hundreds. After the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, people became
furious and
went on strikes, clashes with police and attacks on government buildings. Mahatma Gandhi had
to call off the movement as it was turning into a violent war.
Mahatma Gandhi then took up the Khilafat issue by bringing Hindus and Muslims together. The
First World War ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. In March 1919, a Khilafat Committee
was formed in Bombay. In September 1920, Mahatma Gandhi convinced other leaders of the
need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.
Why Non-cooperation?
According to Mahatma Gandhi, British rule was established in India with the cooperation of
Indians. Non-cooperation movement is proposed in stages. It should begin with the surrender of
titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and
legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods. After much hurdles and campaigning between
the supporters and opponents of the movement, finally, in December 1920, the Non-Cooperation
Movement was adopted.
Differing Strands within the Movement

In January 1921, the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began. In this movement, various
social groups participated, but the term meant different things to different people.
The Movement in the Towns
Middle-class started the movement and thousands of students, teachers, headmasters left
government-controlled schools and colleges, lawyers gave up their legal practices. In the
economic front, the effects of non-cooperation were more dramatic. The production of Indian
textile mills and handlooms went up when people started boycotting foreign goods. But this
movement slowed down due to a variety of reasons such as Khadi clothes are expensive, less
Indian institutions for students and teachers to choose from, so they went back to government
schools and lawyers joined back government courts.
Rebellion in the Countryside
The Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the countryside where peasants and tribals were
developing in different parts of India. The peasant movement started against talukdars and
landlords who demanded high rents and a variety of other cesses. It demanded reduction of
revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
Jawaharlal Nehru in June 1920, started going around the villages in Awadh to understand their
grievances. In October, he along with few others set up the Oudh Kisan Sabha and within a
month 300 branches have been set up. In 1921, the peasant movement was spread and the
houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain boards were
taken over.
In the early 1920s, a militant guerrilla movement started spreading in the Gudem Hills of Andhra
Pradesh. The government started closing down forest areas due to which their livelihood was
affected. Finally, the hill people revolted which was led by Alluri Sitaram Raju who claimed that he
had a variety of special powers.
Swaraj in the Plantations
For plantation workers in Assam, freedom means right to move freely in and out and retaining a
link with the village from which they had come. Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859,
plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission. After they
heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers left the plantations and headed
home. But, unfortunately, they never reached their destination and were caught by the police and
brutally beaten up.
Towards Civil Disobedience
In February 1922, the Non-Cooperation Movement was withdrawn because Mahatma Gandhi felt
that it was turning violent. Some of the leaders wanted to participate in elections to the provincial
councils. Swaraj Party was formed by CR Das and Motilal Nehru. In the late 1920s Indian politics
again shaped because of two factors. The first effect was the worldwide economic depression
and the second effect was the falling agricultural prices. The Statutory Commission was set up to
look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. In 1928,
Simon Commission arrived in India and it was greeted by the slogan ‘Go back Simon’. In
December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the
demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India. It was declared that 26 January 1930
would be celebrated as Independence Day.
The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement
On 31 January 1930, Mahatma Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands.
Among the demands, the most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax which is
consumed by the rich and the poor. The demands needed to be fulfilled by 11 March or else
Congress will start a civil disobedience campaign. The famous salt march was started by
Mahatma Gandhi accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march was over 240 miles,
from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. On 6 April he reached
Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling seawater. This marked
the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The movement spread across the world and salt law was broken in different parts of the country.
Foreign cloth was boycotted, peasants refused to pay revenue and in many places forest law was
violated. In April 1930, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi was arrested.
Mahatma Gandhi was arrested a month later which led to attack in all structures that symbolised
British rule. By witnessing the horrific situation, Mahatma Gandhi decided to call off the movement
and entered into a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931. Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Gandhiji consented to
participate in a Round Table Conference in London. When the conference broke down Mahatma
Gandhi returned to India disappointed and he relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement, for
over a year, it continued, but by 1934 it lost its momentum.
How Participants saw the Movement
The Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh were active in the movement. They became
enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement. But they were deeply disappointed
when the movement was called off in 1931. So when the movement was restarted in 1932, many
of them refused to participate. The poorer peasants joined a variety of radical movements, often
led by Socialists and Communists.
To organise business interests, the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the
Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927 was formed. The
industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian economy and supported the Civil
Disobedience Movement when it was first launched. Some of the industrial workers did
participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement. In 1930 and 1932 railway workers and dock
workers were on strike.
Another important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement was the large-scale participation of
women. But, for a long time the Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of
authority within the organisation.
The Limits of Civil Disobedience
Dalits addressed as untouchables were not moved by the concept of Swaraj. Mahatma Gandhi
used to call them as harijans or the children of God without whom swaraj could not be achieved.
He organised satyagraha for the untouchables but they were keen on a different political solution
to the problems of the community. They demanded reserved seats in educational institutions and
a separate electorate.
Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930,
clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate
electorates for Dalits. The Poona Pact of September 1932, gave the Depressed Classes (later to
be known as the Schedule Castes) reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils.
After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, Muslims felt alienated from the
Congress due to which the relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates if Muslims were
assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in
the Muslim-dominated provinces. But, the hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties
Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed
efforts at compromise.
The Sense of Collective Belonging
Nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation.
History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making
of nationalism. Finally, in the twentieth century, the identity of India came to be visually
associated with the image of Bharat Mata. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay created the image
and in the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland.
Rabindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata portrayed as an ascetic figure;
she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began
recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends.
During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed
which had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon,
representing Hindus and Muslims. By 1921, Gandhiji designed the Swaraj flag, a tricolour (red,
green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-
help.
Conclusion
In the first half of the twentieth century, various groups and classes of Indians came together for
the struggle of independence. The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi attempted
to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. In
other words, what was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial
rule.
Chapter 3 - The Making of a Global World
Globalisation means integration of markets in the global economy, leading to the increased
interconnectedness of national economies. By having an idea of the history of globalisation,
students can precisely understand the causes which led to such social and economic change.
The nineteenth-century Industrial Revolution was one of the significant periods in the history of
globalisation. Social Science History Chapter 3 - The Making of a Global World explains how
globalisation has its effect on the world as well as Indian economy. These CBSE notes for Class
10 Social Science History for Chapter 3 help students to get a brief overview of all the concepts.
By referring to these notes, students can recall all the essential topics from the chapter and can
quickly revise the entire section.
The Pre-modern World

Globalisation refers to an economic system that has emerged since the last 50 years or so. But,
the making of the global world has a long history – of trade, of migration, of people in search of
work, the movement of capital, and much else. From ancient times, travellers, traders, priests and
pilgrims travelled vast distances for knowledge, opportunity and spiritual fulfilment, or to escape
persecution. As early as 3000 BCE an active coastal trade linked the Indus valley civilisations
with present-day West Asia.
Silk Routes Link the World
Silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant
parts of the world. Several silk routes have been identified by historians, overland and by sea,
connecting vast regions of Asia, and linking Asia with Europe and northern Africa. In exchange of
textile and species from India, precious metals - gold and silver - flowed from Europe to Asia.
Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato
Food offers many examples of long-distance cultural exchange. New crops were introduced by
traders and travellers. Ready foodstuff such as noodles travelled west from China to become
spaghetti. Our ancestors were not familiar with common foods such as potatoes, soya,
groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes, and so on about five centuries ago. Many
of our common foods came from America’s original inhabitants – the American Indians.
Conquest, Disease and Trade
The Indian Ocean, for centuries before, had known a bustling trade, with goods, people,
knowledge, customs, etc. crisscrossing its waters. The entry of Europeans helped in redirecting
these flows towards Europe. America’s vast lands and abundant crops minerals began to
transform trade and lives everywhere. The Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonisation of
America was decisively underway by the mid-sixteenth century.
Europeans' most powerful weapon was not a conventional military weapon, but germs such as
those of smallpox that they carried on their person. It proved to be a deadly killer. Until the
nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in Europe. Until well into the eighteenth
century, China and India were among the world’s richest countries. However, from the fifteenth
century, China is said to have restricted overseas contacts and retreated into isolation. Europe now
emerged as the centre of world trade.
The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)

In the nineteenth century, economic, political, social, cultural and technological factors interacted in
complex ways to transform societies and reshape external relations. Three flows or movements
were identified by economists.
1. The first is the flow of trade referred largely to trade in goods (e.g., cloth or wheat).
2. The second is the flow of labour – the migration of people in search of employment.
3. The third is the movement of capital for short-term or long-term investments over long
distances.
A World Economy Takes Shape
In the nineteenth-century self-sufficiency in food meant lower living standards and social conflict in
Britain. It happened because of population growth from the late eighteenth century. Corn laws were
imposed which means restriction in the import of corn. The British agriculture was unable to
compete with imports and vast areas of land were left uncultivated. So, thousands of men and
women flocked to the cities or migrated overseas.
In Britain, food prices fell and in the mid-nineteenth century, industrial growth led to higher incomes
and more food imports. In order to fulfil British demand, in Eastern Europe, Russia, America and
Australia, lands were cleared to expand food production. In order to manage linking of railways to
agricultural fields and building homes for people required capital and labour. London helped in
terms of finance and terms of labour people emigrated from Europe to America and Australia in the
nineteenth century.
By 1890, a global agricultural economy had taken shape, adapting complex changes in labour
movement patterns, capital flows, ecologies and technology. In West Punjab, the British Indian
government built a network of irrigation canals to transform semi-desert wastes into fertile
agricultural lands to grow wheat and cotton for export. Even the cultivation of cotton, expanded
worldwide to feed British textile mills.
Role of Technology
Some of the important inventions in the field of technology are the railways, steamships, the
telegraph, which transformed the nineteenth-century world. But technological advances were often
the result of larger social, political and economic factors.
For example, colonisation stimulated new investments and improvements in transport: faster
railways, lighter wagons and larger ships helped move food more cheaply and quickly from faraway
farms to final markets. Animals were also shipped live from America to Europe till the 1870s. Meat
was considered an expensive luxury beyond the reach of the European poor. To break the earlier
monotony of bread and potatoes, many could now add meat (and butter and eggs) to their diet.
Late nineteenth-century Colonialism
Trade flourished and markets expanded in the late nineteenth century. But, it has a darker side too,
as in many parts of the world, the expansion of trade and a closer relationship with the world
economy meant a loss of freedoms and livelihoods. In 1885 the big European powers met in Berlin
to complete the carving up of Africa between them. Britain and France made vast additions to their
overseas territories. Belgium and Germany became new colonial powers. The US also became a
colonial power in the late 1890s by taking over some colonies earlier held by Spain.
Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague

In Africa, in the 1890s, a fast-spreading disease of cattle plague impacted people’s livelihoods
and the local economy. Africa had abundant land and a relatively small population. In the late
nineteenth century, Europeans were attracted to Africa due to its vast resources of land and
minerals.
Europeans came to Africa hoping to establish plantations and mines to produce crops and minerals
for export to Europe. But there was an unexpected problem – a shortage of labour willing to work
for wages. Inheritance laws were changed and according to the new one only one member of a
family was allowed to inherit land. In the late 1880s, Rinderpest arrived in Africa carried by infected
cattle imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers invading Eritrea in East Africa. The loss
of cattle destroyed African livelihoods.
Indentured Labour Migration from India
Indentured labour illustrates the two-sided nature of the nineteenth-century world. A world of faster
economic growth as well as great misery, higher incomes for some and poverty for others,
technological advances in some areas and new forms of coercion in others. In India, indentured
labourers were hired under contracts and most of them came from the present-day regions of
eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and the dry districts of Tamil Nadu.
Indian indentured migrants main destinations were the Caribbean islands (mainly Trinidad, Guyana
and Surinam), Mauritius and Fiji. Indentured workers were also recruited for tea plantations in
Assam. Nineteenth-century indenture has been described as a ‘new system of slavery’. In Trinidad
the annual Muharram procession was transformed into a riotous carnival called ‘Hosay’ in which
workers of all races and religions joined.
Similarly, the protest religion of Rastafarianism is also said to reflect social and cultural links with
Indian migrants to the Caribbean. From the 1900s India’s nationalist leaders began opposing the
system of indentured labour migration as abusive and cruel. It was abolished in 1921.
Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad
People need huge capital to grow food and other crops for the world market. So, for the humble
peasant Shikaripuri shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars were amongst the many groups of bankers
and traders who financed export agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia, using either their own
funds or those borrowed from European banks.
Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System
Cottons from India were exported to Europe. In Britain, tariffs were imposed on cloth imports.
Consequently, the inflow of fine Indian cotton began to decline. Over the nineteenth century, British
manufacturers flooded the Indian market. By helping Britain balance its deficits, India played a
crucial role in the late-nineteenth-century world economy. Britain’s trade surplus in India also
helped pay the so-called ‘home charges’ that included private remittances home by British officials
and traders, interest payments on India’s external debt, and pensions of British officials in India.
The Inter-war Economy
The First World War (1914-18) was fought in Europe, but its impact was felt around the world.
During this period the world experienced widespread economic and political instability and another
catastrophic war.
Wartime Transformations
The First World War was fought between the Allies – Britain, France and Russia (later joined by the
US); and the Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey. The war lasted for
more than four years which involved the world’s leading industrial nations. It was considered as the
first modern industrial war which saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons,
etc. on a massive scale. During the war, industries were restructured to produce war-related goods.
Britain borrowed large sums of money from US banks as well as the US public, transforming the
US from being an international debtor to an international creditor.
Post-war Recovery
Post-war economic recovery, Britain, the world’s leading economy faced a prolonged crisis.
Industries had developed in India and Japan while Britain was preoccupied in the war. Britain, after
the war, found it difficult to recapture its earlier position of dominance in the Indian market and to
compete with Japan internationally. At the end of the war, Britain was burdened with huge external
debts. Anxiety and uncertainty about work became an enduring part of the post-war scenario.
Rise of Mass Production and Consumption
The US economy recovered quicker and resumed its strong growth in the early 1920s. Mass
production is one of the important features of the US economy which began in the late nineteenth
century. Henry Ford is a well-known pioneer of mass production, a car manufacturer who
established his car plant in Detroit. The TModel Ford was the world’s first mass-produced car.
Fordist industrial practices soon spread in the US and were also copied in Europe in the 1920s.
The demand for refrigerators, washing machines, etc. also boomed, financed once again by loans.
In 1923, the US resumed exporting capital to the rest of the world and became the largest overseas
lender.
The Great Depression
The period of The Great Depression, began around 1929 and lasted till the mid1930s, most parts of
the world experienced catastrophic declines in production, employment, incomes and trade. The
most affected areas were agricultural regions and communities. Combination of several factors led
to depression. The first factor is agricultural overproduction, second is in the mid-1920s, many
countries financed their investments through loans from the US. The rest of the world is affected by
the withdrawal of US loans in different ways. The US was also severely affected by the depression.
Unfortunately, the US banking system collapsed as thousands of banks went bankrupt and were
forced to close.
India and the Great Depression
Indian trade is immediately affected by depression. The prices of agriculture fell sharply but still, the
colonial government refused to reduce revenue demands. In these depression years, India became
an exporter of precious metals, notably gold. Rural India was thus seething with unrest when
Mahatma Gandhi launched the civil disobedience movement at the height of the depression in
1931.
Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era

Two decades after the end of the First World War, the Second World War broke out. It was fought
between the Axis powers (mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (Britain, France,
the Soviet Union and the US). The war continued for six years over land, on sea, in the air. The war
caused an immense amount of economic devastation and social disruption. Post-war
reconstruction was shaped by two crucial influences. The first one is that the US emerged as the
dominant economic, political and military power in the Western world. The second was the
dominance of the Soviet Union.
Post-war Settlement and the Bretton Woods Institutions
Two-key lessons were drawn out from inter-war economic experience. First, mass production
cannot be sustained without mass communication. The second lesson related to a country’s
economic links with the outside world. The Bretton Woods conference established the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and deficits of its member nations. The
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (popularly known as the World Bank) was
set up to finance postwar reconstruction. The IMF and the World Bank commenced financial
operations in 1947.
The Early Post-war Years
An era of unprecedented growth of trade and incomes was inaugurated by the Bretton Woods for
the Western industrial nations and Japan. During this decade, technology and enterprise were
spread worldwide.
Decolonisation and Independence
After the end of Second World War, large parts of the world were still under European colonial rule.
The IMF and the World Bank were designed to meet the financial needs of the industrial countries.
The IMF and the World Bank from the late 1950s shift their attention more towards developing
countries. Most developing countries were not benefited from the fast growth the Western
economies experienced in the 1950s and 1960s. They organised as a group – the Group of 77 (or
G-77) – and demanded a new international economic order (NIEO). NIEO meant a system that
would give them real control over their natural resources, more development assistance, fairer
prices for raw materials, and better access for their manufactured goods in developed countries’
markets.
End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of ‘Globalisation’
The US's finance and competitive strength were weakened due to rising costs of its overseas
involvements from the 1960s. In the mid-1970s the international financial system also changed
and the industrial world was also hit by unemployment. MNCs began to shift their production to low-
wage Asian countries. China became attractive destinations for investment by foreign MNCs. In the
last two decades, the world’s economic geography has been transformed as countries such as
India, China and Brazil have undergone rapid economic transformation.
Chapter 4 - The Age of Industrialisation
In Chapter 4 of CBSE Class 10, Social Science History students will learn the history of Britain,
the first industrial nation, and then India, where the pattern of industrial change was conditioned
by colonial rule. The chapter begins with explaining the scenario before the Industrial Revolution
and how it changed over time in terms of labour, setting up of factories, etc. Some of the other
topics explained in the chapter are Industrialisation in the colonies, industrial growth, market for
goods, workers life, etc. In this article we have compiled CBSE Class 10 Social Science History
Notes Chapter 4 - The Age of Industrialisation. All the essential concepts are covered in these
notes, as discussed in the chapter. Students can also download these notes in PDF format.
Before the Industrial Revolution

Proto-industrialisation is referred to the phase which existed even before factories began in
England and Europe. There was large-scale industrial production for an international market not
based on factories. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants from Europe moved
to the countryside, supplying money to peasants and artisans, requesting them to produce for an
international market. Merchants were restricted to expand their production within towns because
rulers granted different guilds the monopoly right to produce and trade in specific products. In the
countryside, poor peasants and artisans eagerly agreed so that they could remain in the
countryside and continue to cultivate their small plots. The Proto-industrial system was thus part
of a network of commercial exchanges controlled by merchants.
The Coming Up of the Factory
In the 1730s the earliest factories in England were set up, but only in the late eighteenth century,
the number of factories multiplied. Cotton was the first symbol of the new era and its production
boomed in the late nineteenth century. Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill where costly
machines were set up and all the processes were brought together under one roof and
management.
The Pace of Industrial Change
First: In Britain, the most dynamic industries were cotton and metals. Cotton was the leading
sector in the first phase of industrialisation up to the 1840s, followed by iron and steel industry.
Second: The new industries found it difficult to displace traditional industries. Third: The pace of
change in the ‘traditional’ industries was not set by steam-powered cotton or metal industries, but
they did not remain entirely stagnant either. Fourth: technological changes occurred slowly.
James Watt improved the steam engine produced by Newcomen and patented the new engine in
1781. His industrialist friend Mathew Boulton manufactured the new model. Steam engines were
not used in any of the other industries until much later in the century.
Hand Labour and Steam Power
There was no shortage of human labour in Victorian Britain. Industrialists had no problem of labour
shortage or high wage costs. Instead of machines industrialists required large capital investment.
The demand for labour was seasonal in many industries. In all such industries where production
fluctuated with the season, industrialists usually preferred hand labour, employing workers for the
season.
Life of the Workers
The workers' lives were affected by the abundance of labour in the market. To get a job, workers
should have existing networks of friendship and kin relations in a factory. Till the mid-nineteenth
century, it was difficult for workers to find jobs. In the early nineteenth century, wages were
increased. The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to the introduction of new technology.
Spinning Jenny was introduced in the woollen industry. After the 1840s, building activity intensified
in the cities, opening up greater opportunities of employment. Roads were widened, new railway
stations came up, railway lines were extended, tunnels dug, drainage and sewers laid, rivers
embanked.
Industrialisation in the Colonies

The Age of Indian Textiles
In India, silk and cotton goods dominated the international market in textiles, before the age of
machine industries. A variety of Indian merchants and bankers were involved in this network of
export trade – financing production, carrying goods and supplying exporters. By the 1750s this
network, controlled by Indian merchants, was breaking down. The European companies came into
power – first securing a variety of concessions from local courts, then the monopoly rights to trade.
The shift from the old ports to the new ones was an indicator of the growth of colonial power.
European companies controlled trade through the new ports and were carried in European ships.
Many old trading houses collapsed, and those who wanted to survive had to operate within a
network shaped by European trading companies.
What Happened to Weavers?
After the 1760s, the consolidation of the East India Company did not initially lead to a decline in
textile exports from India. Before establishing political power in Bengal and Carnatic in the 1760s
and 1770s, the East India Company had found it difficult to ensure a regular supply of goods for
export. After the East India Company established political power, it developed a system of
management and control that would eliminate competition, control costs, and ensure regular
supplies of cotton and silk goods. It was established by following a series of steps.
1. By eliminating existing traders and brokers connected with the cloth trade, and establishing
a more direct control over the weaver.
2. By preventing Company weavers from dealing with other buyers.
The weavers were granted a loan to buy the raw materials once an order was placed. Weavers
who took loans needed to hand over the cloth they produced to the gomastha. Weaving required
the labour of the entire family, with children and women all engaged in different stages of the
process. Earlier, supply merchants had a very close relationship with weavers, but new gomasthas
were outsiders with no social link with the village.
In many places in Carnatic and Bengal, weavers set up looms in other villages where they had
some family relation. In other places, weavers along with the village traders revolted, opposing the
Company and its officials. Over time many weavers began refusing loans, closing down their
workshops and taking to agricultural labour. By the turn of the nineteenth century, cotton weavers
faced a new set of problems.
Manchester Comes to India
In 1772, Henry Patullo said that the demand for Indian textiles could never reduce since no other
nation produced goods of the same quality. But, unfortunately by the beginning of the nineteenth
century India witnessed a decline of textile exports. In the early nineteenth century, exports of
British cotton goods increased dramatically. At the end of the eighteenth century, import of cotton
piece-goods were restricted into India. In India cotton weavers faced two problems:
1. Their export market collapsed

2. Local market shrank and gluted with Manchester imports.
By the 1860s, weavers faced a new problem. They could not get sufficient supply of raw cotton of
good quality. Even the raw cotton exports from India increased due to which the price increased.
By the end of the nineteenth century, other craftspeople faced yet another problem. Factories in
India began production, flooding the market with machine-goods.
Factories Come Up
In 1854, the first cotton mill in Bombay set up and went into production two years later. By 1862
four more mills were set up and around the same time jute mills came up in Bengal. The first jute
mill was set up in 1855 and another one after seven years in 1862. In the 1860s, in north India, the
Elgin Mill was started in Kanpur, and a year later the first cotton mill of Ahmedabad was set up. By
1874, the first spinning and weaving mill of Madras began production.
The Early Entrepreneurs
The history of trade started from the late eighteenth century, when British in India began exporting
opium to China and took tea from China to England. Some of the businessmen who were involved
in these trades had visions of developing industrial enterprises in India. In Bengal, Dwarkanath
Tagore made his fortune in the China trade. In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee
Nusserwanjee Tata built huge industrial empires in India. Seth Hukumchand, a Marwari
businessman set up the first Indian jute mill in Calcutta in 1917. The opportunities of investments in
industries opened up and many of them set up factories. But due to colonial power, Indians were
barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods, and had to export mostly raw materials
and food grains – raw cotton, opium, wheat and indigo – required by the British. Three of the
biggest European Managing Agencies are Bird Heiglers & Co., Andrew Yule, and Jardine Skinner
& Co. who mobilised capital, set up joint-stock companies and managed them.
Where Did the Workers Come From?
As the factories started expanding, the demand for workers increased. Most of the workers came
from the neighbouring districts in search of work. Over 50 per cent workers in the Bombay cotton
industries in 1911 came from the neighbouring district of Ratnagiri, while the mills of Kanpur got
most of their textile hands from the villages within the district of Kanpur. As news of
employment spread, workers travelled great distances in the hope of work in the mills.
Even after the demand for workers increased, getting jobs was difficult. The numbers seeking work
were always more than the jobs available. Most of the industrialists employed a jobber, which he
brought from his village, to recruit new workers. Industrialists helped the jobber to settle down and
provided them money in need.
The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth

European Managing Agencies were interested in certain kinds of products such as tea and coffee.
They established tea and coffee plantations and invested in mining, indigo and jute. These
products are used only for export purposes. In the late nineteenth century, Indian businessmen
began setting up industries. The yarn produced in Indian spinning mills was used by handloom
weavers in India or exported to China. The pattern of industrialisation was affected by a series of
changes. When the swadeshi movement gained support, nationalists boycotted foreign cloth. From
1906, Indian yarn exports to China declined since produce from Chinese and Japanese mills
flooded the Chinese market. Till the end of the First World War, industrial growth was slow. The
war completely changed the whole scenario and Indian mills took advantage of the situation. They
had a vast market to supply war needs: jute bags, cloth for army uniforms, tents and leather boots,
horse and mule saddles and a host of other items. The industrial production boomed over the years
and after the war Manchester could never recapture its old position in the Indian market.
Small-scale Industries Predominate
Small-scale industries continued to predominate the rest of the country. Only a small proportion of
the total industrial labour force worked in registered factories. The rest worked in small workshops
and household units. Handicrafts production expanded in the twentieth century. In the twentieth
century, handloom cloth production expanded. It happened because of technological changes as
they started adopting new technology which helped them improve production without excessively
pushing up costs.
Certain groups of weavers were in a better position than others to survive the competition with mill
industries. Some of the weavers produced coarse cloth while others wove finer varieties. Weavers
and other craftspeople who continued to expand production through the twentieth century, did not
necessarily prosper. They worked for long hours including all the women and children. But they
were not simply remnants of past times in the age of factories. Their life and labour was integral to
the process of industrialisation.
Market for Goods

When new products are produced advertisements helped people to make products appear
desirable and necessary. They tried to shape the minds of people and create new needs. Today we
are surrounded by advertisements which appear in newspapers, magazines, hoardings, street
walls, television screens. From the very beginning of the industrial age, advertisements played a
part in expanding the markets for products, and in shaping a new consumer culture.
Manchester industrialists put labels on the cloth bundles, to mark the quality. When buyers saw
‘MADE IN MANCHESTER’ written in bold on the label, they were expected to feel confident about
buying the cloth. Some of the labels were made with images and were beautifully crafted.
Images of Indian gods and goddesses appeared on these labels. Printing calendars were started
by manufacturers to popularise their products. In these calendars, figures of gods were used to
sell new products. Later, advertisements became a vehicle of the nationalist message of
swadeshi.
Conclusion
The age of industries has meant major technological changes, growth of factories, and the
making of a new industrial labour force. Hand technology and small-scale production remained
an important part of the industrial landscape.
Chapter 5 - Print Culture and the Modern World
CBSE Class 10 Social Science Chapter 5 talks about the development of print, from its
beginnings in East Asia, to its expansion in Europe and in India. It also explains the impact of the
spread of technology and how social lives and cultures changed with the emergence of print.
Class 10 Social Science notes of History for Chapter 5 - Print Culture and the Modern World are
prepared by highly skilled subject matter experts. These CBSE notes help students to prepare
effectively for their Social Science exam. CBSE notes of Class 10 History for Chapter 5
encompass all the basic concepts in an interactive manner, so that students can understand
each topic easily and retain them for a longer time period.
The First Printed Books

China, Japan and Korea developed the earliest kind of print technology, which was a system of
hand printing. Books in China were printed by rubbing paper from AD 594 and both the sides of the
book were folded and stitched. China for a long time was the major producer of printed material.
China started conducting civil service examinations for its bureaucrats and its textbooks were
printed in vast numbers. Print was no longer confined to scholar-officials. Merchants used print
while collecting their trade information. Reading became a part of leisure activity and rich women
started publishing their own poetry and plays. This new reading culture attracted new technology.
In the late 19th century, Western printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported.
Print in Japan
Hand-printing technology was introduced by Buddhist missionaries from China into Japan around
AD 768-770. The Buddhist Diamond Sutra is the oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868,
containing six sheets of text and woodcut illustrations. Printing of visual material led to interesting
publishing practices. In the late 19th century, illustrative collections of paintings depicted an
elegant urban culture and libraries and bookstores were packed with hand-printed material of
various types – books on women, musical instruments, etc.
Print Comes to Europe

Marco Polo returned to Europe after exploring China and along with him, he brought the
knowledge of woodblock printing and soon the technology spread to other parts of Europe.
Gradually, the demands of books started increasing so booksellers began exporting books to
many different countries. But the production of handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the
ever-increasing demand for books. Europe widely started using woodblocks to print textiles,
playing cards, and religious pictures with simple, brief texts. Johann Gutenberg developed the
first-known printing press in the 1430s.
Gutenberg and the Printing Press
Gutenberg was an expert in the art of polishing stones and with this knowledge, he adapted
existing technology to design his innovation. The first printed book with the new system was the
Bible. With the adaption of new technology the existing art of producing books by hand was not
entirely displaced. Books printed for the rich left blank space for decoration on the printed page. In
the hundred years between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were set up in most countries of
Europe. The shift from hand printing to mechanical printing led to the print revolution.
The Print Revolution and Its Impact

Print revolution is not only a new way of producing books it transformed the lives of people,
changing their relationship to information and knowledge, and with institutions and authorities.
A New Reading Public
The cost of books was reduced due to the print revolution. Markets were flooded with books
reaching out to an ever-growing readership. It created a new culture of reading. Earlier, elites are
only permitted to read books and common people used to hear sacred texts read out. Before the
print revolution, books were expensive. But, the transition was not as simple as books could only
be read by the literate. Printers started publishing popular ballads and folk tales illustrated with
pictures for those who did not read. Oral culture entered print and printed material were orally
transmitted.
Religious Debates and the Fear of Print
Print introduced a new world of debate and discussion. Printed books are not welcomed by
everyone and many were apprehensive of the effects that the wider circulation of books could have
on people’s minds. There was a fear of spreading rebellious and irreligious thoughts. In 1517, the
religious reformer Martin Luther wrote Ninety Five Theses, criticising many of the practices and
rituals of the Roman Catholic Church. His textbook printed copy led to a division within the Church
and to the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
Print and Dissent
In the sixteenth century, Menocchio began to read books available in his locality. He reinterpreted
the message of the Bible and formulated a view of God and Creation that enraged the Roman
Catholic Church. Menocchio was hauled up twice and ultimately executed. From 1558, The Roman
Church began to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books.
The Reading Mania

In most parts of Europe, literacy rates went up, through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Schools and literacy spread in European countries due to which people wanted production of more
books. Other forms of reading mainly based on entertainment began to reach ordinary readers.
Books were of various sizes, serving many different purposes and interests. From the early 18th
century, periodical press developed which combined information related to current affairs with
entertainment. Journals and newspapers carried information related to wars, trade and
developments in other places. Issac Newton discoveries were published which influenced
scientifically-minded readers.
‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!’
Books were considered as a means of spreading progress and enlightenment by the mid-
eighteenth century. According to Louise-Sebastien Mercier, a novelist in eighteenth-century France
said that ‘The printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force
that will sweep despotism away.’ Convinced of the power of print in bringing enlightenment and
destroying the basis of despotism, Mercier proclaimed: ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!
Tremble before the virtual writer!’
Print Culture and the French Revolution

Historians argued that print culture created the conditions for the French Revolution. Three types of
arguments were put forward.
1. Print popularised the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers. Their writings provided a critical
commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism. The writings of Voltaire and Rousseau
were read widely; and people saw the world through new eyes, eyes that were questioning,
critical and rational.
2. Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. Within this public culture, new ideas of
social revolution came into being.
3. By the 1780s there was an outpouring of literature that mocked the royalty and criticised
their morality.
Print helps in spreading ideas. They accepted some ideas and rejected others and interpreted
things their way. Print did not directly shape their minds, but it did open up the possibility of thinking
differently.
The Nineteenth Century

Large numbers of new readers among children, women and workers were added to the mass
literacy in Europe during the 19th century.
Children, Women and Workers
From the late 19th century, primary education became compulsory. In 1857, a children’s press was
set up in France devoted to literature for children. Traditional folks tales were gathered by Grimm
Brothers in Germany. Rural folk tales acquired a new form. Women became important as readers
as well as writers. Magazines were published especially dedicated for women, as were manuals
teaching proper behaviour and housekeeping. In the nineteenth century, lending libraries in
England became instruments for educating white-collar workers, artisans and lower-middle-class
people.
Further Innovations
Press came to be made out of metal by the late eighteenth century. Printing technology saw a
series of further innovations by the 19th century. During that century, power-driven cylindrical press
was perfected by Richard M, which was particularly used for printing newspapers. The offset was
developed which was capable of printing six colours at a time. By the 20th century, electrically
operated presses accelerated printing operations followed by other series of development.
1. Methods of feeding paper improved
2. The quality of plates became better
3. Automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced
India and the World of Print

Manuscripts Before the Age of Print
India is a country rich in old tradition of handwritten manuscripts – in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, as
well as in various vernacular languages. These handwritten manuscripts were copied on palm
leaves or on handmade paper. The production of the manuscript continued well after the
introduction of print. It is considered highly expensive and fragile. In Bengal, students were only
taught to write due to which many became literate without ever actually reading any kinds of
texts.
Print Comes to India
In the mid-sixteenth century, the first printing press came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries.
Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam
book was printed by them. The English press grew quite late in India even though the English
East India Company began to import presses from the late seventeenth century. A weekly
magazine named the Bengal Gazette was edited by James Augustus Hickey. Advertisements
were published by Hickey and he also published a lot of gossip about the Company’s senior
officials in India. By the close of the eighteenth century, a number of newspapers and journals
appeared in print.
Religious Reform and Public Debates
Religious issues became intense from the early nineteenth century. People started criticizing
existing practices and campaigned for reform, while others countered the arguments of
reformers. Printed tracts and newspapers spread new ideas and shaped the nature of the debate.
New ideas emerged and intense controversies erupted between social and religious reformers
and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical
priesthood and idolatry. In 1821, Rammohun Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi. In 1822, two
Persian newspapers published, Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. In the same year, a
Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar, was established. The Deoband Seminary, founded
in 1867, published thousands upon thousands of fatwas telling Muslim readers how to conduct
themselves in their everyday lives and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines.
Print encouraged the reading of religious texts, among Hindus, especially in the vernacular
languages. Religious texts reached a very wide circle of people, encouraging discussions,
debates and controversies within and among different religions. Newspapers conveyed news
from one place to another, creating pan-Indian identities.
New Forms of Publication
New kinds of writing were introduced as more and more people got interested in reading. In
Europe, the novel, a literary firm, was developed to cater to the needs of people which acquired
Indian forms and styles. New literary forms entered the world of reading such as lyrics, short
stories, essays about social and political matters. New visual culture took shape by the end of the
nineteenth century. Cheap calendars were available in the bazaar which can be bought even by the
poor to decorate the walls of their homes or places of work. These prints began shaping popular
ideas about modernity and tradition, religion and politics, and society and culture. Caricatures and
cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political
issues by 1870s.
Women and Print
Women’s reading increased enormously in middle-class homes. Schools were set up in cities for
women. Journals also started carrying writings by women, and explained why women should be
educated. But, Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims
feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances. Social reforms and
novels created a great interest in women’s lives and emotions. In the early twentieth century,
journals, written and edited by women, became extremely popular. In Bengal, an entire area in
central Calcutta – the Battala – was devoted to the printing of popular books. By the late nineteenth
century, a lot of these books were profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured lithographs.
Pedlars took the Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read them in their leisure time.
Print and the Poor People
Cheap books were bought at markets. Public libraries were set up mostly located in cities and
towns. In the late 19th century, caste discrimination started coming up in many printed tracts and
essays. Factory workers lacked education to write much about their experience. In 1938,
Kashibaba wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938 to show the links between
caste and class exploitation. In the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up libraries to educate
themselves.
Print and Censorship

Censorship was not a concern under the East India Company. The Calcutta Supreme Court
passed certain regulations to control press freedom and in 1835, Governor-General Bentinck
agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay formulated new rules that restored the earlier
freedom. The freedom of press changed after the revolt of 1857. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act
was passed, modelled on the Irish Press Laws, which provided the government with extensive
rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. Government started keeping track of
the vernacular newspapers. Nationalist’s newspapers grew in numbers all over India. In 1907,
Punjab revolutionaries were deported, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in
his Kesari which led to his imprisonment in 1908.
CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science
Chapter 1 - Power Sharing
In Class 9, you have studied that in a democracy all power does not rest with any one organ of the
government. An intelligent sharing of power among the legislature, executive and judiciary is very
important for the design of democracy. In this chapter, the idea of power sharing is explained in detail,
drawing parallels between the stories of Belgium and Sri Lanka. Also, you will learn the different forms
of power sharing.
CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 1 - Power Sharing
Story of Belgium
Belgium is a small country in Europe with a population of over 1crore, about half the population of
Haryana. Of the country’s total population, 59% speaks Dutch language, 40% of people speak French
and the remaining 1% speak German. Look at the map below to know the language variation of
Belgium. The minority French-speaking community was rich and powerful so they got the benefit of
economic development and education. This created tensions between the Dutch-speaking and French-
speaking communities during the 1950s and 1960s.
https://byjus.com
Accommodation in Belgium
In Belgium, the government handled the community difference very well. Between 1970 and 1993,
Belgian leaders amended their constitution four times and came up with a new model to run the
government.
Here are some of the elements of the Belgian model.

1. Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal
in the Central Government. Some special laws require the support of the majority of members
from each linguistic group. Thus, no single community can make decisions unilaterally.
2. The state governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.
3. Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
4. Apart from the Central and the State Government, there is a third kind of government. This
‘community government’ is elected by people belonging to one language community – Dutch,
French and German-speaking – no matter where they live. This government has the power
regarding cultural, educational and language-related issues.
The Belgium model was very complicated but it helped to avoid civic strife between the two major
communities.
Story of Sri Lanka

Now, let’s take a situation of another country, Sri Lanka. It is an island nation having a population of 2
crores, about the same as in Haryana. Sri Lanka has a diverse population. The major social groups are
the Sinhala-speakers (74%) and the Tamil-speakers (18%). Among Tamils, there are two subgroups,
“Sri Lankan Tamils” and “Indian Tamils”. You can see the map below to know the population distribution
of different communities of Sri Lanka.
https://byjus.com
In Sri Lanka, the Sinhala community enjoyed the bigger majority and imposed its will on the entire
country.
Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka emerged as an independent country in 1948. The Sinhala community was in the majority so
they had formed the government. They also followed preferential policies that favoured Sinhala
applicants for university positions and government jobs. These measures taken by the government
gradually increased the feeling of alienation among the Sri Lankan Tamils. Sri Lankan Tamils felt that
constitution and government policies denied them equal political rights, discriminated against them in
getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interests. Due to which the relationship between
the Sinhala and Tamil communities become poor. Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for
the recognition of Tamil as an official language, for regional autonomy and equality of opportunity in
securing education and jobs. But their demand was repeatedly denied by the government. The distrust
between the two communities turned into widespread conflict and turned into a CIVIL WAR. As a result,
thousands of people of both the communities have been killed. Many families were forced to leave the
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country as refugees and many more lost their livelihoods. The civil war ended in 2009 and caused a
terrible setback to the social, cultural and economic life of the country.
What have you learned from the Stories of Belgium and Sri Lanka?
 Both countries are democracies but they dealt differently with the concept of power sharing.
 In Belgium, the leaders have realised that the unity of the country is possible only by respecting
the feelings and interests of different communities and regions. This resulted in mutually
acceptable arrangements for sharing power.
 Sri Lanka shows that, if a majority community wants to force its dominance over others and
refuses to share power, it can undermine the unity of the country.
Why power sharing is desirable?

You will find the answer to this question in the points below.
1. Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social
groups.
2. The second reason is that, a democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its
exercise, and who have to live with its effects. People have a right to be consulted on how they
are to be governed.
Let us call the first set of reasons Prudential and the second moral. The prudential reasons stress that
power sharing will bring out better outcomes, whereas the moral reasons emphasise the act of power
sharing as valuable.
Form of Power Sharing

Most of you must think that Sharing power = dividing power = weakening the country. The similar thing
was believed in the past. It was assumed that all the power of a government must reside in one person
or group of persons located at one place. Otherwise, it would be very difficult to make quick decisions
and to enforce them. But these notions have changed with the emergence of democracy. In a
democracy, people rule themselves through institutions of self-government. Everyone has a voice in the
shaping of public policies. Therefore, in a democratic country, political power should be distributed
among citizens.
In modern democracies, power sharing can take many forms, as mentioned below:
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1. Power is shared among different organs of government, such as the legislature, executive
and judiciary. This is called horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of
government placed at the same level to exercise different powers. Such separation ensures that
none of the organs can exercise unlimited power. Each organ checks the others. This arrangement
is called a system of checks and balances.
2. Power can be shared among governments at different levels - a general government for the
entire country and governments at the provincial or regional level which is called federal government.
3. Power may also be shared among different social groups such as the religious and
linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement. This
method is used to give minority communities a fair share in power.
4. Power sharing arrangements can also be seen in the way political parties, pressure groups
and movements control or influence those in power. When two or more parties form an alliance to
contest elections and if they get elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.
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Chapter 2 – Federalism
In Chapter 1, you have learned that the division of power among different levels of government is one
of the major forms of power sharing in modern democracies. In this chapter, you will understand the
theory and practice of federalism in India. Towards the end of the chapter, you will know about the local
government, a new and third tier of Indian federalism.
Here we have compiled the “CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 2 - Federalism”, which will
provide a clear insight into the chapter and all the important concepts.
Download CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 2 -

Federalism PDF
What is federalism?
Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and
various constituent units of the country.
A federation has two levels of government. Both these levels of governments enjoy their power
independent of the other.
1. One is the government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of
common national interest.
2. Governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the day-to-day
administering of their state.
Difference Between Unitary System and Federal System

Unitary System Federal System
There is only one level of government or the There are two or more levels
sub-units are subordinate to the Central Government. (or tiers) of government.
The Central Government can pass on orders to the The Central Government
provincial or local government. cannot order the state
government to do something.
The central government is supreme, and the administrative State Government has powers
divisions exercise only powers that the central government of its own for which it is not
has delegated to them. Their powers may be broadened answerable to the central
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and narrowed by the central government government.
Key Features of Federalism

Some of the key features of federalism system are:
1. There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.
2. Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own
JURISDICTION in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
3. The existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
4. The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of
government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government.
5. Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of
government.
6. Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial
autonomy.
7. The federal system has dual objectives:

i) To safeguard and promote the unity of the country
ii) Accommodate regional diversity.
Different Routes Through Which Federations Can be Formed

Two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism: mutual trust between the
government of different levels and agreement to live together. There are two kinds of routes through
which federations have been formed.
1. The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit.
This kind of “coming together” federations is formed in the USA, Switzerland and Australia.
2. The second route is that a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent
States and the national government. This kind of ‘holding together’ federations is followed in
India, Spain and Belgium countries.
What Makes India a Federal Country?
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All the features of the federal system apply to the provisions of the Indian Constitution. The Indian
Constitution is a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the
State Governments. The 3 lists are mentioned below:
1) Union List: It includes subjects of national importance such as the defence of the country, foreign
affairs, banking, communications and currency. The Union Government alone can make laws relating
to the subjects mentioned in this list.
2) State List: It contains subjects of State and local importance such as police, trade, commerce,
agriculture and irrigation. The State Governments alone can make laws relating to the subjects
mentioned in this list.
3) Concurrent List: It includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government as well as
the State Governments. The list includes education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and
succession. Both the Union as well as the State Governments can make laws on the subjects
mentioned in this list. If their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union Government will
be considered.
How is Federalism Practised?

The real success of federalism in India is attributed to its nature of democratic politics. Have a look at
some of the major ways in which federalism is practised in India.
Linguistic States
The creation of linguistic States was the first and a major test for democratic politics in India. From 1947
to 2017, many old States have vanished and many new States have been created. Areas, boundaries
and names of the States have been changed. Some States has been formed of the people who spoke
the same language. These states are known as the Linguistic States.
Language Policy
A second test for Indian federation is the language policy. Hindi was identified as the official language.
Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognised as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution.
States too have their own official languages and government work takes place in the official language
of the concerned State.
Centre-State relations
Restructuring the Centre-State relations is one more way in which federalism has been strengthened in
practice. If no single party gets a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the major national parties can alliance
with many parties including several regional parties to form a government at the Centre. This led to a
new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Governments.
Decentralisation in India
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When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to the local government, it is
called decentralisation. The basic idea behind decentralisation is that there are a large number of
problems and issues which are best settled at the local level. Local people can also directly participate
in the decision making.
A major step towards decentralisation was taken in 1992. The Constitution was amended to make the
third-tier of democracy more powerful and effective. Here are the key features of 3-tier democracy:
1. It is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
2. Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for the
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
3. At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
4. State Election Commission has been created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal
elections.
5. The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government
bodies. The nature of sharing varies from State to State.
Panchayati Raj System

Rural local government is popularly known as Panchayati Raj. Each village, or a group of villages in
some States, has a gram panchayat. This is a council consisting of several ward members, often called
panch, and a president or sarpanch. They are directly elected by all the adult population living in a
village or ward. Gram Panchayat is the decision-making body for the entire village.
The Panchayat works under the overall supervision of the Gram Sabha. All the voters in the village are
its members. It has to meet at least twice or thrice in a year to approve the annual budget of the gram
panchayat and to review the performance of the Gram Panchayat.
When Gram Panchayat are grouped together, they form a Panchayat Samiti or Block or Mandal. The
member of Panchayat Samiti representative are elected by all the Panchayat
members in that area.
All the Panchayat Samitis or Mandals in a district together constitute the Zilla (district) Parishad.
Members of the Lok Sabha, MLAs of the district, and some other officials of other district-level bodies
are the members of Zilla Parishad.
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Municipalities
As Gram Panchayat is for Rural areas, similarly we have Municipalities for urban areas. Big
cities are constituted into Municipal Corporations. Both Municipalities and Municipal Corporations are
controlled by elected bodies consisting of people’s representatives. The Municipal Chairperson is the
political head of the Municipality. In a Municipal Corporation such an officer is called the mayor.
This new system of local government is the largest experiment in democracy conducted anywhere in
the world. Constitutional status for local government has helped to deepen democracy in our country. It
has also increased women’s representation and voice in our democracy.
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Chapter 3 - Democracy and Diversity
In Chapter 2, you have read about power sharing and how power can be distributed to accommodate
linguistic and regional diversities. In this chapter, you will study how democracy
responds to social differences, divisions and inequalities. The chapter starts with an example of public
expression of social divisions. After that, you will learn some general lessons about how social
differences can take various forms. Then you turn to how democratic politics affects and
is affected by these social diversities. Here, we have covered all these topics and summarized it in the
form of CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 3 - Democracy and Diversity. Going through
these notes will give a quick tour of the chapter.
CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 3 - Democracy and

Diversity
A Story from Mexico Olympics

During the Medal Ceremony of the 200 metres race which was held in 1968 Olympics at Mexico City,
two African-American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos raised a black-gloved fist during the
playing of the US national anthem. They had won the gold and bronze medals respectively. With this
gesture, they tried to draw international attention to racial discrimination in the United States. The black-
gloved and raised clenched fists were meant to symbolise Black Power. The pictures shown below
depicts an important landmark in the history of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States.
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Differences, Similarities, Divisions
The story from the Mexico Olympics shows an example of social divisions and social inequalities. But in
society, there are other forms of social divisions that exist. As you have learned in the previous 2
chapters, regional, linguistic and religious differences have created social divisions.
Origins of Social Differences

The social differences are mostly based on the accident of birth. For example, people around us are
male or female, they are tall and short, have different kinds of complexions, or have different physical
abilities or disabilities. But some of the differences are based on our choices. For example, some
people are atheists i.e they don’t believe in God or any religion. While some people believe in God.
There are various other choices such as choosing what to study, which
occupation to take up and which games or cultural activities to take part in.
Social differences divide similar people from one another, but they also unite very different people.
People belonging to different social groups share differences and similarities cutting across the
boundaries of their groups.
Overlapping and Cross-Cutting Differences
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Social differences imply a state when people are discriminated or one class/group is given preference
over the other, due to the difference in their social, economic or racial inequality. Overlapping and
cross-cutting are the two types of social differences.
When one kind of social difference becomes more important than the other and people start feeling that
they belong to different communities, this is known as overlapping differences. It results in social
division and disintegration. For Eg, in India Dalits face this type of discrimination as they belong to poor
families.
If social differences cross-cut one another, it means that groups that share a common interest on one
issue are likely to be in different sides on a different issue. For example, the Northern
Ireland and the Netherlands both were predominantly Christian but divided between Catholics and
Protestants.
Politics of Social Divisions

The combination of politics and social divisions is very dangerous and explosive. Democracy involves
competition among various political parties. If they start competing in terms of some existing social
divisions, it can make social divisions into political divisions and lead to conflict, violence or even
disintegration of a country.
What can be the range of outcomes of politics of social divisions?
In Northern Ireland, the difference between the two major sectors of Christianity i.e 53% of Protestants
and 44% of Roman Catholics took the form of politics. The Catholics were
represented by Nationalist parties who demanded that Northern Ireland be unified with the Republic of
Ireland, a predominantly Catholic country. The Protestants were represented by Unionists who wanted
to remain with the UK, which is predominantly Protestant. Later on, it took a drastic form which ended
by taking the lives of hundreds of people.
In Yugoslavia, political competition along religious ending ethnic lines led to the disintegration of
Yugoslavia into six independent countries. At the same time, every expression of social divisions in
politics does not lead to such disasters. But, it affects voting in most countries, especially in India.
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Three Determinants
3 Factors are crucial in deciding the outcome of the politics of social divisions:
1. The outcome depends on how people perceive their identities. If people see their identities in
singular and exclusive terms, it becomes very difficult to solve.
2. It depends on how political leaders raise the demands of any community. It is easier to
accommodate demands that are within the constitutional framework and are not at the cost of
another community.
3. It depends on how the government reacts to the demands of different groups.
4. In a democracy, the political expression of social divisions is very normal and can be healthy.
This allows various disadvantaged and marginal social groups to express their grievances and
get the government to attend to these.
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Chapter 4 - Gender, Religion and Caste
In the previous chapter, you have learned that Political expression of social differences is possible and
sometimes quite desirable in a democratic system. In Chapter 4 of Class 10 Political Science, you will
study 3 kinds of social differences based on gender, religion and caste that can take the form of social
divisions and inequalities. In each case, you look at the nature of the division in India and how it gets
expressed in politics. So, go through the “CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 4 - Gender,
Religion and Caste” and know about all the topics in detail.
CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 4 - Gender, Religion

and Caste
Gender and Politics

The gender division tends to be understood as natural and unchangeable. It is not based on biology but
on social expectations and stereotypes.
Public/Private Division
The result of this division of labour is that though women constitute half of humanity, their role in public
life, especially politics, is minimal in most societies. Earlier, only men were allowed to participate in
public affairs, vote and contest for public offices. Gradually the gender issue was raised in politics. It
demanded to enhance the political and legal status of women and improve their educational and career
opportunities. The movements which were raised by women to get equality in personal and family life
are called Feminist movements.
The political expression of gender division and political mobilisation helped to improve women’s role in
public life. As India is a male-dominated, PATRIARCHAL society, women face disadvantage,
discrimination and oppression in various ways:
1. The literacy rate among women is only 54 per cent compared with 76 per cent among men.
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2. On an average, an Indian woman works one hour more than an average man every day and yet
much of her work is not paid. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 provides that equal wages
should be paid to equal work.
3. In India, sex-selective abortion led to a decline in child sex ratio (number of girl children per
thousand boys).
4. Urban areas have become particularly unsafe for women.
Women’s Political Representation

Issues related to women are not given adequate attention. This has led many feminists and women’s
movements to the conclusion that unless women control power, their problems will not get adequate
attention. In India, the percentage of elected women members in Lok Sabha touched 12 percent of its
total strength for the first time in 2014. Their share in the state assemblies is less than 5 per cent.
One way to solve women’s problem is to have a fair proportion of women in the elected bodies. In
Panchayats and Municipalities, one-third of seats in local government bodies are reserved for women.
Now there are more than 10 lakh elected women representatives in rural and urban local bodies.
Gender division is an example that some form of social division needs to be expressed in politics. This
also shows that disadvantaged groups do benefit when social divisions become a political issue.
Religion, Communalism and Politics

Religion
The division based on religious differences are often expressed in the field of politics. In India, there are
followers of different religions. People should be able to express in politics their needs, interests and
demands as a member of a religious community.
Communalism
The use of religion in politics is called communal politics:
1. When beliefs of one religion are presented as superior to those of other religions
2. When the demands of one religious group are formed in opposition to another
3. When state power is used to establish the domination of one religious group over the rest.
Communalism can take various forms in politics as mentioned below:
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1. The most common expression of communalism is in everyday beliefs involves religious
prejudices, stereotypes of religious communities and belief in the superiority of one’s religion
over other religions.
2. A communal mind often leads to a quest for political dominance of one’s own religious
community.
3. Political mobilisation on religious lines involves the use of sacred symbols, religious leaders,
emotional appeal and plain fear in order to bring the followers of one religion together in the
political arena.
4. Sometimes communalism takes its most ugly form of communal violence, riots and massacre.
India and Pakistan suffered some of the worst communal riots at the time of the Partition.
Secular State
India is a secular state. Some of the features of India Secular states are:
1. There is no official religion for the Indian state.
2. The Constitution provides to all individuals and communities freedom to profess, practice and
propagate any religion, or not to follow any.
3. The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.
4. The Constitution allows the state to intervene in the matters of religion in order to ensure
equality within religious communities. For example, it bans untouchability.
Caste and Politics

Caste and politics both have some positive and some negative aspects. Let’s look at them:
Caste Inequalities
In most societies, occupations are passed on from one generation to another. Caste system is an
extreme form of this. In this system, members of the same caste, the group were supposed to form a
social community that practiced the same or similar occupation, married within the caste group and did
not eat with members from other caste groups.
With economic development, large scale urbanisation, growth of literacy and education, occupational
mobility and the weakening of the position of landlords in the villages, the old notions of Caste
Hierarchy are breaking down. The Constitution of India prohibited any caste-based discrimination and
laid the foundations of policies to reverse the injustices of the caste system.
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Caste in Politics
Caste can take various forms in politics:
1. When parties choose their candidate or when governments are formed, political parties usually
take care that representatives of different castes and tribes find a place in it.
2. Political parties and candidates in elections make appeals to caste sentiment to win the
elections.
3. To gain support political parties raise caste-based issues during elections to get political
support, as ‘one man one vote’ system or adult franchise has made the voter very powerful.
4. Political Parties have made people belonging to lower castes conscious about their rights to
vote and their powers.
During elections caste matters, but it is not everything. There are many other factors that impact the
elections. People’s assessment of the performance of the government and the popularity rating of the
leaders are considered during elections. Just have a look at the below points:
1. Candidates and parties need to win the confidence of more than one caste and community to
win elections.
2. No party wins the votes of all the voters of a caste or community.
3. Some voters have more than one candidate from their caste while many voters have no
candidate from their caste.
4. The ruling party and the sitting MP or MLA keep changing whenever fresh elections take place.
Politics in caste
Politics also influence the caste system and caste identities by bringing them into the political arena.
Here are a few points that support this;
1. Each caste group tries to become bigger by incorporating within it neighbouring castes or sub-
castes.
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2. Various caste groups are formed with other castes or communities and then they enter into a
dialogue and negotiation.
3. New kinds of caste groups have come up in the political arena like ‘backward’ and ‘forward’
caste groups.
Thus, caste plays different kinds of roles in politics. In some cases, caste division leads to tensions,
conflict and even violence.
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Chapter 5 - Popular Struggles and Movements
In the earlier chapter, you have learnt why power sharing is important in a democracy and how different
tiers of government and various social groups share power. In this chapter, you will know how leaders
in power, balance the conflicting demands and pressures that exist in Democracy. The chapter mainly
deals with indirect ways of influencing politics, through pressure groups and movements. Here we have
compiled all the important topics in the form of CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 5 -
Popular Struggles and Movements.
CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 5 - Popular Struggles

and Movements
Popular struggles in Nepal and Bolivia

In Chapter 1 of Class 9 Political Science, you have studied the story of the triumph of democracy in
Poland. The story reminds you of the role of the people in making Poland a democratic country. Here
are 2 more stories through which you get to know how power is exercised in a democracy.
Movement for Democracy in Nepal

Nepal witnessed a popular movement in April 2006, which was aimed at regaining popular control over
the government from the king. All the major political parties in the parliament formed a Seven Party
Alliance (SPA) and called for a four-day strike in Kathmandu. They demanded;
a. Restoration of parliament
b. Power to an all-party government
c. A new constituent assembly
On 24 April 2006, the king was forced to accept all the three demands. In 2008, the kingship was
abolished and Nepal became a federal democratic republic. In 2015, it adopted a new constitution. The
struggle of the Nepali people is a source of inspiration to democrats all over the world.
Democratic Politics Bolivia’s Water War
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People’s successful struggle against the privatisation of water in Bolivia shows that struggles are
necessary for the working of democracy.
Democracy and Popular Struggles

The stories of Nepal and Bolivia were different from each other. The movement in Nepal was to
establish democracy, while the struggle in Bolivia involved claims on an elected, democratic
government. Both these struggles show their impact at different levels. Despite these differences, both
instances involved critical role of political organisations.
Here are some points which demonstrate how democracy has evolved all over the world:
1. Democracy evolves through popular struggles.
2. Democratic conflict is resolved through mass mobilisation. Sometimes, conflict is resolved by
using the existing institutions like the parliament or the judiciary.
3. The conflicts and mobilisations are based on new political organisations, which include political
parties, pressure groups and movement groups.
Mobilisation and Organisations

In a democracy, different kinds of organisations work behind any big struggle. These organisations play
their role in two ways.
1. Direct participation in competitive politics which is done by creating parties, contesting elections
and forming governments. However, every citizen does not participate so directly, other than
through voting.
2. There are many indirect ways in which people can get governments to listen to their demands or
their points of view. This is done by forming an organisation and undertaking activities to
promote the interests or viewpoints of people. Such groups are known as “interest groups or
pressure groups”.
Pressure Groups and Movements

Pressure groups are organisations that attempt to influence government policies. These organisations
are formed when people with common occupation, interest, aspirations or opinions come together to
achieve a common objective.
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A Movement attempts to influence politics rather than directly taking part in electoral competition. It’s a
small organisation which depends on spontaneous mass participation of people than an interest group.
Eg: Narmada Bachao Andolan, Movement for Right to Information, Anti-liquor Movement, Women’s
Movement, Environmental Movement.
Sectional Interest Groups and Public Interest Groups
Sectional Interest Groups Public Interest Group
They aim to promote the interests of a They aim to help groups other than their own
particular section or group of society. members.
They represent a section of society. Eg: Trade They are also called as promotional groups.
unions, business associations and
professional (lawyers, doctors, teachers, etc.)
Their principal concern is the betterment and They aim to help groups other than their own
well-being of their members, not society in members.
general.
The members of the organisation may not In some instances, the members of a public
benefit from the cause that the organisation interest group may undertake activity that
represents. benefits them as well as others too.
Eg: Bolivian organisation, FEDECOR. Eg: BAMCEF (Backward and Minority
Communities Employees Federation)
How do Pressure Group and Movements influence politics?

They exert influence on politics in a variety of ways:
1. They try to gain public support and sympathy for their goals and their activities by carrying out
information campaigns, organising meetings, filing petitions, etc.
2. They often organise protest activities like strikes or disrupting government programmes.
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3. Some persons from pressure groups or movement groups may participate in official bodies and
committees that offer advice to the government.
The relationship between political parties and pressure groups can take different forms. Some direct
and indirect ways are:
1. In some cases, the pressure groups are either formed or led by the leaders of political parties or
act as extended arms of political parties.
For example, most trade unions and students’ organisations in India are either
established by or affiliated to one or the other major political parties.
2. Sometimes political parties grow out of movements.

For example, when the Assam movement led by students against the ‘foreigners’ came to an
end, it led to the formation of the Asom Gana Parishad.
3. In most cases, the relationship between parties and interest or movement groups is not so
direct. In this case also, the dialogue and negotiation take place as most of the new leaders of
political parties come from interest or movement groups.
Is Pressure Group and Movements influence healthy?

Pressure groups and Movements have strengthened democracy. Governments can often come under
undue pressure from a small group of rich and powerful people. Public interest groups and Movements
perform a useful role in countering this undue influence and reminding the government of the needs
and concerns of ordinary citizens. Sectional interest groups also play a valuable role where different
groups function actively, no one single group can achieve dominance over society. Thus, the
government gets to hear about what different sections of the population want.
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CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Civics
Chapter 6 - Political Parties
Till now, you have learned that in the arena of democratic politics, political parties work as a
vehicle of federal sharing of political power and as negotiators of social divisions. In this
chapter, you will learn about the nature and workings of political parties in our country. We
have covered all the important topics of this chapter in CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science
Chapter 6 - Political Parties. Through these notes, you will get introduced to the national and
regional political parties in today’s India. Also, this chapter will help you understand what is
wrong with political parties and what can be done about it. You can download these notes from
the link below and can study them offline as well.
Why Do We Need Political Parties?
A Political Party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power
in the government. They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to
promote the collective good. Parties reflect fundamental political divisions in a society. Thus a
party is known by which part it stands for, which policies it supports and whose interests it
upholds. A political party has three components:
 The leaders
 The active members
 The followers
Functions of Political Parties

Political parties fill political offices and exercise political power. Parties do so by performing a
series of functions mentioned below:
1. Parties contest elections.

2. Parties put forward different policies and programmes and the voters choose from them.
3. Parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country.
4. Parties form and run governments.
5. Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of opposition to the parties in
power, by voicing different views and criticising the government for its failures or wrong
policies.
6. Parties shape public opinion.
7. Parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes
implemented by governments.
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The Necessity of Political Parties

We need political parties because they perform all the functions which are
mentioned above. Apart from this, political parties help in representing different
views on various issues to the government. They bring various representatives
together so that a responsible government could be formed. They work as a
mechanism to support or restrain the government, make policies, justify or
oppose them. Political parties fulfil the needs that every representative
government has.
How Many Parties Should We Have?

In a democracy, any group of citizens is free to form a political party. More than 750 parties are
registered with the Election Commission of India. But not all these parties are serious
contenders in the elections. So the question, then is: how many major or effective parties are
good for democracy?
In some countries, only one party is allowed to control and run the government. These are
called one-party systems. This system is not considered as a good option for democracy.
In some countries, power usually changes between the two main parties. Such a party system
is called a two-party system. Eg: The United States of America and the United Kingdom.
If several parties compete for power, and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of
coming to power either on their own strength or in alliance with others, it is called a multiparty
system.
Eg: India.
When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for the purpose of contesting elections
and winning power, it is called an alliance or a front.
National Parties
Every party in the country has to register with the Election Commission. It offers some special
facilities for large and established parties. The Election Commission has laid down detailed
criteria of the proportion of votes and seats that a party must get in order to be a recognised
party.
1. A party that secures at least 6% of the total votes in an election to the Legislative
Assembly of a State and wins at least 2 seats is recognised as a State Party.
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2. A party that secures at least 6% of the total votes in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly
elections in 4 States and wins at least 4 seats in the Lok Sabha is recognised as a
National Party.
Major National Parties in India

There were 7 recognised national parties in the country in 2018. Here are the details of these
parties:
1) All India Trinamool Congress (AITC)
 Launched on 1 January 1998 under the leadership of Mamata Banerjee.

 Recognised as a national party in 2016.
 The party’s symbol is flowers and grass.
 Committed to secularism and federalism.
 Has been in power in West Bengal since 2011 and has a presence in Arunachal
Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura.
 In the General Elections held in 2014, it got 3.84% votes and won 34 seats, making it
the fourth-largest party in the Lok Sabha.
2) Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP):
 Formed in 1984 under the leadership of Kanshi Ram.

 Seeks to represent and secure power for the Bahujan samaj which includes the Dalits,
Adivasis, OBCs and religious minorities.
 Stands for the cause of securing the interests and welfare of the Dalits and oppressed
people.
 It has its main base in the state of Uttar Pradesh and substantial presence in
neighbouring states like Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Delhi and
Punjab.
 Formed government in UP several times by taking the support of different parties at
different times.
3) Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
 Founded in 1980, formed by Syama Prasad Mukherjee in 1951.

 Wants to build a strong and modern India by drawing inspiration from India’s ancient
culture and values, and Deendayal Upadhyaya’s ideas of integral humanism and
Antyodaya.
 Cultural nationalism (or ‘Hindutva’) is an important element in its conception of Indian
nationhood and politics.
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 Earlier limited to north and west and to urban areas, the party expanded its support in
the south, east, the north-east and to rural areas.
 Emerged as the largest party with 282 members in the 2014 Lok Sabha elections.
4) Communist Party of India (CPI):
 Formed in 1925. Believes in Marxism-Leninism, secularism and democracy.

 Opposed to the forces of secessionism and communalism.
 Accepts parliamentary democracy as a means of promoting the interests of the working
class, farmers and the poor.
 Significant presence in the states of Kerala, West Bengal, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu.
 It secured less than 1 per cent votes and 1 seat in the 2014 Lok Sabha elections.
5) Communist Party of India - Marxist (CPI-M):
 Founded in 1964. Believes in Marxism-Leninism. Supports socialism, secularism and

democracy and opposes imperialism and communalism.
 Accepts democratic elections as a useful and helpful means for securing the objective
of socio-economic justice in India.
 Enjoys strong support in West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura.
 The part was in power in West Bengal without a break for 34 years.
 In the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, it won about 3% of votes and 9 seats.
6) Indian National Congress (INC):
 Popularly known as the Congress Party. One of the oldest parties of the world. Founded
in 1885 and has experienced many splits.
 Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the party sought to build a modern secular
democratic republic in India.
 The ruling party at the centre till 1977 and then from 1980 to 1989. After 1989, its
support declined, but it continues to be present throughout the country.
 The party's main idea is to promote secularism and welfare of weaker sections and
minorities.
7) Nationalist Congress Party (NCP):

 Formed in 1999 following a split in the Congress party.
 Supports democracy, Gandhian secularism, equity, social justice and federalism.
 A major party in Maharashtra and has a significant presence in Meghalaya, Manipur
and Assam.
 A coalition partner in the state of Maharashtra in alliance with the Congress. Since
2004, a member of the United Progressive Alliance.
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State Parties
The Election Commission has classified some of the major parties of the country as “State
parties”.
These are also referred to as regional parties. Some of these parties are:
 Biju Janata Dal
 Sikkim Democratic Front
 Mizo National Front
 Telangana Rashtra Samithi
The Map below shows the Regional Parties in India (as on 13th April 2018):
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Challenges to Political Parties

1. Popular dissatisfaction and criticism have focussed on 4 problem areas in the working
of political parties. These are:
2. Lack of internal democracy within parties. Parties do not keep membership registers, do
not hold organisational meetings, and do not conduct internal elections regularly.
3. Most political parties do not practice open and transparent procedures for their
functioning, so there are very few ways for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a
party. In many parties, the top positions are always controlled by members of one
family.
4. The third challenge is about the growing role of money and muscle power in parties,
especially during elections. Since parties are focussed only on winning elections, they
tend to use short-cuts to win elections. In some cases, parties support criminals who
can win elections.
5. People do not find parties to be a meaningful choice for their votes. Sometimes people
cannot even elect very different leaders either, because the same set of leaders keep
shifting from one party to another.
How can Parties be Reformed?

Have a look at some of the recent efforts and suggestions to reform political parties and its
leaders in India.
Some efforts are listed below:
1. The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing
parties.
2. The Supreme Court passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals.
Now, it is mandatory for every candidate who contests elections to file an AFFIDAVIT
giving details of his property and criminal cases pending against him.
3. The Election Commission passed an order making it necessary for political parties to
hold their organisational elections and file their income tax returns
4. Besides these, many suggestions are made to reform political parties. These
suggestions have not yet been accepted by political parties.
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5. A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties.
6. It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets,
about one-third, to women candidates. Similarly, there should be a quota for women in
the decision making bodies of the party.
7. There should be state funding of elections. The government should give parties money
to support their election expenses.
There are two other ways in which political parties can be reformed.
1. People can put pressure on political parties. This can be done through petitions,
publicity and agitations.
2. Political parties can improve if people who want change can join political parties. It is
difficult to reform politics if ordinary citizens do not take part in it and simply criticise it
from the outside.
Keep learning and stay tuned for further updates on CBSE and other competitive exams.
Download BYJU’S App and subscribe to YouTube channel to access interactive Maths and
Science videos.
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Chapter 7 - Outcomes of Democracy
In this chapter, you will learn how to assess the outcomes of democracy. You will get to know
the expected and actual outcomes of democracy in various respects such as quality of
government, economic well-being, inequality, social differences and conflict and finally
freedom and dignity. Here in “CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 7 - Outcomes of
Democracy” we have covered all the aspects of democracy in a short and concise format. Go
through these CBSE Notes to get an overview of this chapter.
How do We Assess Democracy’s Outcomes?

Democracy is a better form of government than dictatorship in the following respects:
 Promotes equality among citizens.

 Enhances the dignity of the individual.
 Improves the quality of decision making.
 Provides a method to resolve conflicts.
 Allows room to correct mistakes.
Democracy Produces Accountable, Responsive and Legitimate

Government
People have the right to choose their rulers and they have control over their rulers. Citizens
can participate in decision making. Thus, democracy produces a government that is
accountable to the citizens, and responsive to the needs and expectations of the citizens.
Democracy ensures that decision making is based on norms and procedures. So, a citizen
who wants to know if a decision was taken through the correct procedures can find out this
information. Citizens can take part in decision making whenever they want.
A democratic government is the people’s own government. People wish to be ruled by

representatives elected by them.
Economic Growth and Development

Economic development depends on several factors: the country’s population size, global
situation, cooperation from other countries, economic priorities adopted by the country, etc.
There is a significant difference in the rates of economic growth between countries under
dictatorship and democracy. So, democracy is preferred as it has several positive outcomes.
Economic Outcomes of Democracy

The following points show the relationship of democracy with economic growth and economic
inequalities.
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1. Dictatorial regime has had a slightly better record of economic growth. But when we
compare their record only in poor countries, there is virtually no difference.
2. There can be a very high degree of inequalities within democracies.
3. There is often inequality of opportunities available to the poorer sections of the society.
Reduction of Inequality and Poverty

All individuals have equal weight in electing representatives. In the process of bringing
individuals into the political arena on an equal footing, we find growing economic inequalities.
 A small number of ultra-rich enjoy a highly disproportionate share of wealth and

incomes. Their share in the total income of the country has been increasing.
 Those at the bottom strata of the society have very little to depend upon. Their incomes
have been declining.
In actual life, democracies do not appear to be very successful in reducing economic

inequalities.
Accommodation of Social Diversity

No society can fully and permanently resolve conflicts among different groups. But we can
learn to respect these differences and we can evolve mechanisms to negotiate the differences.
Democracy is best suited to produce this outcome. Ability to handle social differences,
divisions and conflicts is a plus point of democratic regimes. But democracy must fulfil 2
conditions in order to achieve this outcome:
1. The majority always needs to work with the minority so that governments function to
represent the general view.
2. Rule by majority means that in case of every decision or in case of every election,
different persons and groups may and can form a majority.
Dignity and Freedom of the Citizens

Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting the dignity and
freedom of the individual. The passion for respect and freedom are the basis of democracy.
Let’s take the case of the dignity of women. The long struggles by women have created some
sensitivity that respect and equal treatment of women are necessary ingredients of a
democratic society. The same is true of caste inequalities. Democracy in India has
strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal status and
equal opportunity.
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Most individuals today believe that their vote makes a difference to the way the government is
run and to their own self-interest. Democratic examination never gets over. As it passes one
test, it produces another test. As people get some benefits of democracy, they ask for more
and want to make democracy even better. The fact that people are complaining is itself a
testimony to the success of democracy.
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Chapter 8 - Challenges to Democracy
Chapter 8 of Political Science will conclude all that you have learned in Class 9 and Class 10
Civics. The chapter will provide some suggestions through which you can approach the
questions of democratic politics, such as what are the challenges that democracy faces? What
can be done to reform democratic politics? How can democracy become more democratic in
its practice and outcomes? Also, the chapter will help you to think on your own and come up
with your own reading of the challenges and your own definition of democracy. So, to help you
in understanding the chapter in-depth, we have provided the CBSE Notes Class 10 Political
Science Chapter 8 - Challenges to Democracy.
Think About the Challenges of Democracy

A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress. Different countries
face different kinds of challenges.
1. At least one-fourth of the globe is still not under democratic government. These
countries face the foundational challenge of making the transition to democracy and
then instituting a democratic government.
2. Most of the established democracies face the challenge of expansion. This involves
applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different
social groups and various institutions. This also means that less and less decisions
should remain outside the arena of democratic control. Countries like India and the US
face this challenge.
3. Deepening of democracy is the challenge faced by every democracy in one form or

another. This involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy. This
requires an attempt to bring down the control and influence of the rich and powerful
people in making governmental decisions.
Thinking about Political Reforms

All the suggestions or proposals about overcoming various challenges to democracy are called
‘democracy reform’ or ‘political reform’. The below-mentioned guidelines will help in
devising ways and means for political reforms in India:
1. Law has an important role to play in political reform. Carefully devised changes in law
can help to discourage wrong political practices and encourage good ones. But legal-
constitutional changes by themselves cannot overcome challenges to democracy.
Democratic reforms are to be carried out mainly by political activists, parties,
movements and politically conscious citizens.
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Chapter 8 - Challenges to Democracy
2. The best laws are those which empower people to carry out democratic reforms. The
Right to Information Act is a good example of a law that empowers the people to find
out what is happening in government and act as watchdogs of democracy.
3. The main focus of political reforms should be on ways to strengthen democratic

practice.
4. Any proposal for political reforms should think not only about what is a good solution but
also about who will implement it and how.
Redefining Democracy
Democracy is a form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people.
1. The rulers elected by the people must take all the major decisions.
2. Elections must offer a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current
rulers.
3. This choice and opportunity should be available to all the people on an equal basis.
4. The exercise of this choice must lead to a government limited by basic rules of the
constitution and citizens’ rights.
Here we have summarised the points that you have learned in democratic government and
politics.
1. You have learned the democratic rights at length and understood that these rights are
not limited to the right to vote, stand in elections and form political organisations. Also,
you have read about some social and economic rights that democracy should offer to its
citizens.
2. You get to know that power-sharing is the spirit of democracy and how power-sharing
between governments and social groups is necessary in a democracy.
3. You saw how democracy cannot be the brute rule of the majority and how a respect for
the minority voice is necessary for democracy.
4. You have learned how eliminating discrimination based on caste, religion and gender is
important in a democracy.
5. Finally, in this chapter, you get to know about the outcomes of democracy.
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CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Economics
Chapter 1 - Development
In CBSE Notes Class 10 Economics Chapter 1, you will make a beginning of understanding the topic
Development. In higher classes, you learn further about development issues. Here in this chapter, you
will find answers to many questions such as; what should a country be like? What are the essential
things that we require? Can life be better for all? How should people live together? Can there be more
equality? The answers to these questions are not found only in Economics but also in History and
Political Science. This is because the way we live today is influenced by the past.
What Development Promises - Different Peoples, Different Goals

1. Different people can have different developmental goals
2. What may be development for one may not be development for the other person. It may even
be destructive for the other.
Income and Other Goals

People want more income. Money, or material things that one can buy with it, is one factor on which our
life depends. However, the quality of our life also depends on non-material things such as equal
treatment, freedom, security, and respect for others. For development, people look at a mix of goals.
The developmental goals are not only about better income but also about other important things in life.
National Development
Different persons could have different as well as conflicting notions of a country’s development.
How to Compare Different Countries or States?

For comparing countries, their income is considered to be one of the most important attributes.
Countries with higher income are more developed than others with less income. As different countries
have different populations, comparing total income will not tell us what an average person earns. So,
we compare the average income of countries.
Average income is the total income of the country divided by its total population. It is also called per
capita income.
Average Income = Total Income of Country / Total Population of Country
In World Development Reports, per capita income is used in classifying countries.

1. Countries with per capita income of US$ 12,056 per annum and above in 2017, are called rich
countries.
2. Countries with per capita income of US$ 955 or less are called low-income countries.
Eg: India.
Income and Other Criteria

When we think of a nation or a region, besides average income, public facilities are equally significant
attributes.
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Chapter 1 - Development
Public Facilities: These are the services provided by the government to its citizens. Some of the
important public facilities include infrastructure, sanitation, public transport, health care, water, etc.
Sustainability of Development
Sustainable development is defined as development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations. Scientists have been warning that the present type, and
levels, of development are not sustainable. Some of the examples are:
 Overuse of ground water

 Exhaustion of natural resources
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Chapter 2 - Sectors of the Indian Economy
An economy is best understood when you study its components or sectors. So, in CBSE Notes Class
10 Economics Chapter 2 - Sectors of the Indian Economy, you will learn 3 types of classifications of
economy i.e primary/secondary/tertiary, organised/unorganised, and public/private. To understand this
chapter in a better way, try to relate the topics to your daily life. In these notes, you will also get
familiarised with a few fundamental concepts such as Gross Domestic Product, Employment etc.
Sectors of Economic Activities

Sector defines a large segment of the economy in which businesses share the same or a related
product or service.
1. When we produce a good by extraction and collection of natural resources, it is known as the
primary sector. Eg: Farming, forestry, hunting, fishing and mining
2. The secondary sector covers activities in which natural products are changed into other forms
through ways of manufacturing. It is the next step after primary. Some manufacturing processes
are required here. It is also called the industrial sector. For example, using cotton fibre from the
plant, we spin yarn and weave cloth. Using sugarcane as raw material, we make Sugar or Gur.
3. Tertiary sector includes activities that help in the development of the primary and secondary
sectors. These activities, by themselves, do not produce a good but they are an aid or support
for the production process. It is also called the service sector. Example: Teachers, doctors,
washermen, barbers, cobblers, lawyers, call centres, software companies etc.
Comparing the 3 Sectors

The value of final goods and services produced in each sector during a particular year provides the
total production of the sector for that year. The sum of production in the three sectors gives Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) of a country. GDP is the value of all final goods and services produced
within a country during a particular year. It shows how big the economy is. In India, the task of
measuring GDP is undertaken by a central government ministry.
The graph below shows the production of goods and services in the three sectors.
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In the year 2013-14, the tertiary sector emerged as the largest producing sector in India, replacing the
primary sector. The tertiary sector has become important in India because of the following reasons:
1. Services such as hospitals, educational institutions, post and telegraph services, police stations,
courts, village administrative offices, municipal corporations, defence, transport, banks,
insurance companies, etc. are considered as basic services and are necessary for all people.
2. The development of agriculture and industry leads to the development of services such as
transport, trade, storage etc.
3. With the rise in the income of people, they start demanding more services like eating out,
tourism, shopping, private hospitals, private schools, professional training etc.
4. Over the past decade, certain new services based on information and communication
technology have become important and essential.
Where are Most People Employed
Primary Sector Secondary Sector Tertiary Sector
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More than half of the workers in India are These sectors employ less than half the
working in the primary sector, mainly in people as compared to the primary sector.
agriculture.
It contributes only a quarter of the GDP. These sectors produce four-fifths of the
product.
How to Create More Employment

Employment can be given to people by identifying, promoting and locating industries and services in
semi-rural areas. Every state or region has the potential for increasing the income and employment for
people in that area. It can be done by tourism, or regional craft industry, or new services like IT. A study
conducted by the Planning Commission (known as NITI Aayog) estimates that nearly 20 lakh jobs can
be created in the education sector alone.
The central government in India made a law implementing the Right to Work in about 625 districts of
India, which is called Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
2005. Under MGNREGA 2005, all those who are able to, and are in need of work in rural areas are
guaranteed 100 days of employment in a year by the government. If the government fails in its duty to
provide employment, it will give unemployment allowances to the people.
Division of Sectors As Organised and Unorganised

Organised Sector Unorganised Sector
It is a sector where the employment terms are fixed and The unorganised sector is
regular, and the employees get assured work. characterised by small and
scattered units, which are largely
outside the control of the
government.
They are registered by the government and have to There are rules and regulations but
follow its rules and regulations, which are given in these are not followed since they
various laws such as the Factories Act, Minimum are not registered with the
Wages Act, Payment of Gratuity Act, Shops and government.
Establishments Act etc.
The job is regular and has fixed working hours. If people Jobs are low-paid and often not
work more, they get paid for the overtime by the regular.
employer.
Workers enjoy the security of employment. Employment is not secure. People

can be asked to leave without any
reason.
People working in the organised sector get several There is no provision for overtime,
other benefits from the employers such as paid leave, paid leave, holidays, leave due to
payment during holidays, provident fund, gratuity etc. sickness etc.
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People get medical benefits. The factory manager has There are no such facilities in the
to ensure facilities like drinking water and a safe unorganised sector.
working environment. When they retire, these workers
get pensions as well.
Examples of the organised sectors are Government Examples of the unorganised

employees, registered industrial workers, Anganwadi sectors are Shopkeeping, Farming,
workers, village health workers etc. Domestic works, Labouring,
Rickshaw pulling, etc.
How to Protect Workers in Unorganised Sector

There is a need for protection and support of the workers in the unorganised sector. Here are a few
points which will help in doing so.
1. The government can fix the minimum wages rate and working hours.
2. The government can provide cheap loans to self-employed people.
3. Government can provide cheap and affordable basic services like education, health, food to
these workers.
4. The government can frame new laws which can provide provision for overtime, paid leave,
leave due to sickness, etc.
Sectors in Term of Ownership: Public and Private Sectors

Public Sector Private Sector
In the public sector, the government In the private sector, ownership of assets and
owns most of the assets and provides delivery of services is in the hands of private
all the services. individuals or companies.
Railways or post office is an example Companies like Tata Iron and Steel Company
of the public sector. Limited (TISCO) or Reliance Industries Limited (RIL)
are privately owned companies.
The purpose of the public sector is not Activities in the private sector are guided by the
just to earn profits. Its main aim is motive to earn profits.
public welfare.
Responsibilities of Government
There are a large number of activities which are the primary responsibility of the government. Here we
have listed a few of them:
1. Government raises money through taxes and other ways to meet expenses on the services
rendered by it.
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2. Governments have to undertake heavy spending such as the construction of roads, bridges,
railways, harbours, generating electricity, providing irrigation through dams etc. Also, it has to
ensure that these facilities are available for everyone.
3. There are some activities, which the government has to support to encourage the private sector
to continue their production or business.
4. The government in India buys wheat and rice from farmers at a ‘fair price’ and sells at a lower
price to consumers through ration shops. In this way, it supports both farmers and consumers.
5. Running proper schools and providing quality education, health and education facilities for all
are some of the duties of the government.
6. Government also needs to pay attention to aspects of human development such as availability
of safe drinking water, housing facilities for the poor and food and nutrition, taking care of the
poorest and most ignored regions of the country.
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Chapter 3 - Money and Credit
In CBSE Notes Class 10 Economics Chapter 3 - Money and Credit, you will learn modern forms of
money and how they are linked with the banking system. In the second half of the chapter, you will
know about credit and how it impacts borrowers depending upon the situation. So, go through these
notes to understand these topics in-depth.
10 Economics Chapter 3 - Money and Credit PDF
Money as a Medium of Exchange

Money acts as an intermediate in the exchange process, it is called a medium of exchange. A person
holding money can easily exchange it for any commodity or service that he or she might want.
Modern form of Money

In the early ages, Indians used grains and cattle as money. Thereafter came the use of metallic coins -
gold, silver, copper coins - a phase which continued well into the last century. Now, the modern forms
of money include currency - paper notes and coins. The modern forms of money - currency and
deposits - are closely linked to the working of the modern banking system.
Currency
In India, the Reserve Bank of India issues currency notes on behalf of the central government. No other
individual or organisation is allowed to issue currency. The rupee is widely accepted as a medium of
exchange in India.
Deposits in Banks
The other form in which people hold money is as deposits with banks. People deposit their extra cash
with the banks by opening a bank account in their name. Banks accept the deposits and also pay an
amount as interest on the deposits.
The deposits in the bank accounts can be withdrawn on demand, these deposits are called demand
deposits. The payments are made by cheques instead of cash.
A cheque is a paper instructing the bank to pay a specific amount from the person’s account to the
person in whose name the cheque has been issued.
Loan Activities of Banks

Banks keep only a small proportion of their deposits as cash with themselves. These days banks in
India hold about 15% of their deposits as cash. This is kept as a provision to pay the depositors who
might come to withdraw money from the bank on any given day. Banks use the major portion of the
deposits to extend loans. There is a huge demand for loans for various
economic activities.
Banks charge a higher interest rate on loans than what they offer on deposits. The difference between
what is charged from borrowers and what is paid to depositors is their main source of income for banks.
Two Different Credit Situations
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Credit (loan) refers to an agreement in which the lender supplies the borrower with money, goods or
services in return for the promise of future payment.
Here are 2 examples which help you to understand how credit works.
1. Festive Season:
In this case, Salim obtains credit to meet the working capital needs of production. The credit
helps him to meet the ongoing expenses of production, complete production on time, and
thereby increase his earnings. In this situation, credit helps to increase earnings and therefore
the person is better off than before
2. Swapna’s Problem:
In Swapna’s case, the failure of the crop made loan repayment impossible. She had to sell part
of the land to repay the loan. Credit, instead of helping Swapna improve her earnings, left her
worse off. This is an example of debt-trap. Credit, in this case, pushes the borrower into a
situation from which recovery is very painful.
Whether credit would be useful or not, depends on the risks in the situation and whether there is some
support, in case of loss.
Terms of Credit
Every loan agreement specifies an interest rate which the borrower must pay to the lender along with
the repayment of the principal. In addition, lenders also demand collateral (security) against loans.
Collateral (Security) is an asset that the borrower owns (such as land, building, vehicle, livestocks,
deposits with banks) and uses this as a guarantee to a lender until the loan is repaid. If the borrower
fails to repay the loan, the lender has the right to sell the asset or collateral to obtain payment.
Interest rate, collateral and documentation requirement, and the mode of repayment, together is called
the terms of credit. It may vary depending on the nature of the lender and the borrower.
Formal Sector Credit in India

Cheap and affordable credit is crucial for the country’s development. The various types of loans can be
grouped as:
Formal sector loans:

These are the loans from banks and cooperatives. The Reserve Bank of India supervises the
functioning of formal sources of loans. Banks have to submit information to the RBI on how much they
are lending, to whom, at what interest rate, etc.
Informal sector loans:

These are the loans from moneylenders, traders, employers, relatives and friends, etc. There is no
organisation which supervises the credit activities of lenders in the informal sector. There is no one to
stop them from using unfair means to get their money back.
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Formal and Informal Credit
The formal sector meets only about half of the total credit needs of rural people. The remaining credit
needs are met from informal sources. It is important that the formal credit is distributed more equally so
that the poor can benefit from the cheaper loans.
1. It is necessary that banks and cooperatives increase their lending, particularly in rural areas, so
that the dependence on informal sources of credit reduces.
2. While the formal sector loans need to expand, it is also necessary that everyone receives these
loans.
Self Help Groups for the Poor

Poor households are still dependent on informal sources of credit because of the following reasons:
 Banks are not present everywhere in rural India.

 Even if banks are present, getting a loan from a bank is much more difficult as it requires proper
documents and collateral.
To overcome these problems, people created Self Help Groups (SHGs). SHG are small groups of poor
people which promote small savings among their members. A typical SHG has 15-20
members, usually belonging to one neighbourhood, who meet and save regularly.
Advantages of Self Help Group (SHG)

1. It helps borrowers to overcome the problem of lack of collateral.
2. People can get timely loans for a variety of purposes and at a reasonable interest rate.
3. SHGs are the building blocks of organisation of the rural poor.
4. It helps women to become financially self-reliant.
5. The regular meetings of the group provide a platform to discuss and act on a variety of social
issues such as health, nutrition, domestic violence, etc.
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Chapter 4 - Globalisation and the Indian Economy
This chapter deals with globalisation. Here you will get to know the integration between countries
through foreign trade and foreign investments by multinational corporations (MNCs). You will further get
to know the role that MNCs plays in the globalisation process. The final section of the chapter covers
the impact of globalisation and the extent to which globalisation contributed to the development
process.
In a matter of years, our markets have been transformed.
Production Across Countries

Trade was the main channel connecting distant countries. Large companies which are now called
Multinational Corporations (MNCs) play a major role in trade. An MNC is a company that owns or
controls production in more than one nation. MNCs set up offices and factories for production in regions
where they can get cheap labour and other resources so that the company can earn greater profits.
Interlinking Production Across Countries

The money that is spent to buy assets such as land, building, machines and other equipment is called
investment. An investment made by MNCs is called foreign investment. MNCs are exerting a strong
influence on production at these distant locations. As a result, production in these widely dispersed
locations is getting interlinked.
There are a variety of ways as mentioned below, in which MNCs are spreading their production and
interacting with local producers in various countries across the globe.
1. By setting up partnerships with local companies

2. By using the local companies for supplies
3. By closely competing with the local companies or buying them up
MNCs set up production jointly with local companies which benefits local companies in the following
ways:
1. First, MNCs can provide money for additional investments, like buying new machines for faster
production.
2. Second, MNCs might bring with them the latest technology for production.
Foreign Trade and Integration of Markets

Foreign trade creates an opportunity for the producers to reach beyond the domestic markets.
Producers can sell their products not only in markets located within the country but can also compete in
markets located in other countries of the world. Similarly, buyers have the options to choose among
various goods beyond domestically produced goods. Thus, foreign trade results in connecting the
markets or integration of markets in different countries.
What is Globalisation
Globalisation is the process of rapid integration or interconnection of countries. MNCs are playing a
major role in the globalisation process.
 More and more goods and services, investments and technology are moving between countries.
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Chapter 4 - Globalisation and the Indian Economy
 There is one more way in which the countries can be connected. This is through the movement
of people between countries.
Factors that have Enabled Globalisation

1. Technology
Rapid improvement in technology has been one major factor that has stimulated the globalisation
process. This has made possible much faster delivery of goods across long distances at lower costs.
The developments in information and communication technology have made information instantly
accessible.
2. Liberalisation of Foreign Trade and Foreign Investment Policy
Trade barriers are some restrictions that have been set up by governments. The government can use
trade barriers to increase or decrease (regulate) foreign trade and to decide what kinds of goods and
how much of each, should come into the country. Tax on imports is an example of trade barrier.
Removing barriers or restrictions set by the government on trade is known as liberalisation. When the
government imposes less restrictions than before, it is said to be more liberal.
World Trade Organisation

World Trade Organisation (WTO) is an organisation whose aim is to liberalise international trade. At
present, 164 countries of the world are currently members of the WTO. It has established rules for
developed countries regarding international trade so that these countries can allow free trade for all.
Impact of Globalisation in India

Globalisation has impacted the lives of people in India in the following manner:
1. It has provided greater choices to consumers who now enjoy improved quality of and lower
prices on several products.
2. It has resulted in higher standards of living.
Globalisation has also created new opportunities for companies providing services, particularly in the IT
sector.
The Struggle for a Fair Globalisation

Fair globalisation creates opportunities for all and also ensures that the benefits of globalisation are
shared better. The government can play a major role in making this possible.
Some of the steps that the government take are:

1. It can ensure that labour laws are properly implemented and the workers get their rights.
2. It can support small producers to improve their performance.
3. If necessary, the government can use trade and investment barriers.
4. It can negotiate at the WTO for ‘fairer rules’.
5. It can also align with other developing countries with similar interests to fight against the
domination of developed countries in the WTO.
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Chapter 5 - Consumer Rights
In the last chapter of Economics, you will discuss the issue of consumer rights within the context of the
Indian market. CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Economics Chapter 5 on Consumer Rights helps
you to understand that the awareness of being a well informed consumer arose out of consumer
movement and active participation of people through their struggles over a long period. This chapter
also provides details of a few organisations helping consumers in different ways. Finally, it ends with
some critical issues of the consumer movement in India.
The Consumer in the Market Place

We participate in the market both as producers and consumers.
 As producers of goods and services, we could be working in any of the sectors such as
agriculture, industry, or services.
 Consumers participate in the market when they purchase goods and services that they need.
These are the final goods that people use as consumers.
The rules and regulations are required for the protection of the consumers in the marketplace.
Consumer Movement
In India, the consumer movement as a ‘social force’ originated with the necessity of protecting and
promoting the interests of consumers against unethical and unfair trade practices. Because of all these
efforts, a significant initiative was taken in 1986 by the Indian government. It has implemented the
Consumer Protection Act 1986, popularly known as COPRA.
Safety is Everyone’s Right

Consumers have the right to be protected against the marketing of goods and delivery of services that
are hazardous to life and property. Producers need to strictly follow the required safety rules and
regulations.
Information about Goods and Services

When you buy any commodity, you will find certain details given on the packing such as:
 Ingredients used
 Price
 Batch number
 Date of manufacture
 Expiry date
 The address of the manufacturer
This information has been displayed because consumers have the right to get information about the
goods and services that they purchase. Consumers can then complain and ask for compensation or
replacement if the product proves to be defective in any manner.
In October 2005, the Government of India enacted a law, popularly known as RTI (Right to
Information) Act. This law ensures that its citizens get all the information about the functions of
government departments.
When Choice is Denied
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Chapter 5 - Consumer Rights
Any consumer who receives a service in whatever capacity, regardless of age, gender and nature of
service, has the right to choose whether to continue to receive the service or not.
Where Should Consumers Go to Get Justice?

Consumers have the right to seek redressal against unfair trade practices and exploitation. The
consumer movement in India has led to the formation of various organisations, known as consumer
forums or consumer protection councils. They guide consumers on how to file cases in the
consumer court.
COPRA, a three-tier quasi judicial machinery at the district, state and national levels was set up for
redressal of consumer disputes.
 The district-level court called District Forum, which deals with the cases involving claims up to
Rs 20 lakh
 The state level court called State Commission, which deals with the cases involving claims
between Rs 20 lakh and Rs 1 crore.
 The national level court is known as the National Commission, which deals with cases
involving claims exceeding Rs 1 crore. If a case is dismissed in district-level court, a consumer
can also appeal in the state and subsequently in national-level courts.
Learning to Become Well Informed Consumers

The enactment of COPRA has led to the setting up of separate departments of Consumer Affairs in
central and state governments. The logo with the letters ISI, Agmark or Hallmark helps consumers to
get assurance of quality while purchasing goods and services.
Taking the Consumer Movement Forward

India is one of the countries that have exclusive courts for consumer redressal. 24 December is
observed as the National Consumers’ Day in India. After more than 25 years of the enactment of
COPRA, consumer awareness is spreading, though slowly in our country. For the speedy process of
the consumer movement, we require a voluntary effort and active participation of the people.
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CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development
Chapter 1 of Class 10 Geography introduces you to resources and its classification. Furthermore, going
into the depth of the chapter, you will learn the development of resources and resource planning in
India. You will know about land resources and the classification of different types of soils found in India.
In the end, the chapter discusses Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation. All these topics are discussed in
detail in “CBSE Notes Class 10 Geography Chapter 1 - Resources and Development“. Go through
these CBSE notes and make your studies more effective.
Resources
Everything in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs and is technologically accessible,
economically feasible and culturally acceptable is termed as ‘Resource’. Human beings themselves
are essential components of resources. They transform material available in the environment into
resources and use them.
Classification of Resources
Resources can be classified in the following ways:
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic

(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
(d) On the basis of the status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves
(a) On the Basis of Origin – Biotic and Abiotic

Biotic Resources are obtained from the biosphere and have life.
Eg: Human beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.
Abiotic Resources: All those things which are composed of non-living things are called abiotic
resources.
Eg: rocks and metals.
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(b) On the Basis of Exhaustibility - Renewable and Non-Renewable
The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical processes
are known as Renewable or Replenishable Resources. The renewable resource may further be
divided into continuous or flow.
Eg: Solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc.
Non-Renewable Resources occur over a very long geological time. These resources take millions of
years in their formation. Some of the resources like metals are recyclable and some like fossil fuels
cannot be recycled and get exhausted with their use.
Eg: Minerals and fossil fuels.
(c) On the Basis of Ownership – Individual, Community, National and International

Individual Resources are owned privately by individuals. In villages people own lands whereas in
urban areas people own plots, houses and other properties.
Eg: Plantation, pasture lands, ponds, water in wells etc.
Community Owned Resources are accessible to all the members of the community.
Eg: Grazing grounds, burial grounds, public parks, picnic spots, playgrounds etc.
National Resources are owned by a nation or country. All the minerals, water resources, forests,
wildlife, land within the political boundaries and oceanic area up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the
coast termed as territorial water and resources therein belong to the nation.
Eg: Roads, canals, railways etc.
International Resources are regulated by international institutions. The oceanic resources beyond 200
nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to open ocean and no individual country can
utilise these without the concurrence of international institutions.
(d) On the Basis of the Status of Development – Potential, Developed Stock and Reserves
Potential Resources are the resources which are found in a region but have not been utilised.
Eg: Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for the development of wind and solar energy, but
so far these have not been developed properly.
Developed Resources: Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have been
determined for utilisation. The development of resources depends on technology and level of their
feasibility.
Materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy human needs but human beings do not
have the appropriate technology to access these, are called Stock.
Eg: Hydrogen can be used as a rich source of energy. But we do not have advanced technology to use
it.
Reserves are the subset of the stock, which can be put into use with the help of existing technical
‘know-how’ but their use has not been started. These can be used for meeting future requirements.
Eg: Water in the dams, forests etc. is a reserve which can be used in the future.
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Development of Resources
Resources have been used by human beings indiscriminately and this has led to the following major
problems.
 Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals.
 Accumulation of resources in a few hands, which, in turn, divided the society into two segments
i.e rich and poor.
 It has led to global ecological crises such as global warming, ozone layer depletion,
environmental pollution and land degradation.
Resource planning is essential for the sustainable existence of all forms of life. Sustainable Economic
Development means “development should take place without damaging the environment, and
development in the present should not compromise with the needs of future generations.”
Resource Planning
In India, there are some regions which can be considered self-sufficient in terms of the availability of
resources and there are some regions which have acute shortage of some vital resources. This calls for
balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and local levels.
Resource Planning in India

Resource planning is a complex process which involves:
(i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves surveying,
mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.
(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for
implementing resource development plans.
(iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.
Resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate
technological development and institutional changes. India has made concerted efforts towards
achieving the goals of resource planning, right from the First Five Year Plan launched after
Independence.
To overcome irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources, resource conservation at various

levels is important.
Land Resources
Land is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life,
economic activities, transport and communication systems. India has land under a variety of relief
features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains and islands as shown below:
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Land Utilisation
Land resources are used for the following purposes:
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation
a) Barren and wasteland
b) Land put to non-agricultural uses
3. Fallow lands
4. Other uncultivated lands (excluding fallow land)
5. Net sown area
Land Use Pattern in India

The use of land is determined
1. Physical factors: such as topography, climate, soil types
2. Human factors: such as population density, technological capability and culture and traditions
etc.
The data below represents the land use pattern in India.
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Waste land is the land put to other non-agricultural uses which include rocky, arid and desert areas,
roads, railways, industry etc.
Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate measures to conserve and
manage it, has resulted in land degradation.
Land Degradation and Conservation Measures

Human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining and quarrying have contributed
significantly to land degradation. Mining sites leave deep scars and traces of over-burdening the land.
In recent years, industrial effluents as waste have become a major source of land and water pollution in
many parts of the country.
Some of the ways through which we can solve the problems of land degradation are:
1. Afforestation and proper management of grazing.
2. Planting of shelter belts of plants.
3. Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes.
4. Proper management of waste lands.
5. Control of mining activities.
6. Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment.
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Soil as a Resource
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth
and supports different types of living organisms on the earth.
1. It takes millions of years to form soil upto a few cms in depth. Various forces of nature such as
change in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of decomposers
etc contribute to the formation of soil.
2. Parent rock or bedrock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time are important factors
in the formation of soil.
3. Chemical and organic changes which take place in the soil play an important role.
4. Soil also consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.
Classification of Soils
On the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical and
physical properties, the soils of India are classified in different types as mentioned below.
Alluvial Soils
1. The entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil.
2. The Alluvial Soil is deposited by 3 important Himalayan river systems - the Indus, the Ganga
and the Brahmaputra.
3. It is also found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas of the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
4. The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move inlands
towards the river valleys, soil particles appear to be bigger in size whereas in the upper side of the river
valley, the soils are coarse.
5. Based on age, Alluvial soils can be classified as:
a. Old Alluvial (Bangar): The Bangar soil has a higher concentration of kanker nodules than the
Khadar.
b. New Alluvial (Khadar): It has more fine particles and is more fertile than the Bangar.
6. Alluvial soils are very fertile. These soils contain an adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric
acid and lime, which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse
crops.
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Black Soil
1. This soil is black in colour and is also known as regur soil. Climatic conditions along with the
parent rock material are the important factors for the formation of black soil.
2. The soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil.
3. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccan
plateau and is made up of lava flows.
4. The soil covers the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh and extends in the south-east direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.
5. The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material and well-known for their
capacity to hold moisture.
6. Black soil is nutrients rich and contains calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
7. The soil is sticky when wet and difficult to work on unless tilled immediately after the first shower
or during the pre-monsoon period.
Red and Yellow Soils
1. This type of soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
southern parts of the Deccan plateau.
2. These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic
rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
3. Found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the
piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.
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Laterite Soil
1. The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climate with the alternate wet and dry
season.
2. This soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain.
3. Lateritic soils are acidic (pH<6.0) in nature and generally deficient in plant nutrients. This type of
soil is found mostly in Southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of
West Bengal and North-east regions.
4. The soil supports deciduous and evergreen forests but humus poor.
5. This soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee.
Arid Soils
1. Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
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2. This soil is generally sandy in texture and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt content is
very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water.
3. Arid soil lacks humus and moisture.
4. The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing calcium
content downwards. The Kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of
water.
Forest Soils
1. These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas.
2. The soil texture is loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes.
3. In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with
low humus content. The soil is fertile on the river terraces and alluvial fans.
The map below shows the different types of soils found in India.
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Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion. The soil
erosion is caused due to human activities like deforestation, over-grazing, construction and mining etc.
Also, there are some natural forces like wind, glacier and water which lead to soil erosion. Soil erosion
is also caused due to defective methods of farming.
The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels as gullies. The land
becomes unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land. When water flows as a sheet over large areas
down a slope and the topsoil is washed away, it is known as sheet erosion. Wind blows loose soil off
flat or sloping land known as wind erosion.
Different Ways for Soil Conservation

1. Ploughing along the contour lines decelerate the flow of water down the slopes. This is called
Contour Ploughing.
2. Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. This type of agriculture practice is done in Western and
Central Himalayas.
3. When a large field is divided into strips and strips of grass are left to grow between the crops.
Then, this breaks up the force of the wind. This method is known as Strip Cropping.
4. Planting lines of trees to create shelter helps in the stabilisation of sand dunes and in stabilising
the desert in western India. Rows of such trees are called Shelter Belts.
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Chapter 2 - Forest and Wildlife Resources
We humans along with all living organisms form a complex web of an ecological system. Chapter 2 of
Class 10 Geography starts with the introduction of flora and fauna in India. The chapter subsequently
discusses the important role that forests play in the ecological system and how we can conserve forest
and wildlife in India. The chapter ends by explaining various steps taken by people to conserve our
forest and wildlife resources. Here we have compiled all these topics in the form of CBSE Notes Class
10 Geography Chapter 2 - Forest and Wildlife Resources. Going through these notes will help you in
understanding the chapter easily.
Flora and Fauna in India

India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity. Different
varieties of forest and wildlife resources are found in India. Based on the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), we can classify different categories of existing
plants and animal species as follows:
1. Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their
survival, such as cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc.
2. Endangered Species: These species are in danger of extinction. For examples, species are
black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer
in Manipur), etc.
3. Vulnerable Species: These are species whose population has declined to levels that it is likely
to move into the endangered category in the near future if it continues to decline in the same
manner.
1. Eg: Blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.
4. Rare Species: Species with a small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable
category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate. The examples of such
species are the Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.
5. Endemic Species: These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually
isolated by natural or geographical barriers. Examples of such species are the Andaman teal,
Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, Mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.
6. Extinct Species: These species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or
the entire earth.
Eg: Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.
What are the negative factors that cause such fearful depletion of the flora and fauna?
1. Excessive consumption of natural resources for fulfilling human needs such as wood, barks,
leaves, rubber, medicines, dyes, food, fuel, fodder, manure, etc.
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2. The expansion of the railways, agriculture, commercial and scientific forestry and mining
activities.
3. Large-scale development of projects and mining activities.
4. Unequal access, inequitable consumption of resources and differential sharing of responsibility

for environmental well-being.
Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and preserves the genetic diversity of plants and
animals.
1. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented in 1972, for protecting habitats and an all
India list of protected species was published.
2. The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals. Under
the Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles, and one
dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species.
3. In 1991, for the first time plants were also added to the list, starting with six species.
Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources

In India, forest and wildlife resources are owned and managed by the government through the Forest
Department or other government departments. These are classified under the following categories.
Reserved Forests: More than half of the total forest land in India has been declared reserved forests.
Protected Forests: Forest Department has declared one-third of the total forest area as protected
forest.
Unclassed Forests: These are the forests and wastelands which belong to both government and
private individuals and communities. North-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high
percentage of their forests as unclassed forests.
Reserved and protected forests are also referred to as permanent forests, which are maintained for
the purpose of producing timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh
has the largest area under permanent forests.
Community and Conservation

Conservation of the forest and wildlife resources is very important. Here are a few steps were taken by
common people:
1. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by citing the Wildlife
Protection Act.
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2. The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1,200 hectares of
forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’. Villages came up with their own set of rules and
regulations which do not allow hunting. They are also protecting the wildlife against any outside
encroachments.
3. The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas was one successful attempt to resist
deforestation in several areas. The movement has also resulted in community afforestation.
4. Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have
shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic chemicals
are possible and economically viable.
5. India joint forest management (JFM) programme furnishes a good example for involving local
communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests.
Keep Learning and stay tuned for more updates on CBSE and NCERT. Download BYJU’S App and
subscribe to YouTube channel to access interactive Maths and Science videos.
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Chapter 3 - Water Resources
In Chapter 3 of Class 10 Geography, you will learn about water resources. The chapter begins with the
availability of fresh water on earth and how the situation of scarcity of water generates. The chapter
discusses the pros and cons of constructing dams on rivers. In the end, the chapter talks about Rain
Water Harvesting as a means to conserve water. Here, we have compiled the CBSE Notes for Class 10
Geography Chapter 3 on Water Resources. These notes cover all the important topics which are
discussed in the chapter.
Water
Three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water but only a small proportion of it accounts for
freshwater that can be put to use. Water is a renewable resource.
Water Scarcity and the Need for Water Conservation and Management
The availability of water resources varies over space and time.
 Water scarcity is caused by over-exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water
among different social groups.
 Water resources are being over-exploited to expand irrigated areas for dry-season agriculture.
 In some areas, water is sufficiently available to meet the needs of the people. But, those areas
still suffer from water scarcity due to bad quality of water.
The need of the hour is to conserve and manage our water resources:
 To safeguard ourselves from health hazards.

 To ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities.
 To prevent degradation of our natural ecosystems.
Multi-Purpose River Projects and Integrated Water Resources Management

In ancient times, we used to conserve water by constructing sophisticated hydraulic structures like
dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals for irrigation. We have
continued this tradition in modern India by building dams in most of our river basins.
Dams
A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a
reservoir, lake or impoundment. “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the structure.
Uses of Dam:
Dams are built:
 To impound rivers and rainwater that can be used later to irrigate agricultural fields.
 For electricity generation.
 Water supply for domestic and industrial uses.
 Flood control.
 Recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
Side effects of Creating Dams
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 Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow.
 Poorer the habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life.
 Fragment rivers make it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate.
 Dams created on the floodplains submerge the existing vegetation and soil leading to its
decomposition over a period of time.
 Creating of large dams has been the cause of many new environmental movements like the
‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’ etc.
 Many times local people had to give up their land, livelihood and their control over resources for
the construction of the dam.
Most of the objections to the projects arose due to their failure to achieve the purposes for which they
were built. Most of the dams were constructed to control floods but, these dams have triggered floods.
Dams have also caused extensive soil erosion. Excessive use of water has resulted in earthquakes,
caused water-borne diseases and pests and pollution.
Have a look at the India Major Rivers and Dams in the map below:
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Rain Water Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is a simple method by which rainfall is collected for future usage. The collected
rainwater may be stored, utilised in different ways or directly used for recharge purposes.
Different methods have been adopted in different areas for Rain Water Harvesting.
1. In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the
Western Himalayas for agriculture.
2. “Rooftop rainwater harvesting” is commonly practised to store drinking water, particularly in

Rajasthan.
3. In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
4. In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage structures
that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil such as ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’
in other parts of Rajasthan.
5. The tankas are part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system and are built
inside the main house or the courtyard. This is mainly practised in Rajasthan, particularly in
Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer areas for saving the rainwater. Many houses constructed
underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’ to beat the summer heat as it would keep the room
cool.
Tamil Nadu is the first state in India which has made rooftop rainwater harvesting structure compulsory
to all the houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish the defaulters.
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Chapter 4 - Agriculture
Two-thirds of India’s population is engaged in agricultural activities. Agriculture is a primary
activity, which produces most of the food raw material for various industries. In CBSE Notes Class 10
Geography Chapter 4 - Agriculture, you will study about the various types of farming, cropping patterns
and major crops grown in India. In the end, you will know how much Agriculture contributes to the
National Economy, Employment and Output.
Types of Farming
The cultivation methods depend upon the characteristics of the physical environment, technological
know-how and socio-cultural practices. Farming varies from subsistence to commercial type. In
different parts of India, the following farming systems are practised.
1. Primitive Subsistence Farming
It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture. Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food
crops. When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation.
It is known by different names in different parts of the country. It is known as jhumming in north-
eastern states.
 Land productivity is low in this type of agriculture.

 This type of farming depends on monsoon.
 This farming is practised in few parts of India.
2. Intensive Subsistence Farming
 This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land.

 It is labour-intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for
higher production.
3. Commercial Farming
This type of farming uses higher doses of modern inputs such as high yielding variety (HYV) seeds,
chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides to obtain higher productivity.
Plantation is a type of commercial farming in which a single crop is grown on a large area. Plantations
cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant labourers. All the
produce is used as a raw material in industries.
Eg: Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Sugarcane, Banana.
Cropping Pattern
India has three cropping seasons:
1. Rabi
2. Kharif
3. Zaid
Rabi Kharif Zaid
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Sowing Winter from Beginning of the In between the rabi and the Kharif
Season October to rainy season seasons, there is a short season
December between April and during the summer months known as
May the Zaid season (in the months of
March to July)
Harvesting Summer from September-
Season April to June October
Important Wheat, Barley, Paddy, Maize, Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber,

Crops Peas, Gram Jowar, Bajra, Tur Vegetables and Fodder crops
and Mustard. (Arhar),
Moong, Urad,
Cotton, Jute,
Groundnut and
Soyabean.
Major Crops in India

A variety of food and non-food crops are grown in different parts of India depending upon the variations
in soil, climate and cultivation practices. Major crops grown in India are:
 Rice
 Wheat
 Millets
 Pulses
 Tea
 Coffee
 Sugarcane
 oil seeds
 Cotton
 Jute
We will discuss all of these one by one, in detail.
Rice
1. It is a kharif crop.
2. It requires high temperature and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.
3. India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China.
4. It is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions.
Wheat
1. This is a rabi crop.
2. It requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of ripening.
3. It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season.
4. The Ganga-Satluj plains in the north-west and black soil region of the Deccan are two main
wheat-growing zones in India.
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5. It is the second most important cereal crop and main food crop, in the north and north-western
part of India.
Millets
1. Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are the important millets grown in India.
2. These are known as coarse grains and have very high nutritional value.
Jowar Bajra Ragi
3rd most important food Grows well on sandy soils It is a crop of dry regions.
crop with respect to area and shallow black soil.
and production.
It is a rain-fed crop mostly Grows well on red, black, sandy,

grown in the moist areas. loamy and shallow black soils.
Mainly produced in Major producing states are Major producing states are
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal
Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, Gujarat and Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
Madhya Pradesh. Haryana. Jharkhand and Arunachal
Pradesh.
Maize
1. It is a Kharif crop.
2. It requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil.
3. It is used both as food and fodder.
4. Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana.
Pulses
1. India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world.

2. Pulses are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
3. Major pulses grown in India are Tur (Arhar), Urad, Moong, Masur, Peas and Gram.
4. Pulses are mostly grown in rotation with other crops so that the soil restore fertility.
5. Major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and
Karnataka.
Food Crops other than Grains

Sugarcane
1. It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.
2. It grows well in hot and humid climates with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and annual rainfall
between 75cm to 100cm.
3. It can be grown on a variety of soils.
4. Needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.
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5. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil.
6. Sugarcane is the main source of Sugar, Gur (Jaggery), Khansari and molasses.
7. The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
Oil Seeds
Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12% of the total cropped area of India. Main oil-
seeds produced in India are:
 Groundnut: is a Kharif crop and accounts for half of the major oilseeds produced in India.
Gujarat is the largest producer of groundnuts.
 Mustard: is a rabi crop.
 Sesamum (til): is a Kharif crop in the north and rabi crop in south India.
 Castor seeds: It is grown as both Rabi and Kharif crop.
 Linseed: is a rabi crop.
 Coconut
 Soyabean
 Cotton seeds
 Sunflower
Tea
1. It is also an important beverage crop introduced by the British in India.
2. The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates with deep and fertile well-drained
soil, rich in humus and organic matter.
3. Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year.
4. Tea is a labour-intensive industry.
5. Major tea producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Coffee
Yemen coffee is produced in India and this variety of coffee is in great demand all over the world. Its
cultivation was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu.
Horticulture Crops
India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits. Major crops produced are pea, cauliflower,
onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato. Some of the famous horticulture crops grown in India are:
 Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal
Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra
and Tamil Nadu.
 Lichi and Guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
 Pineapples of Meghalaya
 Grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra
 Apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
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Non-Food Crops
Rubber Fibre Cotton Jute
It is an equatorial crop. Cotton, Jute, It is a Kharif crop. It is known as the

Hemp and Natural golden fibre.
Silk are the four
major fibre crops.
It requires a moist and Cotton, Jute and It requires high It grows well on well-
humid climate with Hemp are grown in temperature, light drained fertile soils in
rainfall of more than the soil. rainfall, 210 frost-free the flood plains. High
200cm and days and bright temperature is
temperature above sunshine for its growth. required for its
25°C. growth.
It is an important Natural Silk is Cotton grows It is used in making

industrial raw material obtained from well in black cotton soil gunny bags, mats,
cocoons of the of the Deccan plateau. ropes, yarn, carpets
silkworms fed on and other artefacts.
green leaves
Mainly grown in Rearing of Major cotton-producing Major jute producing

Kerala, Tamil Nadu, silkworms for the states are states are West
Karnataka and production of silk Maharashtra, Gujarat, Bengal, Bihar,
Andaman and Nicobar fibre is known as Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Odisha and
islands and Garo hills Sericulture. Karnataka, Andhra Meghalaya.
of Meghalaya. Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil
Nadu, Punjab,
Haryana and
Uttar Pradesh.
Technological and Institutional Reforms

Agriculture provides a livelihood for more than 60% of its population, so this sector needs some serious
technical and institutional reforms. The Green Revolution and the White Revolution were some of the
reforms initiated by people to improve agriculture.
Some Initiatives taken by the Government are:
 Schemes introduced by Government such as Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident
Insurance Scheme (PAIS).
 Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers on the radio and television
were introduced.
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 The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices
for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middlemen.
Contribution of Agriculture to the National Economy, Employment and Output

 In 2010-11 about 52% of the total workforce was employed by the farm sector.
 The share of agriculture in the GDP is declining.
 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), agricultural universities, veterinary services and
animal breeding centres, horticulture development, research and development in the field of
meteorology and weather forecast, etc. are a few of the initiatives introduced by the government
to improve Indian agriculture.
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Chapter 5 - Minerals and Energy Resources
You have studied that the earth’s crust is made up of different minerals embedded in the rocks. Various
metals are extracted from these minerals after refinement. In all stages of development, human beings
use minerals for their livelihood, decoration, festivities, religious and ceremonial rites. In this chapter,
you will learn about minerals, their classification, how to conserve minerals, different types of energy
resources and how we can conserve these energy resources. We have compiled all these important
topics in CBSE Notes Class 10 Geography Chapter 5 - Minerals and Energy Resources.
What is a Mineral?
Mineral is defined as a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.”
Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.
Rocks are combinations of homogeneous substances called minerals.
Mode of Occurrence of Minerals

Minerals are usually found in “ores”. The term ore is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral
mixed with other elements. Minerals generally occur in the following forms:
 In igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints.
 In sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or layers.
 The decomposition of surface rocks and the removal of soluble constituents also forms the
minerals.
 Minerals also occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills.
 The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals.
Classification of Minerals
Ferrous Minerals
Ferrous minerals account for about three-fourths of the total value of the production of metallic
minerals.
Iron Ore
1. India is endowed with fairly abundant resources of iron ore.

2. Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron, up to 70%. It has excellent
magnetic qualities.
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3. Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore. It contains 50 to 60% iron.
The major iron ore belts in India are:

 Odisha-Jharkhand belt
 Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt
 Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru belt
 Maharashtra-Goa belt
Manganese
1. It is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy.

2. Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required to manufacture 1 tonne of steel.
3. It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
Non-Ferrous Minerals
Non-ferrous minerals include copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold. These minerals play a vital role in a
number of metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries.
Copper
1. Malleable, ductile and good conductor of heat and electricity.
2. Mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.
3. The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Singhbhum district of
Jharkhand are leading producers of copper.
Bauxite
1. Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium
silicates.
2. Aluminium is obtained from bauxite. Aluminium has good conductivity and great malleability.
3. Deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of
Bilaspur-Katni.
Non-Metallic Minerals
1. Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves. It can be clear, black, green, red,
yellow or brown.
2. Mica is the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electronic industries.
3. It has excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to
high voltage.
4. Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau.
Rock Minerals
1. Limestone is found in rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium
carbonates.
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2. It is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the blast
furnace.
Conservation of Minerals
Minerals are a non-renewable resource. It takes thousands of years for the formation and concentration
of minerals. Continued extraction of ores leads to the depletion of minerals. So, it's important to take
the necessary steps so that mineral resources can be used in a planned and sustainable manner.
Energy Resources
Energy resources can be classified as
1. Conventional Sources: It includes firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and
electricity.
2. Non-Conventional Sources: It includes solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic
energy
Let us discuss each of them in detail.
Conventional Sources of Energy

Coal:
1. It is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.

2. It is used for power generation, to supply energy to the industry as well as for domestic needs.
3. Lignite is a low grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture content.
4. Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures is bituminous coal.
5. Anthracite is the highest quality of hard coal.
6. Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important coalfields.
Petroleum
1. It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a number of
manufacturing industries.
2. Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous
chemical industries.
3. Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam are major petroleum production areas in India.
Natural Gas
1. Natural gas is an important clean energy resource. It is considered an environment-friendly fuel.

2. The power and fertilizer industries are the key users of natural gas.
3. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG ) is used in vehicles to replace liquid fuels.
4. Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin
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Electricity
Electricity is generated mainly in 2 ways:
1. By running water which drives hydro turbines to generate Hydro Electricity. It is a renewable
resource of energy. India has a number of multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra Nangal,
Damodar Valley Corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project.
2. By burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to produce
Thermal Power. It uses non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

The renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass and energy from waste material
are called Non-Conventional Energy Sources. Let’s discuss them one by one.
Nuclear or Atomic Energy
Nuclear Energy is obtained by altering the structure of atoms. Uranium and Thorium are used for
generating atomic or nuclear power.
Solar Energy
Solar energy is produced by the Sun's light. Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into
electricity.
Wind Power
Wind Energy or Power is the use of wind to generate electricity. Wind turbines are used for this
purpose. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai.
Biogas
Biogas is a type of biofuel that is naturally produced from the decomposition of organic waste. Biogas is
the most efficient use of cattle dung. It improves the quality of manure.
Tidal Energy
Tidal energy is the form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from tides into useful forms of
power, mainly electricity. In India, the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kachchh in Gujarat on the western
coast and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal
energy.
Geo-Thermal Energy
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When heat and electricity are produced by using the heat from the interior of the earth, it is known as
Geo-Thermal Energy. In India, geothermal energy is harnessed from Parvati valley near Manikarn in
Himachal Pradesh and from Puga Valley, Ladakh.
Conservation of Energy Resources

Every sector of the national economy – agriculture, industry, transport, commercial and domestic -
needs inputs of energy. There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path for energy development.
Here are some ways that each one of us can contribute to save energy resources:
 Using public transport systems instead of individual vehicles

 Switching off electricity when not in use
 Using power-saving devices.
 Using non-conventional sources of energy
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Chapter 6 - Manufacturing Industries
Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials is called manufacturing.
Workers employed in steel factories, car, breweries, textile industries, bakeries etc. fall into secondary
activities. In CBSE Notes Class 10 Geography Chapter 6 - Manufacturing Industries, you will primarily
learn about the manufacturing industries which fall in the secondary sector.
Importance of Manufacturing
The manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of development due to the following reasons:
1. Manufacturing industries help in modernising agriculture as it provides jobs in secondary and

tertiary sectors.
2. It helps in the eradication of unemployment and poverty.
3. Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce, and brings in much needed
foreign exchange.
4. It helps in prospering the country by giving a boost to the economy.
Contribution of Industry to National Economy

The trend of growth rate in manufacturing over the last decade has been around 7 per cent per annum.
Industrial Location
Industrial locations are influenced by the availability of:
 Raw material
 Labour
 Capital
 Power
 Market
 Government policies
Manufacturing activity tends to locate at the most appropriate place where all the factors of industrial
location are either available or can be arranged at a lower cost. The figure below shows the industry
market linkage.
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Agro-based Industries
Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and edible oil, etc. industries are based on agricultural raw
materials. Let’s know about each of them, one by one.
Textile Industry
It is the only industry in India, which is self-reliant and complete in the value chain i.e., from raw
material to the highest value added products. It contributes to industrial production, employment
generation and foreign exchange earnings.
Cotton Textiles
This industry has close links with agriculture and provides a living to farmers, cotton boll pluckers and
workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and sewing. It
supports many other industries, such as, chemicals and dyes, packaging materials and engineering
works.
Jute Textiles
India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods. Most of the mills are located in West Bengal,
mainly along the banks of the Hugli river.
Sugar Industry
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India stands second as a world producer of sugar but occupies the first place in the production of Gur
and Khandsari. This industry is seasonal in nature.
Mineral-based Industries
Industries that use minerals and metals as raw materials are called mineral-based industries. Let’s
discuss some industries that fall under this category.
Iron and Steel Industry

Iron and steel is the basic industry as all the other industries - heavy, medium and light, depend on it for
their machinery. lt is considered as a heavy industry because all the raw materials, as well as finished
goods, are heavy and bulky entailing heavy transportation costs.
India is an important iron and steel producing country in the world yet, we are not able to perform to our
full potential largely due to:
 High costs and limited availability of coking coal
 Lower productivity of labour
 Irregular supply of energy
 Poor infrastructure.
Aluminium Smelting
Aluminium Smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India. It is used to
manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires. Bauxite is the raw material used in the smelters.
Aluminium Smelting has gained popularity as a substitute for steel, copper, zinc and lead in a number
of industries. It exhibits the following properties:
 Light in weight
 Resistant to corrosion
 A good conductor of heat
 Malleable
 Becomes strong when it is mixed with other metals
Chemical Industries
The Chemical industry comprises both large and small scale manufacturing units. Rapid
growth has been recorded in both inorganic and organic sectors.
Inorganic chemicals include sulphuric acid nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash and caustic soda.
Organic chemicals include petrochemicals, which are used for manufacturing synthetic fibers, synthetic
rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals.
Fertilizer Industry
The fertilizer industries are centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilizers (mainly urea),
phosphatic fertilizers and ammonium phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilizers which have a
combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K). Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab and Kerala contribute towards half of the fertilizer production.
Cement Industry
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Cement is essential for construction activity such as building houses, factories, bridges, roads, airports,
dams and for other commercial establishments. This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials
like limestone, silica and gypsum.
Automobile Industry
This industry deals with the manufacturing of trucks, buses, cars, motorcycles, scooters, three-wheelers
and multi-utility vehicles. These industries are located around Delhi, Gurugram, Mumbai, Pune,
Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore, Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and Bengaluru.
Information Technology and Electronics Industry

The electronics industry covers a wide range of products from transistor sets to television, telephones,
cellular telecom, telephone exchange, radars, computers and many other equipment required by the
telecommunication industry. This industry has generated employment in India. Bengaluru is known as
the electronic capital of India.
Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation

Industries are responsible for 4 types of pollution:
1. Air
2. Water
3. Land
4. Noise
Air pollution is caused by the presence of a high proportion of undesirable gases, such as sulphur
dioxide and carbon monoxide. Smoke is emitted by chemical and paper factories, brick kilns, refineries
and smelting plants, and burning of fossil fuels leads to air pollution. It adversely affects human health,
animals, plants, buildings and the atmosphere as a whole.
Water pollution is caused by organic and inorganic industrial wastes and effluents discharged into
rivers. The industries which are mainly responsible for water pollution are paper, pulp, chemical, textile
and dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries and electroplating industries.
Thermal pollution of water occurs when hot water from factories and thermal plants is drained into
rivers and ponds before cooling.
Noise pollution is the propagation of noise with harmful impact on the activity of human or animal life.
It results in irritation, anger, cause hearing impairment, increased heart rate and blood pressure.
Control of Environmental Degradation

Here are some ways through which industrial pollution can be reduced:
1. Minimising the use of water by reusing and recycling it.

2. Harvesting rainwater to meet water requirements.
3. Treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds.
4. Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories with electrostatic
precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial separators.
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5. Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead of coal in factories.
6. Machinery can be redesigned to increase energy efficiency and reduce noise.
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Chapter 7 - Lifelines of National Economy
The pace of development of a country depends upon the production of goods and services as well as
their movement over space. Today, the world has been converted into a large village with the help of
efficient and fast moving transport. Today, India is well-linked with the rest of
the world. In CBSE Notes Class 10 Geography Chapter 7 - Lifelines of National Economy, you will see
how modern means of transport and communication serve as lifelines of our nation and its modern
economy.
Transport
Movement of goods and services can be over three important domains of our earth i.e. land, water and
air. Based on these, transport can also be classified into the land, water and air transport. Let’s discuss
them in detail:
Roadways
India has one of the largest road networks in the world, aggregating to about 54.7 lakh km. The growing
importance of road transport over rail transport is mentioned below:
1. The construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines.
2. Roads can cover more geographically harder locations that cannot be done by the railways.
3. Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and can be easily built-in traverse mountains
such as the Himalayas.
4. Road transport is economical.
5. It also provides door-to-door service
6. Road transport provides links between railway stations, air and seaports.
In India, roads are classified in the following six classes according to their capacity.
Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways

Golden Quadrilateral is a network of Highways connecting India’s four top metropolitan cities, namely
Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai. These highway projects are being implemented by the National
Highway Authority of India (NHAI).
National Highways
The National highways are a network of trunk roads that are laid and maintained by the Central Public
Works Department (CPWD). The historical Sher-Shah Suri Marg is called National Highway No.1,
between Delhi and Amritsar.
State Highways
Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters are known as State Highways. These
roads are constructed and maintained by the State Public Works Department (PWD).
District Roads
These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district. These roads are
maintained by the Zila Parishad.
Other Roads
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Rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns, are classified under this category. These
roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana.
Border Roads
Border Roads Organisation constructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of the country. This
organisation was established in 1960 for the development of the roads of strategic importance in the
northern and north-eastern border areas.
Roads can also be classified on the basis of the type of material used for their construction such as:
 Metalled roads may be made of cement, concrete or even bitumen of coal. These are all-
weather roads.
 Unmetalled roads go out of use in the rainy season.
Railways
Railways are the principal mode of transportation for carrying huge loads and bulky goods for long and
short distances in India. Railways have become more important in India’s economy. However, rail
transport suffers from certain problems as well, which are mentioned below:
1. Construction of bridges is required across rivers’ wide beds for lying down the railway lines.
2. In the hilly terrains of the peninsular region, railway tracks are laid through low hills, gaps or
tunnels.
3. The Himalayan mountainous regions are also unfavourable for the construction of railway lines
due to the highest elevation points in the surface, sparse population and lack of economic
opportunities.
4. It is difficult to lay railway lines on sandy plains.
Pipelines
Pipeline network uses pipes, usually underground, to transport and distribute fluids. These are used to
transport water, crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas, fertilizer factories and big thermal power
plants. Solids can also be transported through a pipeline when converted into slurry.
There are 3 important networks of pipeline transportation in the country.

1. From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh)
2. From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab
3. From Hazira in Gujarat to Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh
Waterways
Waterways are the cheapest means of transport. They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky
goods. It is a fuel-efficient and environment-friendly mode of transport.
The National Waterways in India are:

 N.W. No.1 - The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km).
 N.W. No.2 - The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km).
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 N.W. No.3 - The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Kollam, Udyogamandal and
Champakkara canals-205 km).
 N.W. No.4 - Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna rivers along with Kakinada Puducherry
stretch of canals (1078 km).
 N.W. No.5 - Specified stretches of river Brahmani along with Matai river, delta channels of
Mahanadi and Brahmani rivers and East Coast Canal (588 km).
Inland waterways in India are Mandavi, Zuari and Cumberjua, Sunderbans, Barak and backwaters of
Kerala through which transportation takes place.
Major Sea Ports

India’s trade with foreign countries is carried from the ports. There are 2 major and 200 notified non-
majors (minor/intermediate) ports in India.
Here is the list of major ports in India:

1. Kandla in Kachchh was the first port to be developed after independence. It is also known as
the Deendayal Port.
2. Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.
3. Marmagao port (Goa) is the premier iron ore exporting port of India.
4. Mangalore port, located in Karnataka caters to the export of iron ore.
5. Kochchi is the extreme south-western port, located at the entrance of a lagoon.
6. Tuticorin port is situated at the extreme south-east.
7. Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of India.
8. Vishakhapatnam is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port
9. Paradwip port located in Odisha, specialises in the export of iron ore.
10. Kolkata is an inland riverine port.
11. Haldia port was developed as a subsidiary port, in order to relieve growing pressure on the
Kolkata port.
Airways
The airway is the fastest, most comfortable and prestigious mode of transport. Air travel has made
access easier to the terrain areas like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense forests and long oceans.
The air transport was nationalised in 1953. Air India provides domestic and international air services.
Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas Corporation in its off-
shore operations, to inaccessible areas and difficult terrains. But, air travel is not within the reach of the
common people.
Communication
The major means of communication in India are television, radio, press, films, etc.
The Indian postal network is the largest in the world. It handles parcels as well as personal written
communications.
 First-class mail is airlifted between stations covering both land and air.
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 Second-class mail includes book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals. They are
carried by surface mail, covering land and water transport.
India has one of the largest telecom networks in Asia. The Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) facilities
all over India have been made possible by integrating the development in space technology with
communication technology.
 Mass communication provides entertainment and creates awareness among people about
various national programmes and policies. It includes radio, television, newspapers, magazines,
books and films.
 India Radio Channel (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety of programmes in national, regional and
local languages.
 Doordarshan, the national television channel is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the
world.
 India publishes a large number of newspapers in about 100 languages and dialects.
International Trade
The exchange of goods among people, states and countries is referred to as trade. Trade between two
countries is called international trade. It is considered as the economic barometer for a country.
Export and import are the components of trade. The balance of trade of a country is
the difference between its export and import.
 When the value of export exceeds the value of imports, it is called a favourable balance of
trade.
 If the value of imports exceeds the value of exports, it is termed as an unfavourable balance of
trade.
The commodities exported from India to other countries include gems and jewellery, chemicals and
related products, agriculture and allied products, etc.
The commodities imported to India include petroleum crude and products, gems and jewellery,
chemicals and related products, base metals, electronic items, machinery, agriculture and allied
products.
Tourism as a Trade
More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry. Tourism in India:
 Promotes national integration

 Provides support to local handicrafts and cultural pursuits
 Helps in the development of international understanding about Indian culture and heritage.
Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism,
medical tourism and business tourism.
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Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Frédéric Sorrieu vision of World

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

was to replace the former one.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

A New Conservatism after 1815

1. In 1815, secret societies were formed in many European states to train

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist

The Making of Germany and Italy

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Visualising the Nation

Nationalism and Imperialism

The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

The Idea of Satyagraha

The Rowlatt Act

Differing Strands within the Movement

The Movement in the Towns

Rebellion in the Countryside

Swaraj in the Plantations

Towards Civil Disobedience

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

How Participants saw the Movement

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

The Pre-modern World

Silk Routes Link the World

Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato

Conquest, Disease and Trade

The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)

Late nineteenth-century Colonialism

Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague

Indentured Labour Migration from India

Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad

Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System

Rise of Mass Production and Consumption

The Great Depression

India and the Great Depression

Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era

Post-war Settlement and the Bretton Woods Institutions

The Early Post-war Years

Decolonisation and Independence

End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of ‘Globalisation’

Before the Industrial Revolution

The Coming Up of the Factory

The Pace of Industrial Change

Life of the Workers

Industrialisation in the Colonies

What Happened to Weavers?