Science(Physics) 5076 – Revision Notes for 4NA (5105)

No. Topic Notes?

1 Physical Quantities, Units and Measurements ✓
2 Kinematics ✓
3A Dynamics ✓
4 Mass, Weight, Density ✓
5 Turning Effect of Forces ✓
6 Pressure ✓
7 Energy, Work, Power ✓
8 Kinetic Model of Matter 
9 Transfer of Thermal Energy ✓
10 Thermal Properties of Matter ✓
11 General Wave Properties ✓
12 Light Not in N’level
13 Electromagnetic Spectrum ✓
14 Sound ✓
15 Static Electricity Not in N’level
16 Current Electricity ✓
17 D.C. Circuits ✓
18 Practical Electricity ✓
19 Magnetism and Electromagnetism Not in N’level

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 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 1 – Physical Quantities, Units and Measurements

Checklist – Are you able to:

 show understanding that all physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit
 recall the following base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s), current (A), temperature (K), amount
of substance (mol)
 use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples and multiples of the SI units: nano (n),
micro (µ), milli (m), centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G)
 show an understanding of the orders of magnitude of the sizes of common objects ranging from a typical atom to the
Earth
 describe how to measure a variety of lengths with appropriate accuracy by means of tapes, rules, micrometers and
calipers, using a vernier scale as necessary
 describe how to measure a short interval of time including the period of a simple pendulum with appropriate accuracy
using stopwatches or appropriate instruments

Formula
None!
Definitions
A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured and consists of a numerical magnitude and
Physical quantity
unit.
Period Period is the time taken to make one complete oscillation.
Notes
Prefixes Precision of Instruments
Prefix Factor Instrument Precision
1. Ruler
2. Vernier calipers
3. Micrometer
4. Digital stopwatch

Reading of Vernier Calipers

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 Reading of Micrometer Screw Gauge

Pendulum Experiment

1. Setup the pendulum as shown.

2. Measure its length using a metre rule.
3. Let the pendulum swing steadily before timing. Ensure that the pendulum is swing at small angle of displacement.
4. Measure the time taken t1 for 20 oscillations using stopwatch.
5. Repeat the experiment and record the time taken as t2.
6. Take the average of the two timing, t = (t1 + t2 )/2.
7. The period of the pendulum, T, will be calculated as T = t/20.
8. Repeat steps 3 to 7 for different values of length.
*Note:
• The ________ the the pendulum, the __________ the period.
• When the pendulum is brought to the _______, the period ____________.

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 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 2 – Kinematics

Checklist – Are you able to:

 state what is meant by speed and velocity

 calculate average speed using distance travelled / time taken
 state what is meant by uniform acceleration and calculate the value of an acceleration using change in velocity / time
taken
 interpret given examples of non-uniform acceleration
 plot and interpret a distance-time graph and a speed-time graph
 deduce from the shape of a distance-time graph when a body is: (i) at rest (ii) moving with uniform speed (iii) moving
with non-uniform speed
 deduce from the shape of a speed-time graph when a body is: (i) at rest (ii) moving with uniform speed (iii) moving
with uniform acceleration (iv) moving with non-uniform acceleration
 calculate the area under a speed-time graph to determine the distance travelled for motion with uniform speed or
uniform acceleration
 state that the acceleration of free fall for a body near to the Earth is constant and is approximately 10 m/s2

Formula

Definitions
Speed Rate of change of distance SI unit: m/s
Velocity Rate of change of displacement SI unit: m/s
Acceleration Rate of change of velocity SI unit: m/s2
Uniform acceleration Constant rate of change of velocity SI unit: m/s2
Notes
For distance-time graph:
• Gradient = speed

For speed-time graph:

• Gradient = acceleration
• Area under graph = distance travelled

Converting distance-time graph to speed-time graph

At rest Constant speed Increasing speed Decreasing speed Increasing acc. Decreasing acc.

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 Distance-time graph VS Speed-time graph

time / s
0 5 7 10 15 20 25
Describing motion
Part Describing graph
Distance-time graph Speed-time graph
0 – 5s zero gradient zero speed (at rest) zero acceleration (zero speed)

5s–7s constant gradient (positive) constant speed constant acc.

(increasing speed at a constant rate)
7 s – 10 s zero gradient zero speed (at rest) zero acceleration (constant speed)

10 s – 15 s increasing gradient increasing speed increasing acc.

(increasing speed at an increasing rate)
15 s – 20 s decreasing gradient decreasing speed decreasing acc.
(decreasing speed at a decreasing rate)
20 s – 25 s constant gradient (negative) constant speed constant dec.
(decreasing speed at a constant rate)
Area under - - distance travelled
graph
*If displacement-time or velocity-time, anything below the x-axis = opposite direction!
Describing motion

Motions

No
Acceleration Deceleration
acceleration

Increasing Constant Decreasing Constant Increasing Constant Decreasing

At rest
acceleration acceleration acceleration speed deceleration deceleration deceleration

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 Free-fall
• Initial acceleration of all free-falling objects = 10 m/s2
• Acceleration of free-fall for an object near the Earth = 10 m/s2
• In vacuum, all free-falling objects will fall with the same acceleration (reach ground at the same time).
• On Earth, presence of air resistance will slow down the falling object.
Speed-time graph of parachutist

free-fall

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 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 3A – Dynamics

Checklist – Are you able to:

 apply Newton’s Laws to: (i) describe the effect of balanced and unbalanced forces on a body
 apply Newton’s Laws to: (ii) describe the ways in which a force may change the motion of a body (stating of Newton’s
laws is not required)
 identify forces acting on an object and draw free body diagram(s) representing the forces acting on the object (for
cases involving forces acting in at most 2 dimensions)
 recall and apply the relationship resultant force = mass × acceleration to new situations or to solve related problems
 explain the effects of friction on the motion of a body

Formula

Definitions
None! ☺
Notes
• Newton’s First Law: Every object will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless an
external force acts on it. (inertia)
• Newton’s Second Law: When a resultant force acts on an object of a constant mass, the object will accelerate in
the direction of the resultant force.
• Newton’s Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Finding resultant force
Parallel forces

a=? constant speed

8N 12 N
2 kg 5 kg
5N

frictional force =

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 Explaning, in terms of forces, the motion of objects

Unbalanced forces Balanced forces

AF ≠ FF AF = FF

a≠0 a=0

object is accelerating at rest constant speed

(if object initially at (if object already
rest) moving)

Question 1
Question 2
Explain, in terms of forces, why a free-falling object
An object moves to the right when an applied force of 5 N
reaches a constant speed eventually.
acts on it. It moves at a constant speed. State the
frictional force and explain why.
- When speed increases, air resistance increases.
- After a while, the object’s downward force (weight)
- Frictional force = 5 N.
= upward force (air resistance).
- Constant speed means object is not accelerating.
- Hence, there’s no resultant force.
- This means there’s no resultant force as F = ma.
- Hence, object does not accelerate as F = ma.
- This means AF = FF = 5 N.
- Hence, object moves at constant speed.

Question 3
A box lies at rest on a perfectly smooth surface. You give the box a quick push. The force acts on the box
momentarily.
Which statement correctly describes the subsequent motion of the box?

(A) Moves with increasing speed in a straight line

(B) Moves with constant speed in a straight line
(C) Decelerates uniformly to rest Ans:
(D) Cannot be determined as magnitude of force is not given

Friction
• Friction is the contact force that opposes motion between surfaces in contact.
• These two examples are exceptions (frictional force is in the direction of movement):

wheel walking to
moving to the right
the right

applied force
Reducing negative effects of friction Enhancing positive effects of friction
• Wheels
• Treads
• Ball bearings
• Parachute
• Lubricants and polished surfaces
• Chalk
• Air cushion

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 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 4 – Mass, Weight and Density

Checklist – Are you able to:

 state that mass is a measure of the amount of substance in a body

 state that mass of a body resists a change in the state of rest or motion of the body (inertia)
 state that a gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction
 define gravitational field strength, g, as gravitational force per unit mass
 recall and apply the relationship weight = mass × gravitational field strength to new situations or to solve related
problems
 distinguish between mass and weight
 recall and apply the relationship density = mass / volume to new situations or to solve related problems

Formula

Definitions
Mass The amount of substance in a body SI unit: kg
A region in which a mass experiences a force due to
Gravitational field -
gravitational attraction
Gravitational field strength Gravitational force per unit mass SI unit: N/kg or m/s2
Weight The gravitational force acting on an object SI unit: N
Density Mass per unit volume SI unit: kg/m3
Notes
Inertia
• Newton’s First Law: Every object will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless an
external force acts on it. (inertia)
• Inertia is the reluctance of an object to change its state of motion.
• Greater mass = greater inertia

Question
A truck and a car are both moving at the same speed. Both drivers step on their brakes at the same time. Which
vehicle will have a larger stopping distance and why?

Ans: The truck. The truck has a larger mass, hence it has a larger inertia as inertia is the reluctance of an object
to change its state of motion.
Mass VS Weight
Mass Weight
The amount of matter in a body The gravitational force acting on an object
A scalar quantity A vector quantity
SI unit is kg SI unit is N
Measuring instrument: electronic balance Measuring instrument: spring balance
Independent of gravitational field strength Dependent of gravitational field strength
(mass on Moon and on Earth is the same!) (weight on Moon and on Earth is different!)
Density
• Denser = higher density = sink
• Less dense = lower density = float

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• Experiment to determine density of irregular object:
Step 1: Measure the mass, m of the solid using an electronic balance.
Step 2: Pour water into the measuring cylinder and record its volume, V1.
Step 3: Immerse the solid fully in the liquid and record its new volume, V2.
𝑚
Step 4: Calculate density using 𝜌 =
𝑉2 − 𝑉1

• Calculating average density of composite = total mass / total volume

Question
An object is made of two different materials with densities 30 kg/m3 and 900 kg/m3 and volumes 0.20 m3 and
0.15 m3 respectively. Calculate the average density.

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 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 5 – Turning Effect of Forces

Checklist – Are you able to:

 describe the moment of a force in terms of its turning effect and relate this to everyday examples
 recall and apply the relationship moment of a force (or torque) = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot to new
situations or to solve related problems
 state the principle of moments for a body in equilibrium
 apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems
 show understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point known as its centre of gravity
 describe qualitatively the effect of the position of the centre of gravity on the stability of objects

Formula

Definitions
The product of a force and the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the
Moment of a force SI unit: Nm
line of action of force.
When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of anticlockwise moment about a pivot is equals to
Principle of moments
the sum of clockwise moment about the same pivot.
Centre of gravity A single point on an object where its entire weight can be taken as acting through.
Notes
Calculating moment of forces
• Moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot to force

Question 1

3 kg 2 kg

30 cm 40 cm

Clockwise moment =

Anticlockwise moment =

Resultant / net moment =

Direction =

Question 2
A uniform metre rule is balanced as shown below. The box is 20 cm away from the pivot.
Find the mass of the metre rule.
2 kg

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Question 3
F
10 cm 10 cm 12 cm

2N 4N

Question 4 (O 2015 P2A Q6)

The pedal moves from position A to B as shown Explain why the force applied at A will have a different effect from
the same force applied at B.

A Ans: The perpendicular distance from position A to the pivot is 0m, hence no
moment will be produced by the force. The perpendicular distance from
position B to the pivot is the maximum (8.0cm), hence with the same force
B applied, the moment produced will be maximum (and greater than A) as
moment = force x perpendicular distance.

Question 5
Explain which part requires the least amount of effort to turn the spanner.
A B C D
pivot

Ans: D. The perpendicular distance between D and the pivot is the largest, hence a smaller force is needed to
create the same moment as moment = force x perpendicular distance.
Centre of Gravity
Stable Equilibrium Unstable Equilibrium Neutral Equilibrium

• The line of action of weight is

• The line of action of weight is
within the base area.
outside the base area. • No moment produced as there is
• The weight produces an ACWM
• The weight produces a CWM no perpendicular distance
about the pivot.
about the pivot.
• The object returns to its original
• The object topples.
position.
Stability
• The wider the base area (compared to its top), the more stable the object (as a larger angle of tilt is needed
for the object to topple)
• The lower the CG, the more stable the object.
• To increase stability of object:
1. Widen the base area
2. Lower the centre of gravity

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 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 6 - Pressure

Checklist – Are you able to:

 define the term pressure in terms of force and area

 recall and apply the relationship pressure = force / area to new situations or to solve related problems

Formula
Pressure Hydraulic device

Definitions
Pressure Force per unit area SI unit: Pa or N/m2
Notes
Pressure applied by an object

X
Y

Both cylinders have the same weight. Which of the 2 cylinders will exerted a higher pressure on the ground and why?

Ans:

mass of box
= 450 g
3 cm

2 cm
1 cm

Maximum pressure exerted by the box Minimum pressure exerted by the box
• To find max pressure, you need the ____ contact area • To find min pressure, you need the ____ contact area
• Hence, • Hence,

Question 1

The four tyres of a truck are inflated to a pressure of 2.0 x 10 6 Pa. The contact area of each tyre with the ground is
0.020 m2.

What is the weight of the truck?

A 4 0000 N B 8 0000 N
C 12 0000 N D 16 0000 N

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 Hydraulic Device
• Pressure at piston 1 = Pressure at piston 2
•
•

• Volume displaced at 1 = Volume displaced at 2

•
•

• Liquid is used instead of air because ________________ • Work done at 1 = Work done at 2
_________________, hence pressure can be transmitted •
•
uniformly.

Question 2

The system shown in the diagram contains an incompressible liquid. A force of 100 N is exerted downward on the piston
K.
100 N

piston K area
piston L
50 cm2
area 2 cm2

liquid

What will be the upward force on piston L?

A 1N B 4N

C 100 N D 2500 N

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 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 7 – Energy, Work and Power

Checklist – Are you able to:

 show understanding that kinetic energy, potential energy (chemical, gravitational, elastic), light energy, thermal energy,
electrical energy and nuclear energy are examples of different forms of energy (b)
 state the principle of the conservation of energy and apply the principle to new situations or to solve related problems
 calculate the efficiency of an energy conversion using the formula efficiency = energy converted to useful output/total
energy input
 state that kinetic energy Ek = ½ mv2 and gravitational potential energy Ep = mgh (for potential energy changes near the
Earth’s surface)
 apply the relationships for kinetic energy and potential energy to new situations or to solve related problems
 recall and apply the relationship work done = force × distance moved in the direction of the force to new situations or to
solve related problems
 recall and apply the relationship power = work done/time taken to new situations or to solve related problems

Formula
KE GPE WD Power

Definitions
Energy The ability to do work SI unit: J
Power Rate of work done SI unit: W
Principle of
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another. The total
Conservation
amount of energy in an isolated system remains constant.
of Energy
Notes
Pendulum Example
Assuming no air resistance: With air resistance:

A C A C

B B

• Since there is no air resistance, _________________ • Because of air resistance, ___________________

___________ to the surroundings as thermal energy. __________________________________________.
• All GPE lost at A = KE gained at B • GPE lost at A ≠ KE gained at B.
• KE lost at B = GPE gained at C • KE lost at B ≠ GPE gained at C
• Height at A = Height at B • Height at A ≠ Height at B

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 Question 1
Two balls of equal mass are dropped from the same height down frictionless chutes that reach the ground as shown
below.
K L

Which of the following is true of the kinetic energy of the two balls as they emerge from the chutes?

A Kinetic energy of ball K is equal to that of ball L.

B Kinetic energy of ball K is greater than that of ball L.

C Kinetic energy of ball K is less than that of ball L.

D The kinetic energy of ball K and ball L has decreased.

Question 2

A ball, which weighs 2 N, is raised through a height of 3 m. As it moves vertically upwards, it also moves to the left
through a horizontal distance of 4 m. The distance from its starting point X to its stopping point Y is 5 m.

What is the gain in potential energy and work done on the ball?

Gain in potential energy / J Work done / J

A 6 6
B 6 8
C 8 6
D 8 10

Question 3

The figure below shows a car of mass 10 kg on the roller-coaster track being released from rest at a height of 40 m.

If friction is negligible, what is the kinetic energy at the top of the loop?

A 0J B 1500 J C 2500 J D 4000 J

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 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 9 – Transfer of Thermal Energy

Checklist – Are you able to:

 show understanding that thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature
 describe, in molecular terms, how energy transfer occurs in solids
 describe, in terms of density changes, convection in fluids
 explain that energy transfer of a body by radiation does not require a material medium and the rate of energy transfer is affected by: (i) colour and texture of the surface
(ii) surface temperature (iii) surface area
 apply the concept of thermal energy transfer to everyday applications

Notes

• Thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
• Heat is the transfer of thermal energy.
• Note: DO NOT WRITE HEAT ENERGY!!! Should be thermal energy!
• When describing transfer of energy, always talk about the rate of transfer

Conduction Convection Radiation

Defintion • Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy in the
through a medium without the flow of the means of convection currents in a fluid (liquid or form of electromagnetic waves such as infrared
medium. gas) due to a difference in density. radiation without the air of a medium.
• Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy by
collisions of particles. You can reduce the rate of thermal energy loss via
convection by using a lid.
Medium Can occur in all three states (fastest in solids as Can only occur in liquids and gases (as it involves Usually occurs in air and vacuum
particles are closely packed) movement of particles)
Can occur Cannot occur in vacuum Cannot occur in vacuum Can occur in vacuum
in Does not require a medium to be transmitted (think
vacuum? Sun to Earth)
When When it involves When it involves When it involves
does it • contact (from flame to cooking pot) • heating or cooling within a fluid (e.g. heating • colour (black/white/silver/shiny),
occur? • material (e.g. metals, plastic, glass etc) water in a pot, cooling the air in a room etc) • texture (smooth/rough),
• surface area (copper pipes bent into S shape)
• vacuum (from Sun to Earth)
Answering (material) is a (good/poor) conductor of heat. This See bottom of notes! (colour/texture) is a (good/poor) (absorber/emitter)
skills (increases/decreases) the rate of heat (gain/loss) of infrared radiation. This (increases/decreases)
via conduction. the rate of heat (gain/loss) via radiation
 Conduction Radiation
Examples Question 1 Question 1
of Describe, in molecular terms, how energy transfer occurs in solids. Explain why the cooling fins are black.
questions
Ans: Ans: Black surface is a good emitter of infra-red radiation. This increases the rate of
o Thermal energy is transferred in a solid by conduction. heat loss by radiation.
o When the molecules at the hot end are being heated, they would
gain energy and vibrate faster. They would collide with the
neighbouring molecules and pass the thermal energy to their
neighbouring molecules. This process will repeat and thermal
energy will be transferred to the cold end.
o When the solid is a metal, which has fast-moving free electrons, it
can transfer thermal energy at a faster rate by conduction
Question 2 Question 2
Explain why food stored inside a Styrofoam box would cool down Explain why a black surface will cool down faster than a white surface.
slower.
Ans: Black surface is a better emitter of infra-red radiation than the white surface.
Ans: Styrofoam box contains pockets of air which is a poor Hence, black surface will have a greater rate of heat loss by radiation.
conductor of heat. This decreases the rate of heat loss via
conduction.

HEATING COOLING
When the air/liquid near the source is heated, When the air/liquid near the source is cooled,
it expands, becomes less dense and rise. it contracts, becomes denser and sink.
The cooler air/liquid at the top which is denser will The warmer air/liquid at the bottom which is less
sink to take its place. dense will rise to take its place.
This sets up a convection current until all the air/liquid This sets up a convection current until all the
is heated. air/liquid is cooled.
 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 10 – Thermal Properties of Matter

Checklist – Are you able to:

 describe a rise in temperature of a body in terms of an increase in its internal energy (random thermal energy)
 describe melting/solidification and boiling/condensation as processes of energy transfer without a change in temperature
 explain the difference between boiling and evaporation

Notes
Solid Solid melting Liquid Liquid boiling Gas
Heating Curve

State Solid Solid melting Liquid Liquid boiling Gas

Energy
Thermal energy → KE Thermal energy → PE Thermal energy → KE Thermal energy → PE Thermal energy → KE
conversion
Temp.
Increase No change Increase No change Increase
change
Thermal energy is Thermal energy is Thermal energy is
converted to KE which Temperature remains constant, converted to KE which Temperature remains constant, converted to KE which
KE
leads to increase in KE remains constant. leads to increase in KE remains constant. leads to increase in
temperature. temperature. temperature.
Heat taken in is used to Heat taken in is used to
overcome forces of attraction overcome forces of attraction
PE PE remains constant. PE remains constant. PE remains constant.
between particles when between particles when
substance changes state. substance changes state.

Temperature
Melting

It is a process in which a
substance changes from
__________ state to
_________ state without a Boiling
change in temperature
It is a process in which a
substance changes from
__________ state to
_________ state without a
change in temperature Time
Cooling Curve

Gas Gas condensing Liquid Liquid freezing Solid

State Gas Gas condensing Liquid Liquid freezing Solid

Energy
KE → Thermal energy PE → Thermal energy KE → Thermal energy PE → Thermal energy KE → Thermal energy
conversion
Temp.
Increase No change Increase No change Increase
change
KE is converted to KE is converted to KE is converted to
thermal energy which Temperature remains constant, thermal energy which Temperature remains constant, thermal energy which
KE
leads to increase in KE remains constant. leads to increase in KE remains constant. leads to increase in
temperature. temperature. temperature.
Heat given out is due to Heat given out is due to
formation of forces of attraction formation of forces of attraction
PE PE remains constant. PE remains constant. PE remains constant.
between particles when between particles when
substance changes state. substance changes state.

Temperature

Freezing or Solidification

It is a process in which a
substance changes from
__________ state to
_________ state without a
Condensation change in temperature

It is a process in which a
substance changes from
__________ state to
_________ state without a
change in temperature

Time
 Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at a fixed temperature 1. Molecules in a liquid are in
Occurs at any temperature
(boiling point) continuous, random motion. 2. The faster moving
Relatively fast Relatively fast molecules have sufficient
Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs only at the liquid’s surface energy to overcome
3. Less energetic molecules forces of attraction
Temperature remains constant Temperature may change
are left behind. The average between particles to
Bubbles are formed No bubbles are formed kinetic energy of the molecules escape from the surface
decreases and the into the atmosphere.
temperature decreases.
Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation
1. Surface area
• Larger surface area = higher rate of evaporation Evaporation results in cooling.
2. Boiling point of liquid
• Lower boiling point = higher rate of evaporation
3. Temperature
• Higher temperature = higher rate of evaporation
4. Movement of air
• Surrounding air is moving = higher rate of evaporation
5. Pressure
• Lower atmospheric pressure = higher rate of evaporation
6. Humidity
• Less humid air = higher rate of evaporation
 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 11 – General Wave Propertes

Checklist – Are you able to:

 describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibrations in ropes and springs and by waves in a
ripple tank
 show understanding that waves transfer energy without transferring matter
 define speed, frequency, wavelength, period and amplitude
 state what is meant by the term wavefront
 recall and apply the relationship velocity = frequency x wavelength to new situations or to solve related
problems
 compare transverse and longitudinal waves and give suitable examples of each

Formula

Definitions
Transverse wave Transverse wave is a wave that travels perpendicular to the direction of vibration of particles.
Longitudinal wave Longitudinal wave is a wave that travels parallel to the direction of vibration of particles.
Crest Highest point of a transverse wave.
Trough Lowest point of a transverse wave.
The shortest distance between two points in phase/two
Wavelength SI unit: metre (m)
crests.
Amplitude Maximum displacement of a point from its rest position. SI unit: metre (m)
Frequency Number of complete oscillations/waves per second SI unit: Hertz (Hz)
Period Time taken to produce one complete oscillation/wave SI unit: second (s)
Wave speed Distance travelled by the wave per unit time SI unit: metre/sec (m/s)
Wavefront An imaginary line that joins any two points in phase.
Notes
Displacement-distance Displacement-time

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 Type of wave Comparison Example
• Radiowave
Transverse Travels perpendicular to the direction of vibration of particles.
• Microwave
• Sound wave
Longitudinal Travels parallel to the direction of vibration of particles.
Different representations of waves

Examples
2014 P1 Q10
The diagram shows how displacement varies with time as a wave passes a fixed point.

What is the frequency of this wave?

A 0.25 Hz
B 0.50 Hz
C 1.0 Hz
D 2.0 Hz

2006 P2A
Explain what is meant by frequency of 27 MHz. [2]

2013 P2A
State what is meant by a longitudinal wave. [2]

2012 P2B
Explain what is meant by a transverse wave. [3]

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 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 13 – Electromagnetic Spectrum

Checklist – Are you able to:

 state that all electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that travel with the same speed in vacuum and state the
magnitude of this speed
 describe the main components of the electromagnetic spectrum:
 state examples of the use of the following components: RMIVUXG

Formula

Definitions
None! ☺
Notes
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
• Transverse waves
• Transfer energy from one place to another
• Can travel in vacuum
• Travel at the speed of 3.0 x 108 m/s in vacuum
• When electromagnetic wave travels from one medium to another, its
o speed and wavelength change
o frequency does not change
Longest How to remember? How to remember?
EM Wave λ/m Visible Light
wavelength, (your own method) (Miss Mah’s method)
lowest frequency Radiowaves 102 Room Red
Microwaves 100 My Orange
Infrared radiation 10-2 In Yellow
Visible light 10-4 Vomited Green
Ultraviolet 10-6 Unknowingly Blue
X-rays 10-8 X-men Indigo
Shortest Gamma rays 10-10 Goondu Violet
wavelength, 8
highest frequency *They all travel at the same speed (3.0 x 10 m/s) in vacuum!
Application of Electromagnetic Waves
Wave Application
Radiowaves Radio communication, television communication
Microwaves Microwave oven, satellite television
Infrared radiation Remote controllers, intruder alarm, ear thermometer
Visible light Optical fibres for medical uses, telecommunications
Ultraviolet Sunbeds for artificial suntanning, sterilisation of medical equipment
Radiation therapy, imaging and detection of flaws in heavy metal equipment, scanning of
X-rays
luggage for security checks
Gamma rays Radiation therapy, kill cancer cells

Prepared by Ms Felicia Mah ☺

 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 14 – Sound

Checklist – Are you able to:

 describe the production of sound by vibrating sources

 describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves in terms of the processes of compression and rarefaction
 explain that a medium is required in order to transmit sound waves and the speed of sound differs in air, liquids and
solids
 relate loudness of a sound wave to its amplitude and pitch to its frequency
 describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo, and how this may be used for measuring distances

Formula

Definitions
Longitudinal
Longitudinal wave is a wave that travels in a direction parallel to the direction of vibration of particles.
Wave
Echo Reflection of sound wave that bounces off from hard and flat surfaces.
Compression Compressions are regions where the medium’s density is higher than the surrounding density.
Rarefaction Rarefactions are regions where the medium’s density is lower than the surrounding density.
Notes
Describe how the sound from the radio reaches all parts of the room.
• When the source vibrates, energy is transferred to the layers of air in front of it
• and the layers of air will vibrate parallel to the direction of wave motion.
• The next layer of air will also vibrate and the process repeats,
• forming a series of compression and rarefaction
• Sound is propagated as a longitudinal wave.
Longitudinal Wave

C R C

Prepared by Ms Felicia Mah ☺

 Experiment to show sound needs a medium to transmit
• When the electrical supply is turned on, the bell can be ring can be heard.
• When the vacuum pump is turned on, air is pumped out gradually. The hammer is still
hitting the bell, but the sound faints gradually until no sound can be heard because the
bell jar has become a vacuum.
• When the air slowly returns to the bell jar, the sound of the bell ring can be heard again.
• Thin electric wires are used to minimize the transmission of sound wave through solid.
• There are no particles in vacuum to transfer energy, hence, sound cannot be
transmitted in vacuum.
Speed of sound in different mediums
Substance Steel (solid) Water (liquid) Air (gas)
Speed (m/s) ~6000 ~1500 ~330
Particles in solid are closely Air particles are very far apart, so
packed, hence energy can be speed of sound in air is the
Reason transferred from particle to slowest.
particle faster, so speed of sound
in solids is the fastest.
Experiment ot determine the speed of sound in air

distance, d
• Apparatues needed: 1 starting pistol, 1 measuring tape, 1 stopwatch
1. Observers A and B are positioned at a known distance d (more than 1 km) apart in an open field. Record distance d
with the measuring tape.
2. Observer A fires the starting pistol.
3. Observer B, on seeing the flash of the starting pistol, starts the stopwatch and then stops it when he hears the
sound. The time interval t is recorded.
4. Speed of sound s can be calculated by the formula s = d/t.
To improve the experiment,
▪ Repeat the experiment and find the average speed of sound to minimize error due to human reaction time.
▪ Interchange the positions of observers A and B when the experiment is repeated to minimize the effect of the
direction of wind.
Amplitude and Frequency
• FPAL!
Amplitude Frequency
• Loudness → amplitude • Pitch → frequency
▪ Higher amplitude = louder ▪ Higher pitch = higher frequency
▪ Lower amplitude = softer ▪ Lower pitch = lower frequency

louder same note but softer lower pitch higher pitch

• Audible frequency range for humans: 20 Hz – 20 kHz
• When comparing two sound waves, compare one by one!!
• Talk about the sound quality then the property of wave.
• For e.g. Sound A is louder than Sound B because it has a higher amplitude. Sound A has a lower pitch than
Sound B because it has a lower frequency.

Prepared by Ms Felicia Mah ☺

 Echoes and Ultrasound
• When calculating speed of sound, check if there is any echo first!!
• If there is, you have to use s = 2d/t.
Questions
1 man 1 wall

A fishing boat sends a pulse of sound waves. The time between the sound being transmitted and received is 1.6 s. What
is the distance between the shop and the bottom of the sea? (speed = 330 m/s)

1 man 2 walls

A man claps his hand once. An echo is heard which is closely followed by another. What is the time interval between the
two echoes? (speed = 330 m/s)

1 man, 1 girl. 1 wall

A girl, standing 165 m in front of a tall building, fires a pistol. A boy, standing 350 m from the girl, hears two bangs 1 s
apart. What is the speed of sound in air?

Prepared by Ms Felicia Mah ☺

 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 16 – Current of Electricity

Checklist – Are you able to:

 (a) state that current is a rate of flow of charge and that it is measured in amperes
 (b) distinguish between conventional current and electron flow
 (c) recall and apply the relationship charge = current x time to new situations or to solve related problems
 (d) define electromotive force (e.m.f.) as the work done by a source in driving a unit charge around a complete circuit
 (e) state that the e.m.f. of a source and the potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit component is measured in volts
 (f) define the p.d. across a component in a circuit as the work done to drive a unit charge through the component
 (g) state the definition that resistance = p.d. / current
 (h) apply the relationship R = V/I to new situations or to solve related problems
 (i) describe an experiment to determine the resistance of a metallic conductor using a voltmeter and an ammeter, and
make the necessary calculations
 (j) recall and apply the formulae for the effective resistance of a number of resistors in series and in parallel to new
situations or to solve related problems
 (k) recall and apply the relationship of the proportionality between resistance and the length and cross-sectional area
of a wire to new situations or to solve related problems

Formula

𝑄 𝑊 V = IR
I=𝑇 V=
𝑄

Definitions
Current Current is a rate of flow of charge. SI unit: ampere (A)
E.m.f. is the work done by a source in driving a unit charge around a
Electromotive force SI unit: volt (V)
complete circuit
P.d. across a component in a circuit is the work done to drive a unit
Potential difference SI unit: volt (V)
charge through the component
Resistance of a component is the ratio of p.d. applied to the current
Resistance SI unit: ohm (Ω)
which flows through it.
Resistivity Resistivity is the ability of a material to resist a current. SI unit: ohm metre (Ωm)
Notes
(b) Conventional Current vs Electron Flow
Electron flow Conventional current
• Movement of electrons in conducting wires is • Positive terminal → negative terminal
responsible for electric current.
• Negative terminal → positive terminal
(i) Experiment to determine resistance of a metallic conductor
Diagram Steps
1. Adjust the variable resistor to allow the minimum current flowing in the
circuit.
2. Record the value of current, I (from the ammeter) and the value of potential
difference (from the voltmeter) across the metallic conductor.
3. Repeat the experiment by adjusting the variable resistor for at least five sets
of current and value readings.
4. To calculate the resistance, use either one of the methods:
o By using a graph
• Plot a graph of V against I. Determine the gradient of the graph.
• The gradient of the graph (V/I) is the resistance of the conductor.
o By using formula
• Use R = V/I to calculate the resistance of the conductor.

Prepared by Ms Felicia Mah ☺

 (j) Effective Resistance in a Circuit
Arrangement Effective Resistance (RE) Effect of the total R in a circuit

The effective resistance is the

Series RE = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + … greatest when all the resistors are
arranged in series

R1 R2 R3

1 1 1 −1 The effective resistance is the

Parallel R1 smallest when all the resistors are
𝑅𝐸 = ( + + + ⋯)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 arranged in parallel.
R2

R3
(k) Factors affecting resistance in a conducting wire
Length Cross-sectional area (thickness) Type of material
• Longer tunnel harder to crawl • Narrower tunnel harder to crawl Different conductors have different
• Lx2→Rx2 • Ax2→R÷2 resistivities
• L÷2→R÷2 • A÷2→Rx2

• When R ↑, I ↓ as V = IR
• When R ↑, V ↑ as V = IR
Question

A lamp is of normal brightness when connected to a 9.0 V supply. Explain what happens to the brightness of
the lamp when another identical lamp is connected in parallel.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 17 – D.C. Circuits

Checklist – Are you able to:

 (a) draw circuit diagrams with power sources (cell or battery), switches, lamps, resistors (fixed and variable), fuses,
ammeters and voltmeters
 (b) state that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same and apply the principle to new situations or to
solve related problems
 (c) state that the sum of the potential differences in a series circuit is equal to the potential difference across the whole
circuit and apply the principle to new situations or to solve related problems
 (d) state that the current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate branches of a parallel circuit and
apply the principle to new situations or to solve related problems
 (e) state that the potential difference across the separate branches of a parallel circuit is the same and apply the
principle to new situations or to solve related problems

Formula

𝑄 𝑊 V = IR
I= V= 𝑄
𝑇

Definitions
None! ☺
Notes
(a) Circuit symbols
Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol

Open Closed
Cell Battery
switch switch

Fixed Variable
Lamp Lamp
resistor resistor

Fuse Ammeter Voltmeter Bell

(b) – (e) Brief Summary of Series vs Parallel Circuits

Series Parallel

V
V
I
I I1 <-V1->
R1
I1 <-V1-> I2 <-V2-> I2 <-V2->
R1 R2
R2

Current I = I1 = I2 (same) I = I1 + I2 (sum)

Voltage V = V1 + V2 (sum) V = V1 = V2 (same)
−1
1 1
RE RE = R1 + R2 + … 𝑅𝐸 = ( + + ⋯)
𝑅1 𝑅2
Prepared by Ms Felicia Mah ☺
 (b) – (e) Series vs Parallel Circuits
Series Parallel

• Current at every point is the same. • Sum of the currents in the separate branches =
• Relationship: current from source
Current • Relationships:

Voltage • Sum of the p.d. = p.d across the whole circuit

• Relationships: • P.d. across the separate branches is the same
• Relationships:

Prepared by Ms Felicia Mah ☺

 Condensed Physics Notes
Chapter 18 – Practical Electricity

Checklist – Are you able to:

 (a) describe the use of the heating effect of electricity in appliances such as electric kettles, ovens and heaters
 (b) recall and apply the relationships P = VI and E = VIt to new situations or to solve related problems
 (c) calculate the cost of using electrical appliances where the energy unit is the kWh
 (d) state the hazards of using electricity in the following situations
o (i) damaged insulation
o (ii) overheating of cables
o (iii) damp conditions
 (e) explain the use of fuses and circuit breakers in electrical circuits and of fuse ratings
 (f) explain the need for earthing metal cases and for double insulation
 (g) state the meaning of the terms live, neutral and earth
 (h) describe the wiring in a mains plug
 (i) explain why switches, fuses, and circuit breakers are wired into the live conductor

Formula

𝐸 E = VIt
P= 𝑡 (kWh) (kW) (h)
E = P x t
Cost of energy used = Energy used (kWh) x unit cost ($/kWh)

Definitions
None! ☺
Notes
(a) Heating effect of electricity in appliances
• The greater the resistance of a metal, the higher the amount of heat energy produced.
• (low resistance) silver < copper < tungsten < nichrome (high resistance)
• A metal with high resistance and high melting point is used as the heating element in electrical appliances such as
kettle, oven and heater.
(c) Calculate the cost where the energy unit is kWh
Example: An electric heater has a power rating of 1000 W and is connected to a 230 V supply. If the unit cost of energy
used is 20 cents, calculate the cost if it is turned on for 90 minutes.

(d) Hazards of Electricity

Situation Consequences
• Live wire may touch each other resulting in short circuit.
Damaged insulation
• Short circuit may cause metal casing to become live or catch fire due to overheating.
Overheating of • May cause fire in cables
cables • Insulation may be damaged which leads to short circuit.
Damp conditions • Current can be conducted by water which may cause electric shock.
(e) Use of fuses, circuit breakers and fuse ratings
Purpose of a fuse Why fuse connected along live wire
• When current exceeding fuse rating passes through,
Fuse • When current exceeding fuse rating
• The fuse will melt break the circuit
(fuse rating passes through,
• Disconnecting the appliance from the high voltage
slightly • The fuse will melt and break the circuit.
suppy
higher) • This prevents overheating of cables.
• This prevents user from electric shock.

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 • Limits the amount of current in the household circuits
Part Function
Main switch • Turns on and off the electricity supply to the whole house
Circuit
breakers
Miniature circuit • Consists of an electromagnetic switch which breaks the circuit when a large
breaker (MCB) current from the main power supply is flowing through it
Earth leakage circuit • Consists of an electromagnetic switch that breaks the circuit only when the
breaker (ELCB) current leakage is 30 mA or more through the earth wire
(f) Earthing metal cases and double insulation
• Earth wire connects metal casing to earth
• When a fault occurs and the live wire touches the metal
casing, the metal casing becomes live.
• The earth wire will conduct current from the metal casing to
Earthing the ground.
metal • This large current causes the fuse to melt and break the
casing circuit.
• This prevents user from electric shock.

• The electrical appliance is covered with insulator such as plastic. Its metal part is not exposed to the
user.
• It prevents the electrical appliance from becoming live because the materials used to cover the
Double
metal part are insulators.
insulation
• The user will not receive electric shock if the appliance is faulty.
• The insulation takes place both in the electrical cable and the metal casing of the appliance.
• In double insulation, there is no need for earth wiring for the appliances.
(g) state the meaning of the terms live, neutral and earth
(h) describe the wiring in a mains plug

Conducts current from the

mains supply to appliance

Conducts current back

to the mains supply
from appliance

(i) explain why switches, fuses, and circuit breakers are wired into the live conductor
When safety devices are connected to the live wire When safety devices are connected to the neutral wire

• The appliance is at low voltage because the safety • The appliance is at high voltage because it is still
devices in live wire disconnect the appliance from the connected to the high voltage supply.
high voltage supply. • Therefore, current is still able to flow through the
• Therefore, no current flows through the appliance. appliance.
• The user is prevented from electric shock when touching • The user may suffer electric shock.
the appliance.

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