Achapter7 8TextbookSolution

CHAPTER 7 Stoichiometry
Starting Points
(Page 274)
(Students’ answers will reflect their understanding at this point. There are no “correct” or
“incorrect” answers. Students will revisit their answers at the end of the chapter.)
Exploration: The Problem Is What You Don’t See!

(Page 275)
(a) H2O(g)
(b) When the cobalt(II) chloride test paper makes contact with liquid water, the colour of the
chemical in the paper turns from blue to pink.
(c) CO2(g)
(d) When the limewater is swirled, it turns milky in colour. When limewater reacts with CO2(g), a
product forms that causes the water to become milky. This test confirms the presence of CO2(g).
(e) Oxygen is required for combustion. In the absence of oxygen, combustion ceases and thus the
flame is extinguished.
(f) Solid carbon, C(s): This substance is not predicted by the equation because the balanced
equation assumes the complete reaction of all of the carbon with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide.
(g) The carbon formed is a minor product. In order to determine whether it is a major or minor
product, compare the chemical amount of carbon produced with the chemical amount of the
other products.
7.1 INTERPRETING CHEMICAL REACTION EQUATIONS
Practice
(Page 277)
1. Significant Differences between Science and Technology
Science Technology
international localized
more theoretical more empirical
emphasizes ideas emphasizes methods and materials
natural products and manufactured products and processes
processes
2. Industrial technologies include the production of steel from iron ore. Commercial
technologies include the use of diagnostic electronics in car repair shops. Consumer
technologies include the use of products such as personal audio equipment.
3. (a) technological activity
(b) scientific activity
(c) scientific activity
(d) technological activity
(e) scientific activity
(f) technological activity
4. Technology must be able to last, be adaptable, and be modifiable to meet the needs of society
in an ever-changing world.
Composting waste is an example of a sustainable technology because as long as bacteria
exist, this process will convert organic waste into useful soil fertilizer. Commercial ocean
208 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

fishing as currently practised is a non-sustainable technology, since it generally harvests fish
faster than they can reproduce – as is evidenced in the Canadian cod fishery.
5. The broader definition of the term technology encompasses organized process and skills
developed for accomplishing tasks. Since Canada’s original Aboriginal peoples possessed
such processes and developed skills for accomplishing tasks, they cannot be considered non-
technological. Aboriginal peoples developed many processes, including ways to make
hunting more efficient, and methods for preserving meat. They also produced many artificial
materials, including weapons, tools, clothing, and decorative artwork.
Web Activity: Canadian Achievers—Roberta Bondar

(Page 278)
1. Academic studies: Dr. Bondar took physics and mathematics courses in high school and
received university degrees in zoology and biology (B.Sc., Guelph University, Guelph,
Ontario, 1968; M.Sc., University of Western Ontario, 1971; Ph.D., University of Toronto,
1974); and neurology (Ph.D., University of Toronto, 1974). She became a medical doctor
specializing in neurology (M.D., McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, 1977). In 1983,
she was accepted into the Canadian Space Program and trained in the United States for three
years to conduct science in space.
2. Dr. Bondar has conducted (or is conducting) research projects into the following areas:
Ɣ transcranial Doppler in patients with orthostatic intolerance (University of New Mexico
and Deaconess Hospital, Boston);
Ɣ transcranial Doppler in astronauts before and after spaceflight (Johnson Space Centre,
Edwards Air Force Base, Kennedy Space Center) and
Ɣ life and material science study in microgravity (Space Shuttle Discovery and Spacelab,
1992).
Practice
(Page 281)
6. A balanced chemical equation directly communicates the elements or compounds that
participate in a reaction and the chemical amount ratio (in moles) of molecules or formula
units that are involved in the reaction. Further, it communicates the states at standard ambient
temperature and pressure (SATP) of all the reactants and the products.
7. Conditions of temperature and pressure under which the reaction may occur; the rate and
progress of the reaction; and the measurable quantities of reactants and products present are
important aspects of a chemical reaction that are not communicated by a balanced chemical
equation.
8. Four major assumptions made about chemical reactions are that they are spontaneous, fast,
quantitative, and stoichiometric.
9. Three criteria that may be used to evaluate a technology may be chosen from: cost,
efficiency, simplicity, reliability, and sustainability.
Practice
(Page 284)
[Note: For those questions where students are (typically) only required to write a (single) net
ionic equation for a reaction, this Solutions Manual will always show the complete worked-out
derivation from the corresponding chemical equation, for convenience of reference.]
10. Pb(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq) o Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 Ag(s)
11. Pb(s) + 2 Ag + (aq) + NO3 (aq) o Pb 2+ (aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) + 2 Ag(s)
12. Pb(s) + 2 Ag+(aq) o Pb2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s)
Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 209

(a) 3 CaCl2(aq) + 2 Na3PO4(aq) o Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6 NaCl(aq)
3 Ca 2+ (aq) + 6 Cl (aq) + 6 Na + (aq) + 2 PO 43 (aq) o Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 (s) + 6 Na + (aq) + 6 Cl (aq)
3 Ca2+(aq) + 2 PO43–(aq) o Ca3(PO4)2(s)
(b) The spectator ions in this reaction are the sodium and chloride ions.
Fe3+(aq) + 3 OH–(aq) o Fe(OH)3(s)
13. HNO3 (aq) + NaHCO3 (s) o H2CO3 (aq) + NaNO3 (aq)
H + (aq) + NO3 – (aq) Na + (aq) HCO3 (aq) o H 2 CO3 (aq) + Na + (aq) NO3 – (aq)
H + (aq) + HCO3 o H 2 CO3 (aq)
Sodium and nitrate are the spectator ions in this reaction.
14. (a) H2CO3 (aq) o H2O(l) + CO2 (g) [This visible decomposition will occur in situations
such as that represented in question 13. This same process occurs any other time
carbonic acid is produced or present in any significant concentration in an aqueous
solutionopen containers of “carbonated” beverages being the most common example.]
(b) Water is both a product of this reaction and the solvent in which the reaction occurs.
Section 7.1 Questions

(Page 285)
1. (a) CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) o CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
(b) The chemical equation states the species involved, the relative chemical amounts of each
species, and their states of matter.
(c) Information that is not known about this reaction includes the temperature and pressure
required (or optimal) for the reaction to occur, the rate and extent to which the reaction
occurs (progress or process), and the quantity of entities that react.
2. (a) Spontaneous—happens automatically, without any extra energy added fast—the reaction
finishes completely within a reasonable time quantitative—more than 99% of the
reactants are used to make the products stoichiometric—there is a simple, whole-number
ratio of reactants to products
(b) The assumption that the reaction is spontaneous can be checked by mixing the two
reactants and observing whether a reaction occurs. Observations from such an experiment
can also help ascertain if the reaction occurs quickly. Whether the reaction is quantitative
can be determined by measuring the quantity of the reactants before the reaction begins
and measuring to determine if all of one of the reactants has been consumed. Finally,
measuring the masses of the reactants and products can help to determine whether the
reaction is stoichiometric, by comparing the chemical amounts (in moles) reacted and
produced.
3. (a) Pb(NO 3 ) 2 (aq) Na 2SiO 3 (aq) o PbSiO3 (s) 2 NaNO3 (aq)
Pb 2 (aq) 2 NO3 (aq) 2 Na (aq) SiO32 (aq) o PbSiO3 (s) 2 Na (aq) 2 NO3 (aq)
Pb 2 (aq) SiO32 (aq) o PbSiO3 (s)
(b) We assume that the reactants will not react with the container material and that reaction
conditions are at SATP.
(c) The spectator ions for this reaction are Na+(aq) and NO3(aq).
4. 2 NaBr(aq) Cl2 (g) o Br2 (l) 2 NaCl(aq)
2 Na + (aq) + 2 Br (aq) Cl2 (g) o Br2 (l) 2 Na + (aq) + 2 Cl (aq)
2 Br (aq) Cl2 (g) o Br2 (l) 2 Cl (aq)
5. (a) Sr(NO3 )2 (aq) Na 2CO3 (aq) o SrCO3 (s) 2 NaNO3 (aq)

Sr 2+ (aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) 2 Na + (aq) + CO32 (aq) o SrCO3 (s) 2 NO3 (aq) 2 Na + (aq)
Sr 2 (aq) CO32 (aq) o SrCO3 (s)
(b) K 2CO3 (aq) or Li 2CO3 (aq)
6. Ca(HCO3 )2 (aq) Na 2 OOCCOO(aq) o CaOOCCOO(s) 2 NaHCO3 (aq)
Ca 2+ (aq) 2 HCO3 (aq) 2 Na + (aq) OOCCOO 2 (aq) o CaOOCCOO(s)
2 Na + (aq) 2 HCO3 (aq)
Ca 2 (aq) OOCCOO 2 (aq) o CaOOCCOO(s)
7. 2 CH3COOH(aq) Ca(OH)2 (s) o Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) 2 H2 O(l)
2 CH 3COOH(aq) + Ca(OH) 2 (s) o Ca 2+ (aq) + 2 CH 3COO (aq) + 2 H 2 O(l)
Note: See Table 3, Section 5.2. Recall that the weak acids are not shown dissociated, since
they do not “ionize” appreciably.
8. In a quantitative chemical reaction, an excess of one reactant ensures the complete reaction of
the other reactant, thereby maximizing formation of the desired product.
9. Research chemists are more interested in understanding chemical processes, whereas
industrial chemists are more interested in the application of chemical processes. Both require
an understanding of the reactions, processes, and factors that affect the chemical processes.
10. Rapid advances in computer technology have accelerated the rate at which computer
technology becomes obsolete. Flat-panel LCD display monitors, for example, have replaced
the larger CRT monitors as the most common type of monitor sold with new computer
systems. Since there is little demand for CRT monitors, these devices are quickly becoming
obsolete. From an ecological perspective, it is important to attempt to recycle CRT monitors,
not only to salvage any valuable components they may contain but also to reduce the overall
volume of waste generated. On the other hand, flatpanel screens are more energy-efficient
than the older monitors, so there is an environmental benefit to using them if the electricity
used to power them is produced in a way that does produce pollution.
11. (a) Ɣ Economic: the mobile phone industry generates huge profits worldwide and is
beginning to incur a number of costs due to the use of phones while driving, which
frequently results in accidents.
(b) Ɣ Societal: mobile phones have increased the degree of connectedness of many
segments of society.
(c) Ɣ Ethical: mobile phones have been used to enable such activities as cheating in exams
through text messaging and arranging drug deals in schools.
(d) Ɣ Environmental: improvements in mobile phone technology have resulted in an
abundance of outdated cell phones, which now need to be disposed of responsibly;
chemical cell batteries cannot be recycled and end up in landfills.
12. To be able to calculate a chemical amount, you must measure:
(a) the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas sample
(b) the mass of a solid sample
(c) the mass of a liquid sample
(d) the volume of a solution of known concentration.

7.2 GRAVIMETRIC STOICHIOMETRY
Investigation 7.1: Decomposing Malachite

(Pages 287, 304)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to test the assumption that a chemical reaction is
stoichiometric.
Problem
How is the chemical amount of copper(II) oxide produced related to the chemical amount of
malachite reacted during the decomposition of malachite?
Prediction
According to the balanced chemical equation, two moles of copper(II) oxide are produced for
every mole of malachite decomposed.
Cu(OH)2xCuCO3(s) o 2 CuO(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
The coefficients represent the ratio of the chemical amounts, which is 1:2:1:1. The chemical
amount of copper(II) oxide produced is predicted to be twice the chemical amount of malachite
decomposed.
Procedure
1. Measure and record the mass of a clean crucible.
2. Transfer a small sample, about one teaspoonful, of malachite into the crucible.
3. Measure and record the total mass.
4. Heat the sample on a hot plate until the sample is completely black. Use a glass stirring rod to
mix the contents and to break up any lumps.
5. Turn off the hot plate and allow the crucible to cool.
6. Measure and record the final mass of the crucible and contents.
Evidence
The green powder changed to a black powder.
mass of crucible = 27.24 g
mass of crucible + malachite = 29.36 g
mass of crucible + product = 28.76 g
Analysis
Class Results for Decomposing Malachite
Mass of malachite (g) Chemical amount of Mass of copper(II) Chemical amount of
malachite (mmol) oxide (g) copper(II) oxide (mmol)
1.15 5.20 0.83 10.4
1.21 5.47 0.85 10.7
1.38 6.24 0.98 12.3
1.43 6.47 1.03 12.9
1.75 7.91 1.24 15.6
2.02 9.13 1.41 17.7
2.12 9.59 1.52 19.1
2.35 10.6 1.69 21.2
2.65 12.0 1.94 24.4

According to the evidence collected and displayed on the graph, the chemical amount of
copper(II) oxide varies directly with the chemical amount of malachite. From the slope of the
graph, the ratio of the chemical amount of copper(II) oxide to the chemical amount of malachite
is found to be approximately 2.0.
Evaluation
The experimental design of decomposition by heating is judged to be adequate to answer the
problem. This design seems simple and should give a highly certain result. The procedure is
judged to be adequate as long as the sample was heated carefully, until it was completely black.
Reheating and measuring the mass would increase the certainty of a complete reaction. The
technological skills were also adequate because the results from several groups, as seen on the
graph, were quite consistent. On the basis of my evaluation of this experiment, I am very certain
of the results. The major source of uncertainty is the mass measurement, but a single such
measurement should only contribute to a difference of about 1%, at most.
The prediction is judged to be verified because it clearly agrees with the experimental
result. The balanced chemical equation is an acceptable method because the prediction was
verified.
The purpose of this investigation is accomplished by the results. The reaction is
consistently stoichiometric.
Practice
(Page 287)
1. Technology aims to use scientific knowledge to make useful products that can be used to
perform useful tasks. A chemical treatment to remove tarnish from silverware is an example
of using knowledge of chemistry and chemical reactions for a useful end.
2. (a) Science would have helped to provide an understanding of the negative impact of
pollution. Furthermore, science helped to determine what steps could be undertaken to
reduce pollution.
(b) Society most likely imposed pressure on industry to decrease pollution and increase fuel
efficiency. The perspectives that may have contributed to these changes are
environmental and economic.
3. Industrial scale: large-scale production of substances from naturally occurring raw materials
Commercial scale: medium-scale processes employed in the production of goods by
individual businesses

Consumer scale: individual use of products, processes, and technologies
4. Stoichiometry refers to the relative chemical amounts of reactants consumed and products
formed in a chemical reaction.
5. Investigation 7.1 tests the assumption that chemical reactions are stoichiometric. Since a
graph of class data of chemical amounts of copper(II) oxide produced plotted against the
chemical amount of malachite reacted is linear with a slope of approximately 2, the
assumption that the decomposition of malachite is stoichiometric is valid.
6. Cu(OH) 2 x CuCO3 (s) o 2 CuO(s) CO 2 (g) H 2 O(g)
Using this equation, it can be determined that twice as much CuO(s) as CO2(g) is formed.
7. Heat was applied until there was a complete (i.e., no further) colour change. It can be
assumed, therefore, that no malachite remained to be decomposed and thus the reaction was
quantitative.
Practice
(Page 290)
8. A balanced chemical equation provides the stoichiometric ratios of the chemical amounts of
the reactants consumed and the chemical amounts of the products produced.
9. 8 Zn(s) + S8(s) o 8 ZnS(s)
25 g m
65.41 g/mol 256.56 g/mol
1 mol
nZn = 25 g u
65.41 g
= 0.38 mol
1
nS8 = 0.38 u
8
= 0.048 mol
256.56 g
mS8 = 0.048 mol u
1 mol
= 12 g
or
1 mol Zn 1 mol S8 256.56 g S8
mS8 = 25 g Zn u u u
65.41 g Zn 8 mol Zn 1 mol S8
= 12 g S8
10. 2 Al2O3(s) o 4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g)
125 g m
101.96 g/mol 26.98 g/mol
1 mol
nAl2O3 = 125 g u
101.96 g
= 1.23 mol
4
nAl = 1.23 mol u
2
= 2.45 mol
26.98 g
mAl = 2.45 mol u
1 mol
= 66.2 g

or
1 mol Al2 O3 4 mol Al 26.98 g Al
mAl = 125 g Al2 O3 u u u
101.96 g Al2 O3 2 mol Al2 O3 1 mol Al
= 66.2 g Al
11. C3 H8 (g) 5 O 2 (g) o 3 CO 2 (g) 4 H 2 O(g)
10.0 g m
44.11 g/mo 32.00 g/mol
1 mol
nC3H8 10.0 g u
44.11 g
0.227 mol
5
nO2 0.227 mol u
1
1.13 mol
32.00 g
mO2 1.13 mol u
1 mol
36.3 g
or
1 mol C3 H8 5 mol O 2 32.00 g O 2
mO2 = 10.0 g C3 H8 u u u
44.11 g C3 H8 1 mol C3 H8 1 mol O 2
= 36.3 g O 2
12. 2 NaCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) o PbCl2(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)
2.57 g m
58.44 g/mol 278.1 g/mol
1 mol
nNaCl = 2.57 g u
58.44 g
= 0.0440 mol
1
nPbCl2 = 0.0440 mol u
2
= 0.0220 mol
278.1 g
mPbCl2 = 0.0220 mol u
1 mol
= 6.11 g
or
1 mol NaCl 1 mol PbCl2 278.1 g PbCl2
mPbCl2 = 2.57 g NaCl u u u
58.44 g NaCl 2 mol NaCl 1 mol PbCl2
= 6.11 g PbCl2
13. 2 Al(s) + 3 H2SO4(aq) o 3 H2(g) + Al2(SO4)3(aq)
2.73 g m
26.98 g/mol 2.02 g/mol
1 mol
nAl = 2.73 g u
26.98 g
= 0.101 mol

3
nH 2 = 0.101 mol u
2
= 0.152 mol
2.02 g
mH 2 = 0.152 mol u
1 mol
= 0.307 g
or
1 mol Al 3 mol H 2 2.02 g H 2
mH 2 = 2.73 g Al u u u
26.98 g Al 2 mol Al 1 mol H 2
= 0.307 g H 2
14. 2 KOH(aq) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) o Cu(OH)2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
2.67 g m
56.11 g/mol 97.57 g/mol
1 mol
nKOH = 2.67 g u
56.11 g
= 0.0476 mol
1
nCu(OH) 2 = 0.0476 mol u
2
= 0.0238 mol
97.57 g
mCu(OH)2 = 0.0238 mol u
1 mol
= 2.32 g
or
1 mol KOH 1 mol Cu(OH) 2 97.57 g Cu(OH) 2
mCu(OH)2 = 2.67 g KOH u u u
56.11 g KOH 2 mol KOH 1 mol Cu(OH)2
= 2.32 g Cu(OH)2
Lab Exercise 7.A: Testing the Stoichiometric Method

(Page 291)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to test the stoichiometric method. In your evaluation, assume
that the experiment was valid and that suitable quality evidence was obtained.
Problem
What mass of lead is produced by the reaction of 2.13 g of zinc with an excess of lead(II) nitrate
in solution?
Prediction
According to the stoichiometric method, 6.75 g of lead will be produced if 2.13 g of zinc metal
reacts with excess lead(II) nitrate. The reasoning is shown below.
Zn(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) o Pb(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)
2.13 g m
65.41 g/mol 207.2 g/mol

1 mol
nZn = 2.13 g u
65.41 g
= 0.0326 mol
1
nPb = 0.0326 mol u
1
= 0.0326 mol
207.2 g
mPb = 0.0326 mol u
1 mol
= 6.75 g
or
1 mol Zn 1 mol Pb 207.2 g Pb
mPb = 2.13 g Zn u u u
65.41 g Zn 1 mol Zn 1 mol Pb
= 6.75 g Pb
Analysis
mass of lead product = 7.60 g – 0.92 g = 6.68 g
According to the evidence collected, 6.68 g of lead precipitated.
Evaluation
6.68 g 6.75 g 0.07
% difference = u 100 u 100 1%
6.75 g 6.75
Given such a small difference, which can readily be accounted for by normal sources of
error, the prediction is clearly verified, and so the stoichiometric method for predicting the mass
of lead formed in this experiment is judged to be acceptable.
This experiment was valid for testing the stoichiometric method, providing evidence to
support the validity of this method. The purpose of the investigation was accomplished.
Investigation 7.2: Gravimetric Stoichiometry

(Pages 292, 305)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to test the stoichiometric method.
Problem
What mass of precipitate is produced by the complete reaction of 2.00 g of strontium nitrate in
solution with an excess of aqueous copper(II) sulfate?
Prediction
According to the stoichiometric method, 1.74 g of strontium sulfate precipitate will be produced
from the reaction of 2.00 g of strontium nitrate with excess copper(II) sulfate. The reasoning is
shown below.
Sr(NO3)2(aq) + CuSO4(aq) o SrSO4(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
2.00 g m
211.64 g/mol 183.69 g/mol
1 mol
nSr(NO3 )2 = 2.00 g u
211.64 g
= 0.00945 mol

1
nSrSO4 = 0.00945 mol u
1
= 0.00945 mol
183.69 g
mSrSO4 = 0.00945 mol u
1 mol
= 1.74 g
or
1 mol Sr(NO3 ) 2 1 mol SrSO 4 183.69 g SrSO 4
mSrSO4 = 2.00 g Sr(NO3 ) 2 u u u
211.64 g Sr(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Sr(NO3 ) 2 1 mol SrSO 4
= 1.74 g SrSO 4
Design
Strontium nitrate is dissolved in water and mixed with a solution containing excess copper(II)
sulfate. The precipitate is separated by filtration, dried, and its mass is determined.
Materials
Ɣ lab apron Ɣ wash bottle of distilled water
Ɣ eye protection Ɣ laboratory scoop
Ɣ Sr(NO3)2(s) Ɣ centigram balance
Ɣ CuSO4•5H2O(s) Ɣ stirring rod
Ɣ 150 mL beaker Ɣ filter paper
Ɣ 250 mL beaker Ɣ filter funnel, funnel holder, and stand
Ɣ 400 mL beaker Ɣ watch glass
Procedure
1. Obtain 2.56 g of CuSO4•5H2(s) in a clean, dry 150 mL beaker.
2. Dissolve the solid in approximately 75 mL of distilled water.
3. Obtain 2.00 g of Sr(NO3)2(s) in a clean, dry 250 mL beaker.
4. Dissolve the solid in approximately 75 mL of distilled water.
5. While stirring, slowly pour the CuSO4(aq) into the Sr(NO3)2(aq) and record the observations.
6. Measure and record the mass of a piece of filter paper.
7. Filter the mixture.
8. Set the filter paper and precipitate aside to dry overnight.
9. Measure and record the mass of filter paper and precipitate.
Evidence
mass of 250 mL beaker = 102.41 g
mass of 250 mL beaker + Sr(NO3)2(s) = 104.41 g
mass of 150 mL beaker = 68.83 g
mass of 150 mL beaker + CuSO4•5H2O(s) = 71.39 g
mass of filter paper = 0.90 g
mass of filter paper and precipitate = 2.66 g
The blue copper(II) sulfate solution mixed with the colourless strontium nitrate solution to
produce a white precipitate and a blue filtrate solution.
Analysis
mass of precipitate = 2.66 g – 0.90 g = 1.76 g
According to the evidence collected in this experiment, the mass of the strontium sulfate
precipitate from the reaction of strontium nitrate and copper(II) sulfate solutions was determined
to be 1.76 g.

Evaluation
The filtration design is adequate to answer the problem and I am confident that this design is the
best that is available. The procedure was also adequate because sufficient evidence was collected,
and there are no obvious improvements to be made. Materials were adequate and of good quality.
Technological skills were adequate as long as care was taken in filtering and washing the
precipitate.
Overall, I am very certain of my results. The major uncertainty is likely caused by the
number of mass measurements made, which I assume might account for as much as a 5%
difference.
The percent difference was found to be 1%, which is well within the estimated 5%
uncertainty.
1.76 g 1.74 g 0.02
% difference = u 100 = u 100 = 1%
1.74 g 1.74
On the basis of the very low percent difference, the prediction is judged to be verified.
The stoichiometric method is therefore judged to be acceptable for this experiment.
In this experiment, the stoichiometric method is tested adequately, and found to be
supported, so the purpose of the investigation is accomplished.
Lab Exercise 7.B: Testing a Chemical Process

(Page 293)
Purpose
The purpose of this exercise is to perform a quality control test on a chemical process.
Problem
What is the mass of sodium silicate in a 25.0 mL sample of the solution used in a chemical
process?
Analysis
3 Na2SiO3(aq) + 2 Fe(NO3)3(aq) o Fe2(SiO3)3(s) + 6 NaNO3(aq)
m 8.47 g
122.07 g/mol 339.97 g/mol
1 mol
nFe2 (SiO3 )3 = 8.47 g u
339.97 g
= 0.0249 mol
3
nNa 2SiO3 = 0.0249 mol u
1
= 0.0747 mol
122.07 g
mNa 2SiO3 = 0.0747 mol u
1 mol
= 9.12 g
or
1 mol Fe2 (SiO3 )3 3 mol Na 2SiO3 122.07 g Na 2SiO3
mNa 2SiO3 = 8.47 g Fe 2 (SiO3 )3 u u u
339.97 g Fe2 (SiO3 )3 1 mol Fe 2 (SiO3 )3 1 mol Na 2SiO3
= 9.12 g Na 2SiO3
According to the evidence given and the stoichiometric method, the mass of sodium silicate in the
sample is 9.12 g.

Evaluation
The experimental design is adequate to answer the problem but it is not the best design available.
Using a prepared graph relating the mass of precipitate to the mass of sodium silicate would be a
more efficient way of determining the answer, because this situation would be a routinely
repeated test, and calculating each time would be tedious.
Major uncertainties are the usual ones associated with this design: accuracy of measuring
instruments, complete washing of the precipitate, and the purity of the final precipitate. All of
these uncertainties might account for a 5% difference.
The percent difference between the experimental result and the average expected result is
approximately 40%, as shown below.
9.12 g 6.45 g 2.67
% difference = u 100 = u 100 = 41.4%
6.45 g 6.45
This percent difference is far greater than would be reasonably expected on the basis of
any normal error for this type of experiment. Therefore, the prediction is clearly falsified. The
industrial process is not operating as expected, and it should immediately be checked and
adjusted.

(Page 293)
1. (a) The coefficients represent the relative chemical amounts of reactants and products in the
chemical reaction (i.e., the ratios in which the reagents and products occur).
(b) stoichiometry
2. Four assumptions about chemical reactions are that they are fast, quantitative, stoichiometric,
and spontaneous. The assumptions that a chemical reaction is stoichiometric or quantitative
cannot be tested simply by observing the reaction.
3. Gravimetric stoichiometry refers to the use of mole ratios for a balanced chemical reaction, to
determine the masses of the individual species in the reaction.
4. Stoichiometry is tested through experimentation and validation, such as through the
numerous trials and analysis of the results from the decomposition of malachite earlier in this
chapter.
5. (a) economic
(b) 2 H 2 O(l) o 2 H 2 (g) O 2 (g)
(c) No. The ratios are based on chemical amount (in moles) of each participant in the
reaction and not on the masses.
6. Pb(NO3 ) 2 (aq) 2 KBr(aq) o PbBr2 (s) 2 KNO3 (aq)
3.50 g m
331.2 g/mol 367.0 g/mol
1 mol
nPb(NO3 )2 3.50 g u
331.2 g
0.0106 mol
1
nPbBr2 0.0106 mol u
1
0.0106 mol
367.0 g
mPbBr2 0.0106 mol u
1 mol
3.88 g
or

1 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol PbBr2 367.0 g PbBr2
mPbBr2 = 3.50 g Pb(NO3 ) 2 u u u
331.22 g Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol PbBr2
= 3.88 g PbBr2
7. The values for the actual yield come from the results derived from carrying out the
experiment; the value for the predicted yield comes from stoichiometric calculations using
the given values to determine how much product should form.
8. (a) 2 AgNO3 (aq) Na 2 CrO 4 (aq) o Ag 2 CrO 4 (s) 2 NaNO3 (aq)
3.00 g m
169.88 g/mol 331.74 g/mol
1 mol
nAgNO3 3.00 g u
169.88 g
0.0177 mol
1
nAg2 CrO4 0.0177 mol u
2
0.00883 mol
331.74 g
mAg2 CrO4 0.00883 mol u
1 mol
2.93 g
or
1 mol AgNO3 1 mol Ag 2 CrO 4 331.74 g Ag 2 CrO 4
mAg 2CrO4 = 3.00 g AgNO3 u u u
169.88 g AgNO3 2 mol AgNO3 1 mol Ag 2 CrO 4
= 2.93 g Ag 2 CrO 4
actual yield
(b) percent yield u 100
predicted yield
2.81 g
u 100
2.93 g
95.9%
9. Common sources of experimental uncertainty include: measurements, constants, given
concentrations, purity of the grade of chemicals used, washing a precipitate, and any
qualitative judgments that affect measurements.
10. (a) BaCl2 (aq) Na 2SO 4 (aq) o BaSO 4 (s) 2 NaCl(aq)
9.8 g m
208.23 g/mol 233.39 g/mol
1 mol
nBaCl2 9.8 g u
208.23 g
0.047 mol
1
nBaSO4 0.047 mol u
1
0.047 mol
233.39 g
mBaSO4 u 0.047 mol
1 mol
11 g
or

1 mol BaCl2 1 mol BaSO 4 233.39 g BaSO 4
mBaSO4 = 9.8 g BaCl2 u u u
208.23 g BaCl2 1 mol BaCl2 1 mol BaSO 4
= 11 g BaSO 4
actual yield
predicted yield
10.0 g
u 100
11 g
91%
(c) Yes, the reaction went as expected because the percent yield is within the 5–10% error
margin normally expected for school laboratory work.
11. Air bags depend on mechanisms such as a steel ball held in place by a strong magnet or
spring. If a collision or sudden negative acceleration occurs, the ball is dislodged, causing an
electrical circuit to turn on. This circuit causes the ignition of a sodium azide (NaN3) pellet,
which reacts explosively to produce nitrogen gas. This gas fills a nylon or polyamide bag in
about 40 ms. The role of science in the development of this technology was to provide
knowledge of reactions that produce gases, quickly enough and in sufficient quantities to be
able to inflate flexible materials and prevent severe injury. A knowledge of chemistry,
stoichiometry, and gas laws is required. Society’s dependence on the use of vehicles and the
resulting need to reduce the cost of accidents (in terms of lives and health care expenses) may
have encouraged scientists to explore using scientific principles to produce such life-saving
devices.
Extension
12. [Answers will vary depending on the spreadsheet software and reaction chosen.]
7.3 GAS STOICHIOMETRY
Practice
(Page 296)
1. 2 CH 3OH(l) + 3 O 2 (g) o 2 CO 2 (g) + 4 H 2 O(g)
15 g V
32.05 g/mol 22.4 L/mol (STP)
1 mol
nCH3OH 15 g u
32.05 g
0.47 mol
3
nO2 0.47 mol u
2
0.70 mol
22.4 L
VO2 0.70 mol u
1 mol
16 L
or
1 mol CH 3OH 3 mol O 2 22.4 L O 2
VO2 15 g CH 3OH u u u
32.05 g CH 3OH 2 mol CH 3OH 1 mol O 2
16 L O 2

1 mol BaCl2 1 mol BaSO 4 233.39 g BaSO 4
mBaSO4 = 9.8 g BaCl2 u u u
208.23 g BaCl2 1 mol BaCl2 1 mol BaSO 4
= 11 g BaSO 4
actual yield
predicted yield
10.0 g
u 100
11 g
91%
(c) Yes, the reaction went as expected because the percent yield is within the 5–10% error
margin normally expected for school laboratory work.
11. Air bags depend on mechanisms such as a steel ball held in place by a strong magnet or
spring. If a collision or sudden negative acceleration occurs, the ball is dislodged, causing an
electrical circuit to turn on. This circuit causes the ignition of a sodium azide (NaN3) pellet,
which reacts explosively to produce nitrogen gas. This gas fills a nylon or polyamide bag in
about 40 ms. The role of science in the development of this technology was to provide
knowledge of reactions that produce gases, quickly enough and in sufficient quantities to be
able to inflate flexible materials and prevent severe injury. A knowledge of chemistry,
stoichiometry, and gas laws is required. Society’s dependence on the use of vehicles and the
resulting need to reduce the cost of accidents (in terms of lives and health care expenses) may
have encouraged scientists to explore using scientific principles to produce such life-saving
devices.
Extension
12. [Answers will vary depending on the spreadsheet software and reaction chosen.]
7.3 GAS STOICHIOMETRY
Practice
(Page 296)
1. 2 CH 3OH(l) + 3 O 2 (g) o 2 CO 2 (g) + 4 H 2 O(g)
15 g V
32.05 g/mol 22.4 L/mol (STP)
1 mol
nCH3OH 15 g u
32.05 g
0.47 mol
3
nO2 0.47 mol u
2
0.70 mol
22.4 L
VO2 0.70 mol u
1 mol
16 L
or
1 mol CH 3OH 3 mol O 2 22.4 L O 2
VO2 15 g CH 3OH u u u
32.05 g CH 3OH 2 mol CH 3OH 1 mol O 2
16 L O 2

2. 2 NaCl(l) o 2 Na(s) + Cl2 (g)
105 kg V
22.99 g/mol 30 °C (303 K), 95.7 kPa
8.314 kPa•L/(mol•K)
[Note: Converting the temperature to kelvins (30 + 273.15 = 303) using the precision rule,
shows the certainty of the measured temperature value to be three significant digits (because
the uncertain digit occupies the “ones” place value).]
1 mol
nNa 105 k g u
22.99 g
4.567 kmol
1
nCl2 4.567 kmol u
2
2.283 kmol
nRT
VCl2
P
kPa L
2.283 k mol u 8.314 u 303 K
mol K
95.7 kPa
60.1 kL
or
1 mol Na 1 mol Cl2 8.314 kPa Cl2 • L Cl2 303.15 K Cl2
VCl2 105 k g Na u u u u
22.99 g Na 2 mol Na 1 mol Cl2 • K Cl2 95.7 kPa Cl2
60.1 kL Cl2
3. 2 H 2 (g) O 2 (g) o 2 H 2 O(l)
300 L V
1.50 atm = 150 kPa
1
VO2 300 L u 150 L (by the law of combining volumes)
2
Investigation 7.3: Producing Hydrogen

(Pages 297, 305)
[This Sample Investigation Report
Ɣ shows the mass of the student sample of magnesium being determined indirectly, assuming a
school laboratory where the most precise balance available to students is a centigram
balance. In such a case, direct student measurement of the mass would yield only one
significant digit, which is unacceptable for quantitative work. This Report assumes the
teacher has pre-measured the mass of a 1.000 m (1000 mm) strip of the Mg ribbon on a
centigram balance, to allow students to express the mass of their sample to two significant
digits – by measuring their ribbon sample length in millimetres and then multiplying by the
(teacher provided) conversion factor. See the Analysis, below.
Ɣ assumes that the ambient (air) pressure is being measured in the laboratory with an accurate
barometric device. Failing this, if the ambient air pressure is obtained from local media
reports, be aware that such values are normally “corrected to sea level,” and are therefore
NOT correct absolute pressure values. If uncorrected, this single factor can introduce error
of well over 10% at some higher elevation schools in Alberta. If you are providing the

ambient air pressure value to your class, subtract 1 kPa from the weather report value for
each 100 m of altitude above sea level. This will normally give an absolute value accurate to
± 2 kPa, reducing the error introduced to 2% or less. Alternatively, phone your local weather
office to obtain the correct (unadjusted) pressure value.]
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to test the stoichiometric method applied to reactions that
involve gases.
Problem
What is the volume at STP of hydrogen gas from the reaction of magnesium with excess
hydrochloric acid?
Prediction
Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq) o MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
0.075 g V
24.31 g/mol 22.4 L/mol (STP)
1 mol
nMg = 0.075 g u
24.31 g
= 0.0031 mol
1
nH 2 = 0.0031 mol u
1
= 0.0031 mol
22.4 L
VH2 = 0.0031 mol u
1 mol
= 0.069 L (STP)
or
1 mol Mg 1 mol H 2 22.4 L H 2
VH2 = 0.075 g Mg u u u
24.31 g Mg 1 mol Mg 1 mol H 2
= 0.069 L H 2 (STP)
Evidence
mass of 1000 mm of laboratory Mg ribbon: 1.12 g
sample length of magnesium ribbon used: 67 mm
volume of hydrogen gas collected: 77.7 mL
laboratory temperature: 22°C = 295 K
laboratory air pressure: 96.4 kPa
Analysis
Calculating the mass of Mg(s) :
1.12 g
0.00112 g/mm
1000 mm
0.00112 g
mMg 67 mm u
1 mm
0.075 g
Converting the experimental gas volume to STP:

PV
1 1 P2V2
T1 T2
T2 PV
1 1
V2
T1 P2
273 K 101 kPa
VH2 (STP) = 77.7 mL u u
295 K 96.4 kPa
75.3 mL
Evaluation
Students can comment on the magnitude of the percent error and discuss possible sources of error
if their percent error is higher than expected.
The experimental design is judged to be adequate to answer the problem. This design
seems simple and should give a certain result. The procedure is judged to be adequate. On the
basis of my evaluation of this experiment, I am certain of the results. The major sources of
uncertainty are the mass and volume measurements.
The prediction is judged to be verified because it agrees fairly closely with the
experimental result.
Case Study: Producing Hydrogen for Fuel Cells

(Pages 297–298)
1. steam reforming— 4 H 2 : 1 CH 4 and 2 H 2 O
electrolysis— 2 H 2 : 2 H 2 O
biomass— 4 H 2 : 1 C6 H12 O6 and 2 H 2 O
Which should be compared depends largely on the perspective being considered. for
example: an engineer, being concerned with storage and transport of large quantities of
materials (technological perspective), would probably compare mass ratios.
2. Reliability, efficiency, and economy.
3. Economic, environmental, ecological, technological, and scientific perspectives are
mentioned. The political perspective is missing.
Extension
4. A recent advance in extracting hydrogen gas from biomass has been made by researchers in
Wisconsin. The so-called “Wisconsin process” involves allowing sugar molecules from waste
plant material to react, thereby rearranging their carbon–carbon bonds on the surface of a
platinum electrode. The rearranged molecules react with a sugar–water medium, producing
hydrogen gas. The process occurs at relatively low temperatures (about 227 qC) and low
pressure. These conditions are advantageous because little expense is incurred as the fuels
remain in liquid state, and the expensive equipment needed to function at high temperatures
and pressure is unnecessary. Furthermore, the process produces no nitrous oxides that can
contribute to acid deposition. The growing plants that provide fuel for the process readily
absorb the carbon dioxide produced. The entire process is, therefore, inexpensive and
sustainable, and may eventually be used to provide fuel sources for cell phones, laptops, and
even vehicles.

(Pages 298–299)
1. The same procedure is used for determining the relative chemical amounts of reactants and
products in both instances. Determining the masses or volumes of reactants and products

nRT
requires different equations (m = Mn vs. V ) because conversion to and from volume
P
and chemical amount for gases requires taking pressure and temperature into account.
2. 2 Fe(s) + 3 H2SO4(aq) o Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + 3 H2(g)
10 g V
55.85 g/mol 22.4 L/mol (STP)
1 mol
nFe = 10 g u
55.85 g
= 0.18 mol
3
nH 2 = 0.18 mol u
2
= 0.27 mol
22.4 L
VH2 = 0.27 mol u
1 mol
= 6.0 L
or
1 mol Fe 3 mol H 2 22.4 L H 2
VH2 = 10 g Fe u u u
55.85 g Fe 2 mol Fe 1 mol H 2
= 6.0 L H 2
3. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) o CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
2.00 ML V (SATP)
0°C = 273 K
120 kPa
2
VO2 2.00 ML u (law of combining volumes)
1
= 4.00 ML (at 273 K and 120 kPa)
PV
1 1 P2V2
T1 T2
T2 PV
1 1
V2
T1 P2
298 K u 120 kPa u 4.00 ML
VO2 (SATP) =
273 K u 100 kPa
5.24 ML
4. 2 NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) o (NH4)2SO4(s)
75.0 kL m
10 °C = 283 K, 110 kPa 132.17 g/mol
R = 8.314 kPa·L/(mol·K)
PV = nRT
PV
nNH3 =
RT
110 kPa u 75.0 k L
= 8.314 kPa • L
u 283 K
1 mol • K
= 3.51 kmol

1
n(NH4 )2SO4 = 3.51 kmol u = 1.75 kmol
2
132.17 g
m(NH 4 )2SO4 = 1.75 k mol u
1 mol
= 232 kg
or
1 mol NH 3 • K NH 3 110 kPa NH 3
m(NH 4 )2SO4 75.0 k L NH3 u u
8.31 kPa NH 3 • 1 L NH 3 283 K NH3
1 mol (NH 4 ) 2SO 4 132.17 g (NH 4 ) 2SO 4
u u
2 mol NH 3 1 mol (NH 4 ) 2SO 4
232 kg (NH 4 ) 2SO 4
5. CH4·6H2O(s) o CH4(g) + 6 H2O(l)
1.0 kg V
124.17 g/mol 20°C = 293 K
95 kPa
R = 8.314 kPa · L/(mol · K)
1 mol
nCH 4 6H2O = 1.0 kg u
124.17 g
nCH 4 6H2O = 0.00805 kmol
1
nCH4 = 0.00805 kmol u
1
0.00805 kmol
PV = nRT
nRT
VCH4 =
P
8.314 kPa • L
0.00805 k mol u u 293 K
mol • K
=
95 kPa
= 0.21 kL
or
1 mol CH 4 • 6H 2 O 1 mol CH 4
VCH4 1.0 k g CH 4 • 6H 2 O u u
124.17 g CH 4 • 6H 2 O 1 mol CH 4 • 6H 2 O
8.314 kPa CH 4 • L CH 4 293 K CH 4
u u
1 mol CH 4 • K CH 4 95 kPa CH 4
0.21 kL CH 4
6. S8(s) + 8 O2(g) o 8 SO2(g)
1.0 g V
256.56 g/mol 100 kPa
298 K
1 mol
nS8 1.0 g u
256.56 g
0.0039 mol

8
nSO2 0.0039 mol u
1
0.031 mol
PV = nRT
nRT
VSO2 =
P
8.314 kPa L
0.031 mol u u 298 K
mol K
100 kPa
0.77 L
or
1 mol S8 8 mol SO 2 8.314 kPa SO 2 • L SO 2 298 K SO 2
VSO2 1.0 g S8 u u u u
256.56 g S8 1 mol S8 1 mol SO 2 • K SO 2 100 kPa SO 2
0.77 L SO 2
7. 16 H 2S(g) 8 SO 2 (g) o 16 H 2 O(g) + 3 S8 (g)
1000 L m
24.8 L/mol
1 mol
nH2S 1000 L u
24.8 L
40.3 mol
3
nS8 40.3 mol u
16
7.56 mol
256.56 g
mS8 7.56 mol u
1 mol
1.94 u 103 g = 1.94 kg
or
1 mol H 2S 3 mol S8 256.56 g S8
mS8 1000 L H 2S u u u
24.8 L H 2S 16 mol H 2S 1 mol S8
1.94 u 103 g S8 = 1.94 kg S8
8. Prediction
2 H2O2(aq) o 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)
50.0 mL V (at lab P and T)
0.88 mol/L 21 °C = 294 K
94.6 kPa
8.314 kPa•L/(mol•K)
0.88 mol
nH 2O2 = 50.0 mL u
1L
= 44 mmol
1
nO2 = 44 mmol u
2
= 22 mmol

PV = nRT
nRT
VO2 =
P
8.314 kPa • L
22 m mol u u 294 K
mol • K
94.6 kPa
5.7 u 102 mL = 0.57 L
or
0.88 mol H 2 O 2 1 mol O 2 8.314 kPa O 2 • L O 2
VO2 0.050.0 L H 2 O 2 u u u
1 L H 2O2 2 mol H 2 O 2 1 mol O 2 • K O 2
294 K O 2
u
94.6 kPa O 2
0.57 L O 2
According to the ideal gas law, the volume of oxygen at room pressure and temperature is
predicted to be 0.57 L.
Evaluation
According to the evidence, the volume of oxygen gas produced at room conditions is 556 mL
= 0.556 L.
0.556 L - 0.57 L 0.01
% difference = u 100 u 100 = 2%
0.556 L 0.556
The prediction is judged to be verified since evidence agrees well with the predicted value,
within 2%.
The ideal gas law is judged to be verified by this investigation, since the evidence
agrees well with the prediction.
9. [Typical responses:]
One consumer reaction that produces and consumes gases is the burning of propane in an
outdoor barbecue. The reaction is:
C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) o 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
One industrial reaction that consumes a gas is the production of ammonium sulfate fertilizer.
The reaction is:
2 NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) o (NH4)2SO4(s)
One laboratory reaction that produces and consumes gases is the burning of methane (natural
gas) in a lab burner. The reaction is:
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) o CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
7.4 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
Investigation 7.4: Analysis of Silver Nitrate (Demonstration)

(Pages 300, 307)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to use the stoichiometric method to find an unknown amount
concentration.
Problem
What is the amount concentration of silver nitrate in solution?

PV = nRT
nRT
VO2 =
P
8.314 kPa • L
22 m mol u u 294 K
mol • K
94.6 kPa
5.7 u 102 mL = 0.57 L
or
0.88 mol H 2 O 2 1 mol O 2 8.314 kPa O 2 • L O 2
VO2 0.050.0 L H 2 O 2 u u u
1 L H 2O2 2 mol H 2 O 2 1 mol O 2 • K O 2
294 K O 2
u
94.6 kPa O 2
0.57 L O 2
According to the ideal gas law, the volume of oxygen at room pressure and temperature is
predicted to be 0.57 L.
Evaluation
According to the evidence, the volume of oxygen gas produced at room conditions is 556 mL
= 0.556 L.
0.556 L - 0.57 L 0.01
% difference = u 100 u 100 = 2%
0.556 L 0.556
The prediction is judged to be verified since evidence agrees well with the predicted value,
within 2%.
The ideal gas law is judged to be verified by this investigation, since the evidence
agrees well with the prediction.
9. [Typical responses:]
One consumer reaction that produces and consumes gases is the burning of propane in an
outdoor barbecue. The reaction is:
C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) o 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
One industrial reaction that consumes a gas is the production of ammonium sulfate fertilizer.
The reaction is:
2 NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) o (NH4)2SO4(s)
One laboratory reaction that produces and consumes gases is the burning of methane (natural
gas) in a lab burner. The reaction is:
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) o CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
7.4 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
Investigation 7.4: Analysis of Silver Nitrate (Demonstration)

(Pages 300, 307)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to use the stoichiometric method to find an unknown amount
concentration.
Problem
What is the amount concentration of silver nitrate in solution?

Evidence
volume of silver nitrate solution = 100 mL
Analysis
mass of Ag(s) produced = (2.12 1.27) g = 0.85 g
2 AgNO3 (aq) Cu(s) o Cu(NO3 ) 2 (aq) 2 Ag(s)
100 mL excess 0.85 g
1 mol
nAg 0.85 g u
107.87 g
0.0079 mol
2
nAgNO3 0.0079 mol u
2
0.0079 mol
nAgNO3
> AgNO @3
VAgNO3
0.0079 mol
0.100 L
0.079 mol/L
or
1 mol A g 2 mol AgNO3 1
> AgNO @3 0.85 g Ag u
107.87 g Ag
u
2 mol Ag
u
0.100 L AgNO3
0.079 mol/L AgNO3
Evaluation
[Students should be given the actual concentrations of their samples in order to properly evaluate
their Investigation. For example:]
The design of this investigation is judged to be adequate because it is simple and
straightforward and allows for the problem to be answered easily. There are no obvious flaws,
and it seems to be the best design available. The materials are of good quality. The procedure is
judged adequate, as it works very well and is easy to follow. The technological skills required are
adequate; they are simple and direct. On the basis of my evaluation, I am very certain of my
evidence. The only obvious sources of error might be from failure to wash the product thoroughly
or to dry it properly before measuring its mass.
Given a reported concentration of the prepared AgNO3(aq) of 0.80 mol/L:
0.79 mol/L - 0.80 mol/L 0.01
% difference = u 100 u 100 = 1%
0.80 mol/L 0.80
This investigation produced a very small % difference, indicating that it is very
acceptable for accomplishing the purpose.
Practice
(Page 302)
1. H2SO4(aq) + 2 NH3(aq) o (NH4)2SO4(aq)
50.0 mL 24.4 mL
c 2.20 mol/L

2.20 mol
nNH3 = 24.4 m L u
1 L
= 53.7 mmol
1
nH 2SO4 = 53.7 mmol u
2
= 26.8 mmol
26.8 m mol
cH 2SO4 =
50.0 m L
= 0.537 mol/L
or
2.20 mol NH 3 1 mol H 2SO 4 1
cH 2SO4 = 24.4 m L NH3 u u u
1 L NH 3 2 mol NH 3 50.0 mL H 2SO 4
0.537 mol/L H 2SO 4
2. 3 Ca(OH)2(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) o 3 CaSO4(s) + 2 Al(OH)3(s)
V 25.0 mL
0.0250 mol/L 0.125 mol/L
0.125 mol
nAl2 (SO4 )3 = 25.0 m L u
1 L
= 3.13 mmol
3
nCa(OH)2 = 3.13 mmol u
1
= 9.38 mmol
1L
VCa(OH)2 = 9.38 m mol u
0.0250 mol
= 375 mL
or
0.125 mol Al2 (SO 4 )3 3 mol Ca(OH) 2
VCa(OH)2 = 25 m L Al2 (SO 4 )3 u u
1 L Al2 (SO 4 )3 1 mol Al2 (SO 4 )3
1 L Ca(OH) 2
u
0.025 mol Ca(OH) 2
375 mL Ca(OH)2
3. 2 FeCl3 (aq) 3 Na 2 CO3 (aq) o 6 NaCl(aq) Fe 2 (CO3 )3 (s)
75.0 mL excess
0.200 mol/L 0.250 mol/L
0.200 mol
nFeCl3 75.0 m L u
1 L
15.0 mmol
3
nNa 2CO3 15.0 mmol u
2
22.5 mmol
1L
VNa 2 CO3 22.5 m mol u
0.250 mol
90.0 mL

or
0.200 mol FeCl3 3 mol Na 2 CO3 1 L Na 2 CO3
VNa 2 CO3 = 75.0 m L FeCl3 u u u
1 L FeCl3 2 mol FeCl3 0.250 mol Na 2 CO3
90.0 mL Na 2 CO3
Lab Exercise 7.C: Testing Solution Stoichiometry

(Page 302)
Purpose
The purpose of this exercise is to test the stoichiometric method using solutions.
Problem
What mass of precipitate is produced by the reaction of 20.0 mL of 0.210 mol/L sodium sulfide
with an excess quantity of aluminium nitrate solution?
Prediction
According to the stoichiometric method, 210 mg of precipitate is produced by the reaction of
20.0 mL of 0.210 mol/L sodium sulfide with excess aluminium nitrate solution. This prediction is
based on the following calculation:
3 Na2S(aq) + 2 Al(NO3)3(aq) o Al2S3(s) + 6 NaNO3(aq)
20.0 mL m
0.210 mol/L 150.17 g/mol
0.210 mol
nNa 2S = 20.0 m L u
1 L
= 4.20 mmol
1
nAl2S3 = 4.20 mmol u
3
= 1.40 mmol
150.17 g
mAl2S3 = 1.40 m mol u
1 mol
= 210 mg or 0.210 g
or
0.210 mol Na 2S 1 mol Al2S3 150.17 g Al2S3
mAl2S3 = 0.0200 L Na 2S u u u
1 L Na 2S 3 mol Na 2S 1 mol Al2S3
0.210 g Al2S3
Analysis
mass of precipitate = 1.17 g – 0.97 g = 0.20 g
According to the evidence collected, 0.20 g of precipitate was produced.
Evaluation
The design is judged to be adequate because the problem can be answered with no apparent
flaws. There does not appear to be a better design that can be used to answer the problem. The
positive test for excess aluminium nitrate gives me confidence in this design.
Uncertainty of the accuracy of the measuring instruments and possible uncertainties in
the procedure of washing and drying the precipitate would probably affect the results by about
5%. On the basis of the evaluation of this experiment, I am very certain of the results.

0.20 g 0.210 g 0.01
% difference = u 100 = u 100 = 5%
0.210 g 0.210
The percent difference is 5%, not more than the estimated uncertainty. Since the
predicted answer closely agrees with the experimental answer and the difference can be
accounted for by the uncertainties mentioned, the prediction is judged to be verified. The method
of stoichiometry used in this experiment is acceptable because the prediction was verified. I am
very certain of this judgment. The purpose was clearly accomplished for this example. Testing
other chemical reactions would be useful to better achieve the purpose.
Lab Exercise 7.D: Determining a Solution Concentration

(Page 303)
Purpose
The purpose of this exercise is to use the stoichiometric method with solutions.
Problem
What is the amount concentration of silver nitrate in the solution to be recycled?
Design
A sample of silver nitrate solution to be recycled reacts with an excess quantity of sodium sulfate
in solution. The precipitate formed is filtered and the mass of the dried precipitate is measured.
Analysis
mass of Ag2SO4(s) = (6.74 – 1.27) g = 5.47 g
2 AgNO3(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) o Ag2SO4(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)
100 mL 5.47 g
c 311.81 g/mol
1 mol
nAg 2SO4 = 5.47 g u
311.81 g
= 0.0175 mol
2
nAgNO3 = 0.0175 mol u
1
= 0.0351 mol
0.0351 mol
> AgNO3 @ = 0.100 L
= 0.351 mol/L
or
1 mol Ag 2SO 4 2 mol AgNO3 1
> AgNO3 @ = 5.47 g Ag 2SO 4 u
311.81 g Ag 2SO 4
u
1 mol Ag 2SO 4
u
0.100 L AgNO3
0.351 mol/L AgNO3
According to the evidence and the stoichiometric method, the amount concentration of silver
nitrate solution is 0.351 mol/L.

(Page 303)
1. 3 HCl(aq) + Al(OH)3(s) o AlCl3(aq) + 3 H2O(l)
V 912 mg
0.10 mol/L 78.01 g/mol

1 mol
nAl(OH)3 = 912 m g u
78.01 g
= 11.7 mmol
3
nHCl = 11.7 mmol u
1
= 35.1 mmol
1L
VHCl = 35.1 m mol u
0.10 mol
= 3.5 u 102 mL or 0.35 L
or
1 mol Al(OH)3 3 mol HCl 1 L HCl
VHCl = 0.912 g Al(OH)3 u u u
78.01 g Al(OH)3 1 mol Al(OH)3 0.10 mol HCl
0.35 L HCl
2. SO3(g) + H2O(l) o H2SO4(aq)
10.0 Mg 7.00 kL
80.07 g/mol c
1 mol
nSO3 = 10.0 M g u
80.07 g
= 0.125 Mmol
1
nH 2SO4 = 0.125 Mmol u
1
= 0.125 Mmol or 125 kmol
125 k mol
> H 2SO4 @ = 7.00 k L
= 17.8 mol/L
or
1 mol SO3 1 mol H 2SO 4 1
> H 2SO4 @ = 10.0 M g SO3 u
80.07 g SO3
u
1 mol SO3
u
7.00 k L H 2SO 4
1000 k L H 2SO 4 ½
u ® ¾
¯ 1 M L H 2SO 4 ¿
17.8 mol/L H 2SO 4
3. 2 KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) o K2SO4(aq) + 2 HOH(l)
9.44 mL 10.00 mL
50.6 mmol/L c
50.6 mmol
nKOH = 9.44 m L u
1 L
= 478 P mol
1
nH 2SO4 = 478 P mol u
2
= 239 P mol

239 P mol
> H 2SO4 @ = 10.00 mL
= 23.9 mmol/L
or
50.6 m mol KOH 1 mol H 2SO 4 1
> H 2SO4 @ = 9.44 m L KOH u
1 L KOH
u
2 mol KOH
u
10.00 m L H 2SO 4
23.9 mmol/L H 2SO 4
4. (a) A pH test of the filtrate with a pH meter or a suitable indicator will show an excess of
sodium hydroxide if the filtrate solution tests basic.
(b) AgNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) o AgOH(s) + NaNO3(aq)
10.00 mL m
0.500 mol/L 124.88 g/mol
0.500 mol
nAgNO3 = 10.00 m L u
1 L
= 5.00 mmol
1
nAgOH = 5.00 mmol u
1
= 5.00 mmol
124.88 g
mAgOH = 5.00 m mol u
1 mol
= 624 mg or 0.624 g
or
0.500 mol AgNO3 1 mol AgOH 124.88 g AgOH
mAgOH = 10.00 m L AgNO3 u u u
1 L AgNO3 1 mol AgNO3 1 mol AgOH
624 mg AgOH
0.612 g
(c) % yield = u 100 = 98.0%
0.624 g
The purity of the solution is relatively high.
5. 6 HCl(aq) Fe2 O3 (s) o 2 FeCl3 (aq) 3 H 2 O(l)
20.0 L 159.70 g/mol
1.20 mol/L
1.20 mol
nHCl 20.0 L u
1 L
24.0 mol
1
nFe2 O3 24.0 mol u
6
4.00 mol
159.70 g
mFe2 O3 4.00 mol u
1 mol
639 g
or

1.20 mol HCl 1 mol Fe 2 O3 159.70 g Fe 2 O3
mFe2 O3 = 20.0 L HCl u u u
1 L HCl 6 mol HCl 1 mol Fe 2 O3
639 g Fe 2 O3
6. Problem
What is the amount concentration of a sodium sulfate solution?
Design
An excess quantity of a calcium nitrate solution is added to a known volume of the sodium
sulfate solution and the resulting precipitate is dried, its mass determined, and the chemical
amount of precipitate formed is calculated. Using the balanced chemical equation and
volumetric stoichiometry techniques, the concentration of the sodium sulfate solution is
determined.
Materials
Ɣ lab apron
Ɣ eye protection
Ɣ graduated cylinder
Ɣ 150 mL beaker
Ɣ filter paper
Ɣ centigram balance
Ɣ stirring rod
Ɣ wash bottle of pure water (deionized or distilled)
Ɣ small funnel
Extension
7. (a) Uses of soda ash include glass manufacturing, cleaning air and softening water, removing
sulfur dioxide and hydrochloric acid from stack gases, and in the chemical production of
soft drink sweeteners, sodium bicarbonate, phosphates (used in food and toiletries), and
household detergents and paper products.
(b) Two raw materials of the Solvay process are ammonia and carbon dioxide, and two final
products are ammonium chloride and sodium hydrogen carbonate.
(c) The Solvay process is an industrial-scale technology.
(d) The Solvay process offered many advantages over the LeBlanc process. First, the
LeBlanc process was much more expensive than the Solvay process. Second, the LeBlanc
process involved burning coal, which produced a lot of air pollution. The Solvay process,
on the other hand, produces no by-products, only the desired product. As industrialization
progressed, the cleanliness of the Solvay process became more attractive. Finally, from a
technological point of view, the Solvay process is much more efficient and reliable.
Chapter 7 SUMMARY
Make a Summary
(Page 308)
m*
1. (a) n (one measurement required)
M
v*
n (one measurement required)
V
n C * v * (two measurements required)
* indicates measured quantities

1.20 mol HCl 1 mol Fe 2 O3 159.70 g Fe 2 O3
mFe2 O3 = 20.0 L HCl u u u
1 L HCl 6 mol HCl 1 mol Fe 2 O3
639 g Fe 2 O3
6. Problem
What is the amount concentration of a sodium sulfate solution?
Design
An excess quantity of a calcium nitrate solution is added to a known volume of the sodium
sulfate solution and the resulting precipitate is dried, its mass determined, and the chemical
amount of precipitate formed is calculated. Using the balanced chemical equation and
volumetric stoichiometry techniques, the concentration of the sodium sulfate solution is
determined.
Materials
Ɣ lab apron
Ɣ eye protection
Ɣ graduated cylinder
Ɣ 150 mL beaker
Ɣ filter paper
Ɣ stirring rod
Ɣ wash bottle of pure water (deionized or distilled)
Ɣ small funnel
Extension
7. (a) Uses of soda ash include glass manufacturing, cleaning air and softening water, removing
sulfur dioxide and hydrochloric acid from stack gases, and in the chemical production of
soft drink sweeteners, sodium bicarbonate, phosphates (used in food and toiletries), and
household detergents and paper products.
(b) Two raw materials of the Solvay process are ammonia and carbon dioxide, and two final
products are ammonium chloride and sodium hydrogen carbonate.
(c) The Solvay process is an industrial-scale technology.
(d) The Solvay process offered many advantages over the LeBlanc process. First, the
LeBlanc process was much more expensive than the Solvay process. Second, the LeBlanc
process involved burning coal, which produced a lot of air pollution. The Solvay process,
on the other hand, produces no by-products, only the desired product. As industrialization
progressed, the cleanliness of the Solvay process became more attractive. Finally, from a
technological point of view, the Solvay process is much more efficient and reliable.
Chapter 7 SUMMARY
Make a Summary
(Page 308)
m*
1. (a) n (one measurement required)
M
v*
n (one measurement required)
V
n C * v * (two measurements required)
* indicates measured quantities

(b) m Mn
v nV
n
C
v
m
M
n
v
V
n
n
v
C
2. (a) No. Some species/entities do not participate in a chemical reaction (e.g., spectator ions).
(b) The chemical amount of each element on the reactant side of the equation is the same as
the chemical amount of that element on the product side of the equation.
(c) Solids can generally be collected either in an evaporating dish or by filtration; then the
mass can be measured and the chemical amount (if the substance is assumed to be pure
and the chemical formula known) can be calculated. Liquids are usually collected in
flasks (sometimes by distillation); the quantity can then be measured by mass or, after
pouring into a graduated cylinder, by volume. The chemical amount can only be
calculated if the substance is pure and the chemical formula is known. Gases may be
collected by displacement over water. As long as they are at SATP, the volume can be
directly used to calculate the chemical amount, regardless of whether the gas is pure and
without knowing the chemical formula.
Chapter 7 REVIEW
Part 1
(Page 309)
1. D
2. A
3. B
4. 2, 3, 4, 1
5. 12.6
6. 75.5
7. C
8. 799
9. A
10. D
11. B
12. 7.99
13. A
Solutions:
5. 1 mol
nCuO 1.00 k g u 0.0126 kmol = 12.6 mol
79.55 g
6. 2 CuO(s) C(s) o 2 Cu(s) CO 2 (g)
1
nC 12.6 mol u
2
6.30 mol

(b) m Mn
v nV
n
C
v
m
M
n
v
V
n
n
v
C
2. (a) No. Some species/entities do not participate in a chemical reaction (e.g., spectator ions).
(b) The chemical amount of each element on the reactant side of the equation is the same as
the chemical amount of that element on the product side of the equation.
(c) Solids can generally be collected either in an evaporating dish or by filtration; then the
mass can be measured and the chemical amount (if the substance is assumed to be pure
and the chemical formula known) can be calculated. Liquids are usually collected in
flasks (sometimes by distillation); the quantity can then be measured by mass or, after
pouring into a graduated cylinder, by volume. The chemical amount can only be
calculated if the substance is pure and the chemical formula is known. Gases may be
collected by displacement over water. As long as they are at SATP, the volume can be
directly used to calculate the chemical amount, regardless of whether the gas is pure and
without knowing the chemical formula.
Chapter 7 REVIEW
Part 1
(Page 309)
1. D
2. A
3. B
4. 2, 3, 4, 1
5. 12.6
6. 75.5
7. C
8. 799
9. A
10. D
11. B
12. 7.99
13. A
Solutions:
5. 1 mol
nCuO 1.00 k g u 0.0126 kmol = 12.6 mol
79.55 g
6. 2 CuO(s) C(s) o 2 Cu(s) CO 2 (g)
1
nC 12.6 mol u
2
6.30 mol

12.01 g
mC 6.30 mol u
mol
75.5 g
8. 2
nCu 12.6 mol u
2
12.6 mol
63.55 g
mCu 12.6 mol u
1 mol
799 g
9. 1
nCO2 12.6 mol u
2
6.3 mol
24.8 L
VCO2 6.3 mol u
1 mol
156 L
12. S8 (s) 8 O2 (g) o 8 SO2 (g)
4.00 g m
256.56 g/mol 64.07 g/mol
1 mol
nS8 4.00 g u
256.56 g
0.0156 mol
8
nSO2 0.0156 mol u
1
0.125 mol
64.07 g
mSO2 0.125 mol u
1 mol
7.99 g
13. S8 (s) 8 O 2 (g) o 8 SO 2 (g)
1.00 kg V
256.56 g/mol 24.8 L/mol
1 mol
nS8 1.00 k g u
256.56 g
0.00390 kmol or 3.90 mol
8
nO2 3.90 mol u
1
31.2 mol
24.8 L
VO2 31.2 mol u
1 mol
773 L

Part 2
(Pages 310–311)
14. When doing stoichiometric calculations, chemical reactions are assumed to be fast,
quantitative, stoichiometric, and spontaneous.
15. Percent yield refers to the ratio of the actual or experimental quantity of product obtained
(actual yield) to the theoretical quantity of product (predicted yield) obtained from a
stoichiometry calculation.
16. Some common sources of uncertainty include: limitations of measuring equipment, constants,
given concentrations, purity of chemicals, washing and drying of precipitate, lost product,
and qualitative judgments.
17. The relationship among reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation is given by
the coefficients in units of moles. Since there is no instrument that measures in moles
directly, other measurements such as mass and volume are made and then converted to units
of moles. Balanced chemical reactions indicate the relative chemical amounts of compounds
or elements reacting. From these relative quantities, relative masses and volumes may be
calculated.
18. (a) The three contexts used to judge technology are industrial, commercial, and consumer.
(b) Criteria that may be used to evaluate technologies are reliability, efficiency,
sustainability, and economy.
(c) Five perspectives that may be used to judge technology are economic, environmental,
societal, scientific, and political.
19. (a) [Note: all work is shown here, although students are asked to provide only the final
equation.]
2 Na 3 PO 4 (aq) + 3 Ca 2+ (aq) o 6 Na + (aq) + Ca 3 (PO4 )2 (s)
6 Na + (aq) + 2 PO 43 (aq) + 3 Ca 2+ (aq) o 6 Na + (aq) + Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 (s)
3 Ca 2+ (aq) + 2 PO 43 (aq) o Ca 3 (PO 4 )2 (s)
(b) Na+(aq)
(c) limiting reagent: sodium phosphate
excess reagent: calcium ions
(d) Other ions could be reacting with phosphate ions to produce precipitates, because most
phosphate compounds are only slightly soluble.
20. (a) 2 NaHCO3(s) o Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2.4 mol 1.2 mol 1.2 mol 1.2 mol
(b) 2 NaHCO3(s) o Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
1.00 kg m
84.01 g/mol 105.99 g/mol
1 mol
nNaHCO3 = 1.00 k g u
84.01 g
= 0.0119 kmol
1
nNa 2CO3 = 0.0119 kmol u
2
= 0.005 95 kmol
105.99 g
mNa 2CO3 = 0.005 95 k mol u
1 mol
= 0.631 kg
or

1 mol NaHCO3 1 mol Na 2 CO3 105.99 g Na 2 CO3
mNa 2CO3 = 1.00 k g NaHCO3 u u u
84.01 g NaHCO3 2 mol NaHCO3 1 mol Na 2 CO3
0.631 kg Na 2 CO3
(c) The decomposition of baking soda produces carbon dioxide, which covers the region
around the fire, preventing an adequate supply of oxygen to sustain the fire.
21. 2 H2O2(aq) o 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)
V 500 mL
0.88 mol/L 24.8 L/mol
1 mol
nO2 = 500 m L u
24.8 L
= 20.2 mmol
2
nH 2O2 = 20.2 mmol u
1
= 40.3 mmol
1L
VH2O2 = 40.3 m mol u
0.88 mol
= 46 mL
or
1 mol O 2 2 mol H 2 O 2 1 L H2O2
VH2O2 = 500 m L O 2 u u u
24.8 L O 2 1 mol O 2 0.88 mol H 2 O 2
= 46 mL H 2 O 2
22. 2 AgNO3 (aq) Na 2 CrO4 (aq) o Ag 2 CrO4 (s) 2 NaNO3 (aq)
3.00 g m
169.88 g/mol 331.74 g/mol
1 mol
nAgNO3 3.00 g u
169.88 g
0.0177 mol
1
nAg2 CrO4 0.0177 mol u
2
0.00883 mol
331.74 g
mAg2 CrO4 0.00883 mol u
1 mol
2.93 g
or
1 mol AgNO3 1 mol Ag 2 CrO 4 331.74 g Ag 2 CrO 4
mAg 2CrO4 = 3.00 g AgNO3 u u u
169.88 g AgNO3 2 mol AgNO3 1 mol Ag 2 CrO 4
2.93 g Ag 2 CrO 4
2.81 g
23. (a) % yield Ag 2CrO4 = u 100 = 95.9%
2.93 g
(b) The silver nitrate may not be pure; the reaction may not have gone to completion (which
means that the product may not be pure); the masses may not have been accurately
measured; the product may not be completely dry.

24. 2 AgNO3 (aq) + Na 2 CrO 4 (aq) o Ag 2 CrO 4 (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq) [Note: all work is shown
here for teachers’ convenience. Students are required to provide only the single net ionic
equation.]
2 Ag + (aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) + 2 Na + (aq) + CrO 4 2 (aq) o Ag 2 CrO 4 (s) + 2 Na + (aq) + 2 NO3 (aq)
2 Ag + (aq) CrO 4 2 (aq) o Ag 2 CrO 4 (s)
25. Sodium ions and nitrate ions are spectator ions for this reaction.
26. (a) 6 CO 2 (g) 6 H 2 O(l) energy o C6 H12 O 6 (aq) 6 O 2 (g)
m 10.0 g
44.01 g/mol 180.18 g/mol
1 mol
nC6 H12 O6 10.0 g u
180.18 g
0.0555 mol
6
nCO2 0.0555 mol u
1
0.333 mol
44.01 g
mCO2 0.333 mol u
1 mol
14.7 g
or
1 mol C6 H12 O6 6 mol CO 2 44.01 g CO 2
mCO2 = 10.0 g C6 H12 O6 u u u
180.18 g C6 H12 O6 1 mol C6 H12 O6 1 mol CO 2
= 14.7 g CO 2
(b) 6 CO 2 (g) 6 H 2 O(l) energy o C6 H12 O6 (aq) 6 O 2 (g)
10.0 g m
180.18 g/mo 32.00 g/mol
1 mol
nC6 H12 O6 10.0 g u
180.18 g
0.0555 mol
6
nO2 0.0555 mol u
1
0.333 mol
32.00 g
mO2 0.333 mol u
1 mol
10.7 g
or
1 mol C6 H12 O6 6 mol O 2 32.00 g O 2
mO2 = 10.0 g C6 H12 O6 u u u
180.18 g C6 H12 O6 1 mol C6 H12 O6 1 mol O 2
= 10.7 g O 2
27. C2 H 5 OH(l) 3 O 2 (g) o 2 CO 2 (g) 3 H 2 O(g)
28. The following provides all “step 1” information for calculating answers to questions 28, 29,
and 30.

C2 H 5 OH(l) 3 O2 (g) o 2 CO2 (g) 3 H 2 O(g)
1.00 kg m m m
46.08 g/mol 32.00 g/mol 44.01 g/mol 18.02 g/mol
1 mol
nC2 H5OH 1.00 k g u
46.08 g
0.0217 kmol
3
nO2 0.0217 kmol u
1
0.0651 kmol
32.00 g
mO2 0.0651 k mol u
1 mol
2.08 kg
or
1 mol C 2 H5 OH 3 mol O 2 32.00 g O 2
mO2 = 1.00 k g C2 H 5OH u u u
46.08 g C2 H 5OH 1 mol C2 H 5OH 1 mol O 2
= 2.08 kg O 2
29. 1 mol
nC2 H5OH 1.00 k g u
46.08 g
0.0217 kmol
2
nCO2 0.0217 kmol u
1
0.0434 kmol
44.01 g
mCO2 0.0434 k mol u
1 mol
1.91 kg CO2
or
1 mol C2 H 5OH 2 mol CO 2 44.01 g O 2
mCO2 = 1.00 k g C2 H5 OH u u u
46.08 g C 2 H 5OH 1 mol C 2 H5 OH 1 mol CO 2
= 1.91 kg CO 2
30. 1 mol
nC2 H5OH 1.00 k g u
46.08 g
0.0217 kmol
3
nH2 O 0.0217 kmol u
1
0.0651 kmol
18.02 g
mCO2 0.0651 k mol u
1 mol
1.17 kg
or

1 mol C2 H 5OH 3 mol H 2 O 18.01 g H 2 O
mH 2O = 1.00 k g C 2 H 5OH u u u
46.08 g C 2 H 5 OH 1 mol C 2 H5 OH 1 mol H 2 O
= 1.17 kg H 2 O
31. The mass of the reactants is 1.00 kg + 2.08 kg = 3.08 kg. The mass of the products is
1.91 kg + 1.17 kg = 3.08 kg. Since the sums of the masses of reactants and products are the
same, the answers agree with the law of conservation of mass.
32. [Sample answer] Since their invention, vehicles have proliferated and have become
ubiquitous in Western countries. Even though using scientific principles to make an internal
combustion engine has proved to be enormously beneficial for society, the pollution caused
by such engines has caused significant environmental problems, such as acid deposition and
toxic smog in cities. In an effort to rectify the problem, scientific principles were once again
employed. For example, catalytic converters and other devices were created to reduce
harmful pollutants. In this example, the science of combustion led to a technological
development: the vehicle. This technological accomplishment enlisted the aid of science to
alleviate some of the pollution problems it created.
33. Analysis
mass of precipitate formed = (8.98 – 1.04) g = 7.94 g
Na 2 CO3 (s) + CoSO 4 (aq) o CoCO3 (s) Na 2SO 4 (aq)
c 7.94 g
100.0 mL 118.94 g/mol
1 mol
nCoCO3 7.94 g u
118.94 g
0.0668 mol
1
nCoSO4 0.0668 mol u
1
0.0668 mol
0.0668 mol
[CoSO 4 ]
0.1000 L
0.668 mol/L
or
1 mol CoCO3 1 mol CoSO 4 1
[CoSO 4 ] = 7.94 g CoCO3 u u u
118.94 g CoCO3 1 mol CoCO3 0.1000 L CoSO 4
= 0.668 mol/L CoSO 4
34. Theories and Laws:
Kinetic molecular theory
Collision reaction theory
Law of combining volumes
Law of definite proportions
Law of conservation of mass
Assumptions:
The chemical reaction is spontaneous, stoichiometric, fast, and quantitative.

Equations:
m
n
M
v
n
V
n cV
35. [Students’ presentations should include the following points.] Chlorine dioxide, ClO2(aq), is
used as a primary disinfectant for surface water that has odour and taste problems. It is an
effective biocide at concentrations as low as 0.1 ppm over a wide pH range. Sodium
hydroxide solution, NaOH(aq), calcium carbonate, or lime suspension, Ca(OH)2, are used to
neutralize acids and to increase pH levels. Diluted sulfuric acid, H2SO4(aq), or diluted
hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq), is used to lower pH levels. The quantity of neutralizing agents
used depends on the pH and quantity of the water in a reaction basin.

CHAPTER 8 Chemical Analysis
Starting Points
(Page 312)
(Students’ answers will reflect their understanding at this point. There are no “correct” or
“incorrect” answers. Students will revisit their answers at the end of the chapter.)
Exploration: Test Your Drinking Water

(Page 313)
(a) Mercury ions, lead ions, and silver ions are some ions that are not usually present in drinking
water in significant concentrations.
(b) Calcium ions, iron ions, and sodium ions are some ions that may be present in drinking water.
(c) Ions in Group 1 and ammonium ions cannot be detected by these tests.
(d) Chloride ions may be found in drinking water.
8.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Web Activity: Web Quest—Is Your Classroom Putting You to Sleep?

(Page 316)
[The groups’ pamphlets should include answers to the questions. Sample answers are provided
below.]
What is carbon dioxide and where does it come from?
Ɣ Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless, non-flammable gas at room temperature. It is the fourth
most abundant gas in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide can also exist as a solid “dry ice.” Solid
carbon dioxide sublimes directly into gas, at any temperature above –78 qC.
Ɣ A variety of sources contribute to atmospheric carbon dioxide. Some of the sources include:
ż emissions or outgassing from volcanoes;
ż combustion of organic matter, such as fossil fuels and
ż cellular respiration – a process occurring in the mitochondrion of the cell in which energy-rich
molecules like glucose react with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy. Much
of the carbon dioxide produced in this process is ultimately released into the environment.
What are “normal” outdoor carbon dioxide concentrations, expressed both as percent
composition of air by volume and in parts per million (ppm)?
Ɣ As of 2006, outdoor air contains about 381 ppm or 0.038% carbon dioxide by volume.
What is a ppm?
Ɣ Parts per million (ppm) is a common way of expressing the concentration of trace or tiny
quantities in a mixture such as pollutants in air. One part per million (1 ppm) of a gaseous
pollutant in air means that there is one pollutant molecule for every 999 999 other molecules. This
corresponds to one drop of ink in a large drum containing 150 L of water.
Is exposure to carbon dioxide as serious a health risk as exposure to carbon monoxide?
Ɣ No. Carbon monoxide is a clear, colourless gas that is commonly produced by the incomplete
combustion of organic material. Incomplete combustion occurs when the oxygen supply is
limited. Carbon dioxide is also produced during combustion reactions. (Students will learn more
about incomplete combustion in Section 9.6.)
Ɣ Carbon monoxide is particularly toxic because it binds strongly to the hemoglobin in red blood
cells. As the hemoglobin binding sites are taken up, the blood loses its ability to transport oxygen,
resulting in death. If carbon monoxide exposure is prolonged, even with concentrations as low as

20 to 30 ppm, the results can be can be harmful. For example, exposure to 2000 ppm of carbon
monoxide for one hour generally results in unconsciousness.
Ɣ The maximum threshold limit value (TLV) for exposure to carbon monoxide is 50 ppm. Threshold
limit value is defined as the maximum permissible concentration of a substance in air in an 8-hour
work period. In comparison, the TLV for carbon dioxide is 5000 ppm. Therefore, carbon
monoxide can be considered 100 times more toxic than carbon dioxide.
What is the source of most indoor carbon dioxide?
Ɣ Some outside carbon dioxide is drawn indoors from the normal operation of a building’s heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) system. However, most indoor carbon dioxide comes
from the occupants of a building. Exhaled air contains between 35 000 and 50 000 ppm of carbon
dioxide. Consequently, without adequate ventilation to bring in outside air and remove indoor air,
indoor carbon dioxide concentrations increase.
What are the acceptable standards for indoor carbon dioxide in Alberta? On what are these
standards based?
Ɣ Symptoms due to excessive indoor carbon dioxide usually begin when concentrations reach
800 ppm. Complaints become more common when carbon dioxide levels exceed 1000 ppm.
Consequently, Work Alberta recommends that every reasonable effort should be made to prevent
carbon dioxide levels from exceeding 1000 ppm. This guideline is based on standards set by the
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).
Why is the level of carbon dioxide often considered a general indicator of the indoor air quality
(IAQ) of a building?
Ɣ Indoor carbon dioxide is often considered representative of all the chemical contaminants in an
indoor space. Examples of indoor chemical contaminants include gases (from personal products
such as deodorants and perfumes, fumes emitted by newly laid carpet) and particulates such as
photocopier toner. If the levels of indoor CO2 are observed to rise as a result of inadequate inflow
of fresh outside air, the levels of other chemical contaminants will also rise. This reduction in IAQ
results in reduced productivity by the occupants of the room.
Why does it seem that newer buildings often have more IAQ issues than older buildings?
Ɣ Buildings built after 1970 were designed to conserve energy and hence reduce energy costs. One
way that this can be done is to reduce air leakage from the building. Modern construction
techniques and insulating materials have made newer buildings more airtight against the natural
infiltration of outside air. In comparison to this, many older buildings have so much exchange of
inside and outside air that they feel drafty.
Ɣ Furthermore, indoor pollutants in newer buildings can accumulate if the heating and ventilation
system is set up to pull in an inadequate supply of fresh, outside air. Finally, the air in newer
buildings is more likely to contain volatile organic compounds that are still evaporating from new
paint, carpets, and furniture.
Why should carbon dioxide testing be done periodically throughout the day?
Ɣ Carbon dioxide testing is conducted throughout the day to detect fluctuations that may occur
during this period of time. There may be a particular time during the day that carbon dioxide
levels peak. A room that has been unused for 16 h will likely yield different air quality results,
than the same room that has been fully occupied for the previous 8 h.
Conclusions:
It is very likely that the concentration of carbon dioxide has increased in Mrs. Ho’s classroom during
the school day, and that students are experiencing some of the symptoms that can result from this
indoor air pollutant. Some other possibilities, however, are that the levels of oxygen in the room are
low, or that students are just tired at the end of the school day!

(Page 316)
1. Quantitative analysis seeks to determine the chemical amount of a specified substance known to
be present, whereas qualitative analysis attempts to detect whether or not a particular substance is
present.
2. (a) colourless
(b) blue
(c) yellow-brown
(d) orange
(e) colourless
(f) green
3. (a) yellow-red
(b) blue
(c) yellow
(d) violet
(e) colourless
4. (a) yellow-red
(b) light blue-grey
(c) bright red
(d) green
5. Analysis
According to Table 2, Colours of Flames,
solution A contains K+ ions, and/or Rb+ ions and/or Cs+ ions,
solution B contains Cu2+ ions,
solution C contains Na+ ions,
solution D contains Ca2+ ions, and
solution E contains Li+ ions and/or Sr2+ ions.
Evaluation
The design of this experiment is too limited. It identifies only those positive ions (cations) in the
solutions that happen to produce coloured flames. Other possible cations, not to mention the
anions in each of these solutions, cannot be identified in this way. Solutions A and E may contain
any or all of several different cations, since they all produce the same test results.
6. Initially, the flame would be a red colour because of the strontium ions that are near the surface of
the artificial logs. As the log continues to burn, the sodium ions in the middle of the log would
cause the flame to turn yellow in colour. Finally, due to the presence of copper ions, the flame
would be blue-green.
Extension
7. Design
Add NaOH(aq) to the solution. The precipitate that forms will contain all cations except Group 1,
NH4+, Sr2+, Ba2+, and/or Tl+, if they are present. Filter to remove the precipitate. The remaining
filtrate can contain only the ions listed above. Next, add Na2SO4(aq) to the filtrate. The precipitate
that forms (if any) can contain only Ag+, Pb2+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+, and Ra2+ ions. Since the previous
test removed Ag+, Pb2+, Ca2+, and Ra2+ ions, from the solution, the only ions that could be in the
precipitate are Sr2+ or Ba2+. Perform a flame test to determine which ion is present. Sr2+ burns red
and Ba2+ burns yellow-green.
8. (a) During hit-and-run incidents, debris from automobiles may be left at a crime scene. Analysis
of the debris (paint and/or glass) may help identify the make or model and year of the
vehicle(s) involved.

(b) Science provided the knowledge about the physical properties of elements that allow forensic
scientists to perform qualitative analysis of elements. Technology has produced the methods
and procedures for these tests. Societal pressure to find the perpetrators of hit-and-run
offences has allowed law enforcement officers to apply these techniques to their work.
8.2 GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Lab Exercise 8.A: Chemical Analysis Using a Graph

(Page 317)
Purpose
The purpose of this lab exercise is to use a graph of a precipitation reaction’s stoichiometric
relationship to determine the mass of lead(II) nitrate present in a sample solution.
Problem
What mass of lead(II) nitrate is in 20.0 mL of a solution?
Analysis
According to the evidence collected and the graph, the mass of lead(II) nitrate in solution 1 is 3.15 g
and in solution 2, 5.40 g.
Practice
(Page 318)
1. Completeness of a chemical reaction means that all of either one of the reactants is totally
consumed. In the case of Lab Exercise 8.A, the net reaction involves only the ions Pb2+(aq) and
I–(aq). The net ionic equation for this reaction is:
Pb 2 (aq) 2 I (aq) o PbI 2 (s)
In this case, an attempt is made to have all of the Pb2+(aq) ions (cations) precipitate by reaction
with the I–(aq) ions (anions). Excess anions are added to ensure that all cations present will react
to form a precipitate.
2. Trial and error is a technological procedure.

(b) Science provided the knowledge about the physical properties of elements that allow forensic
scientists to perform qualitative analysis of elements. Technology has produced the methods
and procedures for these tests. Societal pressure to find the perpetrators of hit-and-run
offences has allowed law enforcement officers to apply these techniques to their work.
8.2 GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Lab Exercise 8.A: Chemical Analysis Using a Graph

(Page 317)
Purpose
The purpose of this lab exercise is to use a graph of a precipitation reaction’s stoichiometric
relationship to determine the mass of lead(II) nitrate present in a sample solution.
Problem
What mass of lead(II) nitrate is in 20.0 mL of a solution?
Analysis
According to the evidence collected and the graph, the mass of lead(II) nitrate in solution 1 is 3.15 g
and in solution 2, 5.40 g.
Practice
(Page 318)
1. Completeness of a chemical reaction means that all of either one of the reactants is totally
consumed. In the case of Lab Exercise 8.A, the net reaction involves only the ions Pb2+(aq) and
I–(aq). The net ionic equation for this reaction is:
Pb 2 (aq) 2 I (aq) o PbI 2 (s)
In this case, an attempt is made to have all of the Pb2+(aq) ions (cations) precipitate by reaction
with the I–(aq) ions (anions). Excess anions are added to ensure that all cations present will react
to form a precipitate.
2. Trial and error is a technological procedure.

3. To ensure that the reaction is complete, the filtrate (solution passed through the filter paper) must
be tested by the addition of a volume of the ions causing the precipitation (e.g., I (aq) ). If more
precipitate forms, then not all of the ions in question were initially precipitated out of the solution.
Investigation 8.1: Analysis of Sodium Carbonate

(Pages 319, 340)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to use the stoichiometric method as part of a gravimetric analysis.
Problem
What is the mass of solute in a 50.0 mL sample of sodium carbonate solution?
Evidence
Clear liquid turned cloudy upon adding a few drops of CaCl2(aq) to the filtrate.
Some white precipitate stuck to the sides of the beaker.
volume of Na2CO3(aq) = 50.0 mL
total volume of CaCl2(aq) added = 100 mL
Analysis
mass of CaCO3(s) precipitate = 2.07 g – 0.78 g = 1.29 g
Na 2 CO3 (aq) + CaCl2 (aq) o 2 NaCl(aq) + CaCO3 (s)
m 1.29 g
105.99 g/mol 100.09 g/mol
1 mol
nCaCO3 = 1.29 g u
100.09 g
0.0129 mol
1
nNa 2 CO3 = 0.0129 mol u
1
0.0129 mol
105.99 g
mNa 2 CO3 = 0.0129 mol u
1 mol
1.37 g
or
1 mol CaCO3 1 mol Na 2 CO3 105.99 g Na 2 CO3
mNa 2 CO3 = 1.29 g CaCO3 u u u
100.09 g CaCO3 1 mol CaCO3 1 mol Na 2 CO3
=1.37 g Na 2 CO3
According to the evidence and the stoichiometric method, the mass of sodium carbonate present in the
sample is 1.37 g.
Evaluation
The filtration design is judged to be adequate because the problem was answered with no obvious
flaws. This design appears to be the best available, and I am very confident with it. An alternative
design could involve crystallizing the sodium carbonate by boiling the solution to dryness.

The materials are judged to be adequate; they are simple and of good quality. The procedure
was judged to be adequate because it was easily followed and sufficient evidence was obtained to
answer the problem.
The technological skills are judged to be adequate because they were easy to perform. It was
not possible to remove all of the visible precipitate from the sides of the beaker, but the chemical
amount remaining was likely insignificant. Collecting and drying the precipitate, if not done correctly,
would have a significant effect on the results.
Overall, I am reasonably certain about my result. The major sources of uncertainty are
measurement errors and the precipitate left on the sides of the beaker. I estimate that these
uncertainties might account for about a 5% difference.
The purpose of the investigation was accomplished. It seems obvious that repeated
trialsgiving many results that could be averagedwould greatly improve the certainty of this
analysis.

(Page 319)
1. Sodium sulfate would be an appropriate solute. (Note: potassium sulfate or lithium sulfate or
ammonium nitrate would also work. For laboratory work, sodium compounds tend to be used
because they are inexpensive and readily available.)
Pb(NO3 ) 2 (aq) Na 2SO 4 (aq) o PbSO 4 (s) 2 NaNO3 (aq)
0.34 mol/L m
2.0 L 142.05 g/mol
0.24 mol
nPb(NO3 )2 u 2.0 L
1 L
0.68 mol
1
nNa 2SO4 0.68 mol u
1
0.68 mol
142.05 g
mNa 2SO4 0.68 mol u
1 mol
97 g
or
0.34 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Na 2SO 4 142.05 g Na 2SO 4
mNa 2SO4 2.0 L Pb(NO3 ) 2 u u u
1 L Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Na 2SO 4
97 g Na 2SO 4
The minimum mass of sodium sulfate required to precipitate all the lead ions will be 97 g.
2. Zn(s) CuSO 4 (aq) o ZnSO 4 (aq) Cu(s)
200 mL 1.72 g
c 63.55 g/mol
1 mol
nCu 1.72 g u
63.55 g
0.0271 mol
1
nCuSO4 0.0271 mol u
1
0.0271 mol

0.0271 mol
> CuSO @ 4
0.200 L
0.135 mol/L
or
1 mol Cu 1 mol CuSO 4 1
cCuSO4 1.72 g u u u
63.55 g 1 mol Cu 0.200 L CuSO 4
0.135 mol/L CuSO 4
3. Prediction
3 Na 2S(aq) 2 Al(NO3 )3 (aq) o 6 NaNO3 (aq) Al2S3 (s)
20.0 mL m 0.210 mol/L 150.17 g/mol
0.210 mol
nNa 2S 0.0200 L u
1 L
0.00420 mol
1
nAl2S3 0.00420 mol u
3
0.00140 mol
150.17 g
mAl2S3 0.00140 mol u
1 mol
0.210 g
or
0.210 mol Na 2S 1 mol Al2S3 150.17 g Al2S3
mAl2S3 0.0200 L Na 2S u u u
1 L Na 2S 3 mol Na 2S 1 mol Al2S3
0.210 g Al2S3
The mass of aluminium sulfide precipitated is predicted to be 0.210 g.
Analysis
mass of precipitate: 1.17 g – 0.97 g = 0.20 g Al2S3(s)
Evaluation
The experimental design is effective in answering the problem posed. Care was taken to ensure
that as much precipitate as possible was formed.
0.20 g 0.210 g 0.01 g
% difference u 100 u 100 = 5%
0.210 g 0.210 g
The mass of the precipitate obtained was within 5% of the predicted value. This small error can be
attributed to normal measurement and technique error and is thus considered insignificant. This
reaction is therefore quantitative, and the investigation is suitable to use for chemical analysis.
4. Analysis
2 AgNO3 (aq) Na 2SO 4 (aq) o Ag 2SO 4 (s) 2 NaNO3 (aq)
100 mL 5.47 g
c 311.81 g/mol

1 mol
nAg2SO4 5.47 g u
311.81 g
0.0175 mol
2
nAgNO3 0.0175 mol u
1
0.0351 mol
0.0351 mol
> AgNO (aq)@
3
0.100 L
0.351 mol/L
or
> AgNO (aq)@
3 5.47 g Ag 2SO 4 u
311.81 g Ag 2SO 4
u
1 mol Ag 2SO 4
u
0.100 L AgNO3
0.351 mol/L AgNO3
The concentration of silver nitrate solution is 0.351 mol/L.
8.3 STOICHIOMETRY: LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENT CALCULATIONS
Web Activity: Canadian Achievers—Ursula Franklin

(Page 321)
1. Dr. Franklin pioneered the development of archaeometry, which is the application of modern
materials analysis techniques to the study and practice of archaeology. She is also a pioneer in the
field of investigating the social impact of science, with the most well noted in this regard being the
effect that nuclear weapons testing fallout has on strontium-90 accumulation in juvenile teeth in
Canada.
2. Science for Peace is a charitable, Canadian-based organization of natural scientists, engineers,
social scientists, scholars in the humanities, and lay people throughout the world. It brings
together professors, graduate students, and first degree students who are concerned about peace,
justice, and ensuring an environmentally sustainable future through socially responsible
applications of scientific knowledge and of technology.
Practice
(Page 321)
1. (a) BaCl 2 (aq) Na 2SO 4 (aq) o BaSO 4 (s) 2 NaCl(aq)
1.50 g m (excess)
208.23 g/mol 142.05 g/mol
1 mol
nBaCl2 1.50 g u
208.23 g
0.00720 mol
1
nNa 2SO4 0.00720 mol u
1
0.00720 mol

1 mol
nAg2SO4 5.47 g u
311.81 g
0.0175 mol
2
nAgNO3 0.0175 mol u
1
0.0351 mol
0.0351 mol
> AgNO (aq)@
3
0.100 L
0.351 mol/L
or
> AgNO (aq)@
3 5.47 g Ag 2SO 4 u
311.81 g Ag 2SO 4
u
1 mol Ag 2SO 4
u
0.100 L AgNO3
0.351 mol/L AgNO3
The concentration of silver nitrate solution is 0.351 mol/L.
8.3 STOICHIOMETRY: LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENT CALCULATIONS
Web Activity: Canadian Achievers—Ursula Franklin

(Page 321)
1. Dr. Franklin pioneered the development of archaeometry, which is the application of modern
materials analysis techniques to the study and practice of archaeology. She is also a pioneer in the
field of investigating the social impact of science, with the most well noted in this regard being the
effect that nuclear weapons testing fallout has on strontium-90 accumulation in juvenile teeth in
Canada.
2. Science for Peace is a charitable, Canadian-based organization of natural scientists, engineers,
social scientists, scholars in the humanities, and lay people throughout the world. It brings
together professors, graduate students, and first degree students who are concerned about peace,
justice, and ensuring an environmentally sustainable future through socially responsible
applications of scientific knowledge and of technology.
Practice
(Page 321)
1. (a) BaCl 2 (aq) Na 2SO 4 (aq) o BaSO 4 (s) 2 NaCl(aq)
1.50 g m (excess)
208.23 g/mol 142.05 g/mol
1 mol
nBaCl2 1.50 g u
208.23 g
0.00720 mol
1
nNa 2SO4 0.00720 mol u
1
0.00720 mol

142.05 g
mNa 2SO4 0.00720 mol u
1 mol
1.02 g
or
1 mol BaCl2 1 mol Na 2SO 4 142.05 g Na 2SO 4
mNa 2SO4 1.50 g BaCl2 u u u
208.23 g BaCl2 1 mol BaCl2 1 mol Na 2SO 4
1.02 g Na 2SO 4
110% u 1.02 g = 1.12 g
The minimum mass of sodium sulfate required is 1.02 g. To ensure complete precipitation of
barium ions, assume that an excess of 10%, or 1.12 g, should be used. In practice, this means
that no less than 1.12 g should be used.
(b) There should be no barium ions left in the solution.
(c) Add a few drops of sodium sulfate solution to the filtrate to see if it turns cloudy. If this
happens, it would indicate that not all of the barium chloride has reacted.
(d) The student should continue to add more of the excess reagent to the filtrate, in order to
precipitate the remaining barium ions.
2. Zn(s) 2 HCl(aq) o ZnCl2 (aq) H 2 (g)
2.00 g V
65.41 g/mol 2.00 mol/L
1 mol
nZn 2.00 g u
65.41 g
0.0306 mol
2
nHCl 0.0306 mol u
1
0.0612 mol
1L
VHCl 0.0612 mol u
2.00 mol
0.0306 L
or
1 mol Zn 2 mol HCl 1 L HCl
VHCl 2.00 g Zn u u u
65.41 g Zn 1 mol Zn 2.00 mol HCl
0.0306 L HCl
110% u 0.0306 L 0.0336 L = 33.6 mL
A reasonable volume of acid to use is 33.6 mL.
Practice
(Page 324)
3. (a) CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) o CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
10.0 mol 10.0 mol
1
nCH4 10.0 mol u
2
5.00 mol
5.00 mol of CH 4 would be required to react with 10.0 mol of O2

2
nO2 10.0 mol u
1
20.0 mol
20.0 mol of O 2 would be required to react with 10.0 mol of CH 4
Since 20.0 mol O2(g) is required to react with 10.0 mol of CH4(g) but only 10.0 mol is
available, oxygen is the limiting reagent and methane is the excess reagent. The chemical
amount of methane that remains unreacted is 10.0 mol – 5.00 mol = 5.0 mol.
(b) Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq) o MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
2.20 mol 3.30 mol
2
nHCl 2.20 mol u
1
4.40 mol
4.40 mol of HCl would be required to react with 2.20 mol of Mg
1
nMg 3.30 mol u
2
1.65 mol
1.65 mol of Mg would be required to react with 3.30 mol of HCl
Since 4.40 mol of HCl is required to react with 2.20 mol of Mg, and there is only 3.30 mol of
HCl available, hydrochloric acid is the limiting reagent and magnesium is the excess reagent.
The chemical amount of magnesium that remains unreacted is 2.20 mol – 1.65 mol = 0.55 mol.
(c) 3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2 Na3PO4(aq) o Cu3(PO4)2(s) + 6 NaNO3(aq)
0.44 mol 0.55 mol
3
nCu(NO3 )2 0.55 mol u
2
0.82 mol
0.82 mol of Cu(NO3 ) 2 would be required to react with 0.55 mol of Na 3 PO 4
2
nNa 3PO4 0.44 mol u
3
0.29 mol
0.29 mol of Na 3 PO 4 would be required to react with 0.44 mol of Cu(NO3 ) 2
Since 0.82 mol of Cu(NO3)2 is required to react with 0.55 mol Na3PO4 and only 0.44 mol is
available, copper(II) nitrate is the limiting reagent and sodium phosphate is the excess reagent.
The chemical amount of sodium phosphate that remains unreacted is 0.55 mol – 0.29 mol =
0.26 mol.
(d) 2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) o Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
2.41 mmol 6.66 mmol
2
nNaOH 6.66 mmol u
1
13.3 mmol
13.3 mmol of NaOH would be required to react with 6.66 mmol of H 2SO 4
1
nH2SO4 2.41 mmol u
2
1.20 mmol
1.20 mmol of H 2SO 4 would be required to react with 2.41 mmol of NaOH

Since 13.3 mmol NaOH is required to react with 6.66 mmol of H2SO4 and only 2.41 mmol is
available, sodium hydroxide is the limiting reagent and sulphuric acid is the excess reagent. The
chemical amount of H2SO4(aq) that remains unreacted is 6.66 mmol – 1.20 mmol = 5.46 mmol
4. (a) C(s) + O2(g) o CO2(g)
10.0 g 10.0 g
12.01 g/mol 32.00 g/mol
1 mol
nC 10.0 g u
12.01 g
0.833 mol
1 mol
nO2 10.0 g u
32.00 g
0.312 mol
If carbon is the limiting reagent, the chemical amount of oxygen required is
1
nO2 0.833 mol u
1
0.833 mol
Oxygen is therefore the limiting reagent and carbon is in excess. The mass of carbon that
remains unreacted is
nC 0.833 mol 0.312 mol
0.521 mol
12.01 g
mC 0.521 mol u
1 mol
6.25 g
(b) 2 Al(s) + 3 Cl2(g) o 2 AlCl3(s)
4.00 g 4.50 g
26.98 g/mol 70.90 g/mol
1 mol
nAl 4.00 g u
26.98 g
0.148 mol
1 mol
nCl2 4.50 g u
70.90 g
0.0635 mol
If chlorine is the limiting reagent, the chemical amount of aluminium required is
2
nAl 0.0635 mol u
3
0.0423 mol
Chlorine is therefore the limiting reagent and aluminium is in excess. The mass of aluminium
that remains unreacted is
nAl 0.148 mol 0.0423 mol
0.106 mol
26.98 g
mAl 0.106 mol u
1 mol
2.86 g

(c) Ba(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) o BaSO4(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
12 mg 44 mg
261.35 g/mol 174.27 g/mol
1 mol
nBa(NO3 )2 12 m g u
261.35 g
0.046 mmol
1 mol
nK 2SO4 44 m g u
174.27 g
0.25 mmol
If barium nitrate is the limiting reagent, the chemical amount of potassium sulfate required is
1
nK 2SO4 0.046 mmol u
1
0.046 mmol
Barium nitrate is therefore the limiting reagent and potassium sulfate is in excess. The mass of
potassium sulfate that remains unreacted is
nK 2SO4 0.25 mmol 0.046 mmol
0.20 mmol
174.27 g
mK 2SO4 0.20 m mol u
1 mol
36 mg
(d) LiOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) o LiCH3COO(aq) + H2O(l)
1.31 kg 7.50 kg
23.95 g/mol 60.06 g/mol
1 mol
nLiOH 1.31 k g u
23.95 g
0.0547 kmol
1 mol
nCH3COOH 7.50 k g u
60.06 g
0.125 kmol
If LiOH is the limiting reagent, the chemical amount of CH3COOH required is
1
nCH3COOH 0.0547 kmol u
1
0.0547 kmol
LiOH is therefore the limiting reagent and CH3COOH is in excess. The mass of acetic acid
that remains unreacted is
nCH3COOH 0.125 kmol 0.0547 kmol
0.070 kmol
60.06 g
mCH3COOH 0.070 k mol u
1 mol
4.2 kg

5. (a) In order to answer this question, you need to know how many slices there are in 500 g of
bread and how many cheese slices there are in a 300 g package of cheese. To obtain this
information, you need to learn the mass of a single slice of bread and also the mass of a single
slice of cheese.
(b) This factor is analogous to the chemical reaction conversion factor of molar mass.
(c) In a chemical reaction system, the entities react by counted numbers, but the values cannot
actually be counted. The entities are measured by other means, and these other measurements
(like mass) are then converted to numerical amounts.
(d) If the mass of the bread were 10 g/slice and the mass of cheese were 20 g/slice, you would
have 50 slices of bread and 15 slices of cheese. Cheese would, therefore, be the limiting
factor. You would need 30 of the slices of bread and all 15 slices of cheese to make 15
sandwiches, so 20 slices of bread would remain unused (in excess).
(e) Although they are sold in packages labelled with numbers, small objects like nuts and bolts
are really measured by mass when packaged, because it is far simpler than actually counting
them out. Coins, when minted, are “counted” as they move along a conveyor by a balance that
measures the mass and automatically converts to numbers.
Investigation 8.2: Percent Yield of Barium Sulfate

(Pages 324, 341)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to use the stoichiometric method in order to evaluate a commercial
procedure for producing barium sulfate.
Problem
What is the percent yield of barium sulfate in the reaction of aqueous solutions of barium chloride and
sodium sulfate?
Prediction
According to the method of stoichiometry, the expected yield of barium sulfate is 1.17 g, based on the
following reasoning:
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) o BaSO4(s) + 2 NaCl(aq)
50.0 mL 40.0 mL m
0.100 mol/L 0.15 mol/L 233.40 g/mol
0.100 mol
nBaCl2 = 50.0 mL u
1L
= 5.00 mmol
0.15 mol
nNa 2SO4 = 40.0 mL u
1L
= 6.0 mmol
Because the mole ratio of reactants is 1:1 and BaCl2 is present in the lesser chemical amount, BaCl2 is
the limiting reagent and Na2SO4 is the excess reagent. The prediction is therefore based on the
chemical amount of BaCl2.
1
nBaSO4 = 5.00 mmol u
1
= 5.00 mmol
233.40 g
mBaSO4 = 5.00 m mol u
1 mol
= 1.17 u 103 mg = 1.17 g
or

0.100 mol BaCl2 1 mol BaSO 4 233.40 g BaSO 4
mBaSO4 = 0.050 L BaCl2 u u u
1 L BaCl2 1 mol BaCl2 1 mol BaSO 4
= 1.17 g BaSO 4
Materials
Ɣ lab apron
Ɣ eye protection
Ɣ BaCl2(aq)
Ɣ Na2SO4(aq)
Ɣ distilled-water bottle
Ɣ filter paper
Ɣ filtration apparatus (stand, funnel, funnel holder)
Ɣ stirring rod with rubber policeman
Ɣ two 50 mL graduated cylinders
Ɣ medicine dropper
Ɣ two 250 mL beakers
Ɣ watch glass or paper towel
Procedure
1. Measure 50.0 mL of BaCl2(aq) using a graduated cylinder and transfer the solution into a clean
250 mL beaker.
2. Measure 40.0 mL of Na2SO4(aq) using a graduated cylinder and slowly add, (with stirring), to the
BaCl2(aq) solution in the beaker.
3. Measure the mass of a piece of filter paper.
4. Set up the filtration apparatus.
5. Start filtering the mixture and test the first few millilitres of filtrate with a few drops of
Na2SO4(aq).
6. Filter the mixture and discard the filtrate into the sink.
7. Dry the filter paper and precipitate overnight on a folded piece of paper towel or watch glass.
8. Measure the mass of the filter paper plus precipitate.
9. Discard the filter paper and precipitate into the garbage can.
Evidence
A white precipitate formed when the solutions were mixed. No precipitate was observed when some
filtrate was tested with Na2SO4(aq).
mass of filter paper plus precipitate = 2.29 g
Analysis
mBaSO = 2.29 g – 1.11 g = 1.18 g
4
1.18 g
% yield = u 100 = 101%
1.17 g
According to the evidence collected, the per cent yield is 101%.
Evaluation
The experimental design using a precipitation reaction to produce barium sulfate is adequate with no
obvious flaws. The materials are adequate; they are simple and work well. The procedure is adequate
because the steps were correctly sequenced and suitable to produce the precipitate on a laboratory
scale. The filtration is rather slow and a more efficient method could be investigated. Care needs to be
taken in transferring the mixture to the filter funnel to make sure all of the precipitate is transferred.
An additional uncertainty is the drying of the precipitate. If the precipitate is not completely dried on

the inside, it may appear to give a higher yield. The precipitate mass could be measured again after
another 24 h to see if the mass remains constant. A design improvement would be to heat the filter
paper and precipitate in an oven until the mass becomes constant. The technological skills are
adequate to gather the evidence. I am quite certain of the accuracy of the evidence collected.
Measurement uncertainties, such as volumes and masses, are present (as always), including some
uncertainties in the concentrations of the solutions that were provided. All of these normal
uncertainties can easily account for a small percent error, such as 5%.
The percentage yield definitely lies within expected uncertainties in this experiment. The fact
that the percentage is slightly higher than 100% is not significant because most of the uncertainties are
random and any water present could increase the mass. The prediction is judged to be verified.
Overall, use of the stoichiometric method as a way of testing this procedure for production of
barium sulfate appears to be acceptable.
Case Study: The Haber Process

(Pages 325–326)
1. (a) The number of collisions between particles rises by increasing the temperature and pressure of
the reactants. This also increases the average energy of collisions, so that the percentage of
collisions that are effective also goes up. The rise in the number of effective collisions results
in more ammonia being produced.
(b) High temperatures decrease the percent yield of ammonia at equilibrium. Iron(III) oxide acts
to increase the percentage of effective collisions at a lower temperature, thereby also
increasing percent yield.
(c) The reagents must be contained, and if the pressure is extremely high the container would
have to be very specialized (expensive and bulky) to contain the reagents safely.
(d) At low temperatures, the reaction occurs too slowly.
(e) Obtaining hydrogen gas would be more of a concern from an accounting perspective because
it is much less abundant in Earth’s atmosphere than nitrogen.
2. (a) In a plant that runs continually, the rate of reaction is much more important than percent
reaction because a faster reaction means more product formed per day, and therefore higher
profits. Any unreacted chemicals can simply be used during the next cycle.
(b) Ammonia condenses at a higher temperature than nitrogen because ammonia molecules
undergo hydrogen bonding which is the strongest type of intermolecular bonding, while
nitrogen molecules do not.
Extension
3. The production of ammonia in Alberta involves mixing natural gas (a fossil fuel), with steam and
then reforming the mixture over a catalyst bed to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide. While
this process is important from an economic perspective due to the dependence of the agriculture
industry on fertilizers, it may prove difficult to sustain due to its dependence on natural gas as a
source of hydrogen. Furthermore, the process of hydrogen production involves producing carbon
dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas.

(Page 327)
1. The four assumptions about reactions completed for chemical analysis are that the reactions are
fast, spontaneous, stoichiometric, and quantitative.
2. In testing gravimetric stoichiometry, one reactant should be used in excess quantity to help ensure
that all of the other reactant (limiting reagent) will react completely.

3. The value of the actual yield comes from measuring the experimental quantity of the product
obtained, whereas the value of the predicted yield comes from the stoichiometric calculation using
the balanced chemical equation.
4. Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) o H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq)
0.35 mol 0.60 mol
65.38 g/mol 36.46 g/mol
(a) If Zn is the limiting reagent, the chemical amount of HCl required is
2
nHCl = 0.35 mol u
1
= 0.70 mol
Since 0.70 mol HCl is more than is present, HCl will be completely consumed (is the limiting
reagent).
1
(b) nZn = 0.60 mol u
2
= 0.30 mol (required)
nZn = 0.35 mol 0.30 mol = 0.05 mol (in excess)
65.38 g
mZn = 0.05 mol u
1 mol
=3g
5. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 KBr(aq) o PbBr2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
3.50 g m (excess) m
331.2 g/mol 119.00 g/mol 367.0 g/mol
(a) 1 mol
nPb(NO3 )2 = 3.50 g u
331.2 g
= 0.0106 mol
2
nKBr = 0.0106 mol u
1
= 0.0211 mol
119.00 g
mKBr = 0.0211 mol u
1 mol
= 2.52 g
or
1 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 2 mol KBr 119.00 g KBr
mKBr = 3.50 g Pb(NO3 ) 2 u u u
331.2 g Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol KBr
= 2.52 g KBr
A reasonable excess to use would be: 110% × 2.52 g = 2.77 g.

1 mol
(b) nPb(NO3 )2 = 3.50 g u
331.2 g
= 0.0106 mol
1
nPbBr2 = 0.0106 mol u
1
= 0.0106 mol
367.0 g
mPbBr2 = 0.0106 mol u
1 mol
= 3.89 g
or
1 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol PbBr2 367.0 g PbBr2
mPbBr2 = 3.50 g Pb(NO3 ) 2 u u u
331.2 g Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol PbBr2
= 3.89 g PbBr2
6. AgNO3 (aq) NaCl(aq) o AgCl(s) NaNO3 (aq)
3.40 g m
169.88 g/mol 143.32 g/mol
1 mol
nAgNO3 3.40 g u
169.88 g
0.0200 mol
1
nAgCl 0.0200 mol u
1
0.0200 mol
143.32 g
mAgCl 0.0200 mol u
1 mol
2.87 g
or
1 mol AgNO3 1 mol AgCl 143.32 g AgCl
mAgCl 3.40 g AgNO3 u u u
169.88 g AgNO3 1 mol AgNO3 1 mol AgCl
2.87 g AgCl
2.81 g
% yield u 100 97.9%
2.87 g
7. BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) o BaSO4(s) + 2 NaCl(aq)
9.8 g 5.1 g m
208.23 g/mol 142.05 g/mol 233.40 g/mol
1 mol
nBaCl2 = 9.8 g u
208.23 g
= 0.047 mol
1 mol
nNa 2SO4 = 5.1 g u
142.05 g
= 0.036 mol
(a) Because the mole ratio is 1:1, BaCl2 is in excess by 0.011 mol.
0.047 mol – 0.036 mol = 0.011 mol

208.23 g
(b) mBaCl2 = 0.011 mol u
1 mol
= 2.3 g (in excess)
1 mol
(c) nNa 2SO4 = 5.1 g u
142.05 g
= 0.036 mol
1
nBaSO4 = 0.036 mol u
1
= 0.036 mol
233.40 g
mBaSO4 = 0.036 mol u
1 mol
= 8.4 g
or
1 mol Na 2SO 4 1 mol BaSO 4 233.40 g BaSO 4
mBaSO4 = 5.1 g Na 2SO 4 u u u
142.05 g Na 2SO 4 1 mol Na 2SO 4 1 mol BaSO 4
8.4 g BaSO 4
8. 2 CrCl3(aq) + 3 Zn(s) o 3 ZnCl2(aq) + 2 Cr(s)
18.6 g 15.0 g m
158.35 g/mol 65.41 g/mol 52.00 g/mol
1 mol
nCrCl3 = 18.6 g u
158.35 g
= 0.117 mol
1 mol
nZn = 15.0 g u
65.41 g
0.229 mol
(a) If CrCl3 is the limiting reagent, the chemical amount of Zn required is
3
nZn = 0.117 mol u
2
= 0.176 mol
Therefore, Zn is in excess, and CrCl3 is the limiting reagent.
(b) nZn = 0.229 mol – 0.176 mol = 0.053 mol (in excess)
65.41 g
mZn = 0.053 mol u = 3.5 g
1 mol
2
(c) nCr = 0.117 mol u
2
= 0.117 mol
52.00 g
mCr = 0.117 mol u
1 mol or
= 6.11 g
1 mol CrCl3 2 mol Cr 52.00 g Cr
mCr = 18.6 g CrCl3 u u u
158.35 g CrCl3 2 mol CrCl3 1 mol Cr
6.11 g Cr

5.1 g
% yield = u 100 = 83%
6.11 g
9. (a) 2 K3PO4(aq) + 3 Pb(NO3)2(aq) o Pb3(PO4)2(s) + 6 KNO3(aq)
50.00 mL V
0.200 mol/L 0.120 mol/L
Potassium phosphate is intended to be the limiting reagent.
(b) 0.200 mol
nK3PO4 50.00 m L u
1 L
10.0 mmol
3
nPb(NO3 )2 10.0 mmol u
2
15.0 mmol
1L
VPb(NO3 )2 15.0 m mol u
0.120 mol
125 mL
or
0.200 mol K 3 PO 4 3 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2
VPb(NO3 )2 = 50.0 m L K 3 PO 4 u u
1 L K 3 PO 4 2 mol K 3 PO 4
1 L Pb(NO3 ) 2
u
0.120 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2
125 mL Pb(NO3 ) 2
(c) 110% u 125 mL 138 mL
The instructor should tell the students to use at least 138 mL of lead(II) nitrate solution.
(d) To test for completeness, students could add a few more drops of the excess reagent solution
(using a medicine dropper) and allow it to run down the side of the reaction container, after
the precipitate has settled. If there is any cloudiness visible when this solution reaches the
solution above the precipitate then there are still phosphate ions in the solution.
8.4 TITRATION ANALYSIS
Investigation 8.3: Standardization Analysis of NaOH(aq) (Demonstration)

(Pages 331, 342)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to use a titration design to standardize a solution for future
chemical analysis.
Problem
What is the concentration of a stock NaOH(aq) solution?
Evidence
mass of KHP used to prepare 100 mL of 0.150 mol/L solution = 3.06 g
Table 1: Volume of NaOH(aq) Required to React with 10.00 mL of KHP Solution
Trial 1 2 3
Final burette reading (mL) 10.7 21.1 31.5
Initial burette reading (mL) 0.2 10.7 21.1
Volume of NaOH(aq) added (mL) 10.5 10.4 10.4

5.1 g
% yield = u 100 = 83%
6.11 g
9. (a) 2 K3PO4(aq) + 3 Pb(NO3)2(aq) o Pb3(PO4)2(s) + 6 KNO3(aq)
50.00 mL V
0.200 mol/L 0.120 mol/L
Potassium phosphate is intended to be the limiting reagent.
(b) 0.200 mol
nK3PO4 50.00 m L u
1 L
10.0 mmol
3
nPb(NO3 )2 10.0 mmol u
2
15.0 mmol
1L
VPb(NO3 )2 15.0 m mol u
0.120 mol
125 mL
or
0.200 mol K 3 PO 4 3 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2
VPb(NO3 )2 = 50.0 m L K 3 PO 4 u u
1 L K 3 PO 4 2 mol K 3 PO 4
1 L Pb(NO3 ) 2
u
0.120 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2
125 mL Pb(NO3 ) 2
(c) 110% u 125 mL 138 mL
The instructor should tell the students to use at least 138 mL of lead(II) nitrate solution.
(d) To test for completeness, students could add a few more drops of the excess reagent solution
(using a medicine dropper) and allow it to run down the side of the reaction container, after
the precipitate has settled. If there is any cloudiness visible when this solution reaches the
solution above the precipitate then there are still phosphate ions in the solution.
8.4 TITRATION ANALYSIS
Investigation 8.3: Standardization Analysis of NaOH(aq) (Demonstration)

(Pages 331, 342)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to use a titration design to standardize a solution for future
chemical analysis.
Problem
What is the concentration of a stock NaOH(aq) solution?
Evidence
mass of KHP used to prepare 100 mL of 0.150 mol/L solution = 3.06 g
Table 1: Volume of NaOH(aq) Required to React with 10.00 mL of KHP Solution
Trial 1 2 3

Analysis
10.5mL + 10.4 mL + 10.4 mL
average volume of NaOH(aq) = = 10.4 mL
3
KC7H4O2COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) o KNaC7H4O2COO(aq) + H2O (l)
10.00 mL 10.4 mL
0.150 mol/L c
0.150 mol
nKHP 10.00 m L u
1 L
1.50 mmol
1
nNaOH 1.50 mmol u
1
1.50 mmol
1.50 m mol
[NaOH]
10.4 m L
0.144 mol/L
or
0.150 mol KHP 1 mol NaOH 1
[NaOH] 10.00 m L KHP u u u
1 L KHP 1 mol KHP 10.4 m L NaOH
0.144 mol/L NaOH
According to the evidence collected, the amount concentration of sodium hydroxide solution is
0.144 mol/L.
Practice
(Page 331)
1. Once the burette has been washed with distilled water, rinse the burette with a small volume of
titrant. It will not matter if the inside of the burette is wet, as long as the liquid in it is the same
solution that will be used to fill it.
2. Pipettes are used to ensure that equal volumes of the samples are taken. The procedure used for
taking each successive sample should be identical to ensure that all samples are precisely the
same.
3. Doing multiple trials and averaging the answers, increases the certainty and reliability of the
result.
4. An indicator is used. This is a substance that changes colour in response to changes in pH in the
reaction solution.
Investigation 8.4: Titration Analysis of Vinegar

(Pages 331, 343)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to test the manufacturer’s claim of the concentration of acetic acid
in a consumer sample of vinegar.
Problem
What is the amount concentration of acetic acid in a sample of vinegar?
Materials
Ɣ lab apron
Ɣ eye protection

Ɣ distilled or deionized water
Ɣ 2 - 100 mL or 150 mL beakers
Ɣ 250 mL beaker
Ɣ 2 - 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks
Ɣ 100 mL volumetric flask with stopper
Ɣ 10 mL volumetric pipette and bulb
Ɣ 50 mL burette
Ɣ small funnel
Ɣ medicine dropper
Ɣ laboratory stand
Ɣ burette clamp
Ɣ meniscus finder
Ɣ phenolphthalein indicator
Ɣ NaOH(aq)
Ɣ vinegar
Procedure
1. Obtain about 40 mL of vinegar in a clean, dry 100 mL beaker.
2. Pipette two 10.00 mL portions into a clean 100 mL volumetric flask and dilute to the mark.
3. Stopper and invert several times to mix thoroughly.
4. Obtain about 70 mL of NaOH(aq) in a clean, dry 100 mL beaker.
5. Set up the burette to contain the NaOH(aq).
6. Pipette a 10.00 mL sample of diluted vinegar into a clean Erlenmeyer flask.
7. Add 1 or 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
8. Record the initial burette reading (to a precision of 0.1 mL).
9. Titrate the sample with NaOH(aq) until a single drop produces a permanent pink colour.
10. Record the final burette reading (to 0.1 mL).
11. Repeat steps 6 to 10 until three consistent results are obtained.
Evidence
Table 3: Volume of 0.144 mol/L NaOH(aq) Required to React with 10.00 mL of Diluted Vinegar
Trial 1 2 3
Analysis
12.4 mL + 12.3 mL + 12.4 mL
3
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) o NaCH3COO(aq) + HOH(l)
10.00 mL 12.4 mL
c 0.144 mol/L
To find the amount concentration of acetic acid in the original, undiluted vinegar,
Vi ci Vf cf
Vf cf
ci
Vi
100.0 mL 0.178 mol
u
20.0 mL 1L
0.890 mol/L
or

0.144 mol NaOH 1 mol CH 3COOH
[CH3COOH] = 12.4 m L NaOH u u u
1 L NaOH 1 mol NaOH
1 100.00 mL
u
10.00 m L CH 3COOH 20.00 mL
= 0.890 mol/L CH3COOH
According to the evidence collected, the original amount concentration of the vinegar is 0.890 mol/L.
Evaluation
The titration design is judged to be adequate because the evidence was gathered and the problem was
answered with no obvious problems. The design could perhaps be improved by eliminating the
dilution of the vinegar and using a more concentrated standardized sodium hydroxide solution.
However, this is a minor improvement and I still have great confidence in the design used. The
materials and procedure were adequate because sufficient evidence was easily obtained. A new
technological skill is required and titration to a precise endpoint requires practice with a burette. Both
the dilution and the titration measurement steps need to be done carefully. Eliminating the dilution
step would eliminate some of the experimental uncertainties because fewer measurements would be
required. The technological skills were adequate, as evidenced by the consistency of the trials. On the
basis of my evaluation of this experiment, I am quite confident in my results. The main sources of
ambivalence with this experiment are the uncertainties in the various measurements.
The percent difference between the experimental result and the predicted value is 7%.
0.890 mol/L 0.83 mol/ L 0.06 mol/L
% difference = u 100 = u 100 = 7%
0.83 mol/L 0.83 mol/L
On the basis of my results, I am confident that the manufacturer’s claim on the label is
acceptable.
The purpose of this Investigation was accomplished, as the manufacturer’s claim could be
verified. However, more supporting analyses would increase the certainty of the conclusion that has
been drawn.

(Page 332)
1. Analysis
The volumes of hydrochloric acid added during trials 1–4 are 14.1 mL, 13.9 mL, and 14.0 mL,
respectively.
Discarding the first value, the average volume of HCl(aq) =
14.1 mL + 13.9 mL + 14.0 mL
= 14.0 mL
3
NH3(aq) + HCl(aq) o NH4Cl(aq)
10.00 mL 14.0 mL
c 1.48 mol/L
1.48mol
nHCl = 14.0 m L u
1 L
= 20.7 mmol
1
nNH3 = 20.7 mmol u
1
= 20.7 mmol

20.7 m mol
[NH3 ] =
10.00 m L
= 2.07 mol/L
(diluted solution)
Vi ci Vf cf
Vf
ci u cf
Vi
10
u 2.07 mol/L
1
20.7 mol/L
(original solution)
or
1.48 mol HCl 1 mol NH 3 10 1
[NH 3 ] = 14.0 m L HCl u u u u
1 L HCl 1 mol HCl 1 10.00 m L NH 3
= 20.7 mol/L NH 3
According to the evidence collected, the original undiluted amount concentration of ammonia is
20.7 mol/L.
2. (a) When you open a container that holds any volatile gas dissolved in water, some of the gas will
escape (evaporate) due to the decrease in pressure.
(b) Each time the stock bottle is opened, some of the solute vapour will escape. This changes the
ratio of solute to solvent, thereby changing (decreasing) the concentration of the solution.
3. Design
A standard solution of sodium carbonate is prepared. Successive samples of unknown
hydrochloric acid are titrated with this standard solution, using methyl orange indicator, until at
least three consistent volume results are obtained. The acid concentration is then calculated from
the volume of sodium carbonate solution used.
Extension
4. 2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO3(aq) o Na2SO3(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
12.0 mL 100 mL
0.110 mol/L
0.110 mol
nNaOH 12.0 m L u
1 L
1.32 mmol
1
nH2SO3 1.32 mmol u
2
0.660 mmol
Since there is one sulfur atom in each H2SO3 molecule,

1
nS = 0.660 mmol u
1
0.660 mmol
The chemical amount of sulfur atoms present in the 100 mL acid sample is 0.660 mmol.

8.5 ACID–BASE TITRATION CURVES AND INDICATORS
Investigation 8.5: pH Curves (Demonstration)

(Pages 333, 344)
Purpose
The purpose of this demonstration is to study pH curves and the function of an indicator in an acid–
base reaction.
Problem
What are the shapes of the pH curves for the continuous addition of hydrochloric acid to a sample of a
sodium hydroxide solution and to a sample of a sodium carbonate solution?
Prediction
When hydrochloric acid is added to a sodium hydroxide solution, the pH graph will show a steady
decrease in a straight line starting at a high pH initially, when there is a large excess of base, and this
will go down to a low pH finally, when there is a large excess of acid. The graph of sodium hydrogen
carbonate titrated with hydrochloric acid will be similar, but the pH will fall more quickly to its final
value.
Evidence
50.00 mL of 0.10 mol/L NaOH(aq) Titrated with 0.10 mol/L HCl(aq)
Volume of HCl(aq) (mL) pH Volume of HCl(aq) (mL) pH
0.00 12.92 49.60 7.25
1.00 12.90 49.80 6.24
10.00 12.86 50.00 5.46
20.20 12.73 50.20 3.76
30.20 12.51 50.40 3.26
40.30 12.15 50.60 3.04
44.00 11.92 50.80 2.88
46.00 11.28 51.80 2.47
47.20 11.28 52.60 2.30
48.20 10.83 54.00 2.11
48.80 10.29 56.00 1.92
49.00 10.00 60.00 1.73
49.24 9.38 70.00 1.48
49.44 8.37 80.00 1.33
50.00 mL of 0.10 mol/L Na2CO(aq) Titrated with 0.10 mol/L HCl(aq)

Volume of HCl(aq) (mL) pH Volume of HCl(aq) (mL) pH
0.00 11.20 66.00 6.70
2.00 11.00 71.00 6.50
4.00 10.80 82.00 6.10
13.20 10.30 90.00 5.80
20.00 10.10 94.00 5.60
30.00 9.80 96.00 5.40
40.00 9.50 98.00 5.10
44.00 9.20 98.80 4.90
48.00 8.90 100.00 4.20
49.20 8.70 100.60 3.60
50.00 8.60 101.20 3.30
50.40 8.50 102.40 3.00
51.00 8.30 104.00 2.70
52.00 7.90 106.00 2.60
54.80 7.50 112.00 2.30
58.00 7.10 120.00 2.10
62.00 6.90 130.00 2.00

Analysis
On the basis of the evidence gathered by this experimental design, the shapes of the two pH curves are
shown above.
Web Activity: Web Quest—Blood Alcohol Content

(Page 333)
[Students’ presentations should cover the following points.]
Introduction: Principles of Testing Blood Alcohol Content (BAC)
Ɣ Any alcohol that a person consumes shows up in the breath because it is absorbed from the mouth,
throat, stomach, and intestines and into the bloodstream.
Ɣ Alcohol is not digested upon absorption or chemically changed in the bloodstream. As the blood
goes through the lungs, some of the alcohol moves across the membranes of the lungs' air sacs

(alveoli) into the air, because alcohol will evaporate from a solutionit is volatile. The
concentration of the alcohol in the alveolar air is related to the concentration of the alcohol in the
blood. As the alcohol in the alveolar air is exhaled, it can be detected by the breath alcohol-testing
device. Instead of having to draw a driver's blood to test his alcohol level, an officer can test the
driver's breath on the spot and instantly know if there is a reason to arrest the driver.
Ɣ Because the alcohol concentration in the breath is related to that in the blood, you can calculate the
BAC by measuring alcohol on the breath. The ratio of breath alcohol to blood alcohol is 2100:1.
This means that 2100 mL of alveolar air will contain the same chemical amount of alcohol as
1 mL of blood.
Types of Devices
Ɣ Breathalyzer
To measure alcohol, a suspect breathes into the device. The breath sample is bubbled in one vial
through a mixture of sulfuric acid, potassium dichromate, silver nitrate and water. The principle of
the measurement is based on the following chemical reaction:
2 K2Cr2O7 (aq) + 3 CH3CH2OH + 6 H2SO4(aq) o
2 Cr2(SO4)3(s) + 2 K2SO4(aq) + 3 CH3COOH(aq) + 11 H2O(l)
In this reaction:
ż The sulfuric acid removes the alcohol from the air into a liquid solution.
ż The alcohol reacts with potassium dichromate to produce chromium sulfate, potassium sulfate,
acetic acid, and water.
ż The silver nitrate is a catalysta substance that makes a reaction proceed faster without
participating in it. The sulfuric acid, in addition to removing the alcohol from the air, also
provides the acidic condition needed for this reaction.
During this reaction, the reddish-orange dichromate ion changes colour to the green chromium ion
when it reacts with the alcohol; the degree of the colour change depends directly on the level of
alcohol in the expelled air. To determine the amount of alcohol in that air, the reacted mixture is
compared to a vial of unreacted mixture in the photocell system. There an electric current moves
the needle in the meter from its resting place. The operator then turns a knob to bring the needle
back to the resting place. The more the operator must turn the knob to return the needle to rest, the
higher the level of alcohol content, which can be read from the position of the knob. There is one
important assumption: that no other compounds present in the blood undergo the same reaction.
Ɣ Intoxylizer
This device depends on the discovery that different compounds absorb infrared (IR) light to
different extents. Molecules are constantly vibrating, and these vibrations change when the
molecules absorb IR light. The changes in vibration involve the bending and stretching of various
bonds. Each type of bond within a molecule absorbs IR at different wavelengths. The Intoxylizer
makes use of this property. So, in order to identify ethanol in a sample, you will have to look at
the wavelengths of the bonds in ethanol (C-O, O-H, C-H, C-C) and measure the absorption of IR
light. The absorbed wavelengths help to identify the substance as ethanol, and the amount of IR
absorption tells you how much ethanol is there. This technology assumes that vibrations in ethanol
are unique.
In the Intoxilyzer a lamp generates a beam of IR light, which passes through the sample
chamber and is focused by a lens onto a spinning filter wheel. The filter wheel allows only
wavelengths of light that indicate the presence of ethanol to pass through. The light is detected by
the photocell. The electrical pulse produced by the photocell is relayed to the microprocessor,
which interprets the pulses and calculates the BAC based on the absorption of infrared light. This
technology also assumes that the vibrations of the bonds in the ethanol molecule are
distinguishable from the vibrations of other organic molecules, that may be present in blood.
Ɣ Alcosensor
The alcosensor contains two platinum electrodes on either side of a porous material, that act as an
electrolyte and the combination is a type of fuel cell. As the exhaled air from the suspect flows

past one side of the cell, the platinum oxidizes any alcohol in the air to produce acetic acid,
protons, and electrons. The greater the quantity of oxidized alcohol, the greater the electron flow
or current in the circuit. A microprocessor measures the electrical current and calculates the BAC.
Issues with BAC Technology
Ɣ A major problem with BAC testing devices is that they identify not only the ethyl alcohol (or
ethanol) found in alcohol beverages, but other substances which are similar in molecular structure.
The machines identify any compound containing the methyl group structure. Over one hundred
compounds can be found in the human breath at any one time, and 70 to 80% of them contain
methyl group structures and will be incorrectly detected as ethyl alcohol. It is important that the
more types of ethyl group substances the machine detects, the higher the false BAC estimate will
be.
Effect of Gender, Age, and Medical Conditions
Ɣ Dieters and diabetics can have acetone levels hundreds or even thousands of times higher than
what is considered to be normal. Acetone is one of the many substances that can be falsely
identified as ethyl alcohol by some breath machines. Furthermore, any number of other products
found in the environment can cause erroneous BAC results. These include compounds found in
lacquers, paint removers, celluloid, gasoline, and cleaning fluids. Other common causes of false
BAC levels are alcohol, blood, or vomit in the subject's mouth, electrical interference from cell
phones and police radios, tobacco smoke, dirt, and moisture.
Ɣ Breath testers can be very sensitive to temperature and will give false readings if not adjusted or
recalibrated to account for ambient or surrounding air temperatures. The temperature of the
subject is also very important. Each 1 qC of body temperature above normal will cause a
substantial elevation (about 8%) in apparent BAC.
Ɣ Many breath-testing machines assume a 2100:1 ratio in converting concentration of alcohol in the
breath to a concentration of alcohol in the blood. However, this ratio varies from 1900:1 to 2400:1
among different people and also within the same person over time. This variation will lead to false
BAC readings.
Ɣ Physical activity and hyperventilation can lower apparent BAC levels. One study found that the
BAC readings of subjects decreased 11 to 14% after running up one flight of stairs and 22 to 25%
after doing so twice. Another study found a 15% decrease in BAC readings after vigorous exercise
or hyperventilation.
Effectiveness of BAC Detectors
Ɣ Research indicates that breath tests vary at least 15% from actual blood alcohol concentration. At
least 23% (about one out of every four) of all individuals tested will have a BAC reading higher
than their actual BAC.
[A sample lab report, analyzing and evaluating the provided evidence, follows.]
Lab Report
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to use the stoichiometric method as part of a volumetric analysis.
Problem
What is the driver’s blood alcohol content?
Hypothesis
The evidence can be correctly interpreted to indicate the blood alcohol concentration of the suspect.
Design
A volume of blood is reacted with excess acidic potassium dichromate, heated, and allowed to stand
overnight. The sample is then titrated with a standardized iron(II) chloride solution using an
o-phenanthroline indicator. The chemical amount of unreacted potassium dichromate is determined

using a stoichiometric calculation. Another stoichiometric calculation is then used to determine the
chemical amount of ethanol in a blood sample.
Evidence
Volume of blood sample: 3.00 mL
Trial 1 2 3
Volume of blood sample (mL) 3.00 3.00 3.00
Volume of iron(II) solution (mL) 6.67 6.64 6.65
Analysis
1.00 u 102 mol
1. (a) nK 2Cr2 O7 K 2 Cr2 O7 u 3.00 u 10 3 L
L
= 3.00 u 105 mol
(b) 14 HCl(aq) + K2Cr2O7(aq) + 6 FeCl2(aq) Æ 2 CrCl3(aq) + 2 KCl(aq) + 6 FeCl3(aq) + 7 H2O(l)
6.67 mL + 6.64 mL + 6.65 mL
vave
3
= 6.65 mL
2.00 u 103 mol 1 mol K 2 Cr2 O 7
nK 2Cr2 O7 = FeCl3 u 0.00665 L u
L 6 mol FeCl3
= 2.22 u 106 mol
(c) nK 2Cr2O7 reacted in blood = nK 2Cr2O7 in excess nK2 Cr2 O7 left
= 3.00 u 105 mol 2.22 u 106 mol
= 2.778 u 105 mol
(d) 16 HCl(aq) + 2 K2Cr2O7(aq) + 3 C2H5OH(aq) o
4 CrCl3(aq) + 4 KCl(aq) + 3 CH3COOH(aq) + 11 H2O(l)
3 mol C H OH 1
> C2 H5OH @ = 2.778 u 105 K 2Cr2O7 mol u 2 mol K2 Cr5 O u 0.00300 L
2 2 7
= 0.0139 mol/L
(e)
To find the blood alcohol content, solve for x, which is the BAC using y — the amount
concentration.
y 0.2171x

y
x
0.2171
0.013894
0.2171
0.064 g/100 mL
Therefore, the blood alcohol content of the driver was 0.064 g/100 mL, according to the
titration data, which is below the legal limit.
Evaluation
The titration design is judged to be adequate because the problem was answered with no obvious
flaws. The technological skills were adequate, as evidenced by the consistency of the trials.
Furthermore, the sharp colour change of the indicator made it relatively easy to determine the
endpoint. On the basis of my evaluation of this experiment, I am quite confident in my results. The
main sources of uncertainty are found in the volume measurements.
Practice
(Page 336)
1. The equivalence point of an acidbase titration occurs when stoichiometrically equivalent
amounts of the acid and base have been combined. The endpoint of a titration, however, occurs
when there is observation of a sharp change in a measurable and characteristic property such as
the colour of an acidbase indicator.
2. (a)
(b) The equivalence point pH is seven because this situation is a titration of a strong monoprotic
acid with a strong monoprotic base. When each have contributed chemically equal amounts of
hydrogen (hydronium) and hydroxide ions, the pH will be neutral, by definition.
3. Methyl red has an intermediate colour of orange.
4. Appropriate indicators for an equivalence point pH of 4.4 are Congo red and bromocresol green.
Mini Investigation: SimulationTitration Curves

(Page 337)
(A written report is not required.)

Case Study: Analytic Measurement Technology
(Pages 337–338)
1. Societal needs that drive the development of increasingly sensitive measurement technology
include the need to trace the path of toxic substances in ecosystems and in the human body; the
need for purity of metals used in building computer chips; and the need to promote the normal
development of premature babies through proper nutrition that includes trace elements.
2. The ability to perform a quick, convenient, and non-invasive analysis of the body would be of
great benefit because it would facilitate early detection of diseases. However, in the wrong hands,
the use of a “tricorder” could be a huge infringement of individual rights and privacy. For
example, in a matter of seconds, your complete medical history could be in the hands of a passer-
by on the street, a prospective employer, or an investigator from your insurance company.
Investigation 8.6: Titration Analysis of ASA

(Pages 339, 345)
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to use titration analysis techniques to accurately determine the
ASA content of a consumer product: a standard pain-relief tablet.
Problem
What is the mass of ASA in a consumer tablet?
Evidence
Table 2: Volume of NaOH(aq) Required to React with One ASA Tablet
Trial 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading (mL) 13.1 25.8 38.4 13.3
Initial burette reading (mL) 0.1 13.1 25.8 0.7
Volume of NaOH(aq) added (mL) 13.0 12.7 12.6 12.6
Analysis
12.7 mL + 12.6 mL + 12.6 mL
3
C8H7O2COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) o NaC8H7O2COO(aq) + HOH(l)
m 12.6 mL
180.17 g/mol 0.144 mol/L
0.144 mol
nNaOH 12.6 m L u
1 L
1.82 mmol
1
nASA 1.82 mmol u
1
1.82 mmol
180.17 g
mASA 1.82 mmol u
1 mol
327 mg
or
0.144 mol NaOH 1 mol ASA 180.17 g
mASA 12.6 m L NaOH u u u
1 L NaOH 1 mol NaOH 1 mol ASA
327 mg ASA
According to the evidence collected, the mass of ASA in a consumer tablet was found to be 327 mg.

Evaluation
The titration design is judged to be adequate because the problem was answered with no obvious flaws
in the design. Titration is a common design for chemical analysis, and I am quite confident of the results.
The materials and procedure were adequate because sufficient evidence was obtained. The consistency
of the trials indicates that the technological skills are adequate. Overall, I am very certain of the results in
this experiment, given the evaluation results. The major sources of uncertainty are the mass and volume
(volumetric flasks, pipette, and burette) measurement errors and perhaps a little uncertainty in relation to
the endpoint. However, these uncertainties were not expected to cause more than 5% difference.
327 325 mg 2
% difference = u 100 = u 100 = 0.7%
325 mg 325
The experiment result is within 1% of the mass printed on the label of the jar of tablets.
The experiment is clearly adequate to accomplish the Purpose of this Investigation.

(Page 339)
1. Bromocresol green exhibits a colour change in the pH 3.8 to 5.4 range. Alizarin yellow, on the
other hand, undergoes a colour change between pH 10.1 and 12.0. Since the equivalence point of
the given solution is 4.8, bromocresol green is the better choice of indicator because it changes
colour around the equivalence point pH value.
2. Some titrant volume has to react with the indicator to make it change colour. If the quantity of the
indicator is very small, then the volume of titrant that reacts is too small to measure, and therefore
this “side” reaction will not affect the accuracy of the titration.
3. Congo red exhibits a visible colour change when the pH changes from 3 to 5. In the neutralization
reaction of nitric acid with sodium hydroxide (a strong monoprotic acid and a strong monoprotic
base), the equivalence point occurs at a pH of 7. The indicator endpoint of the titration will
therefore occur before the equivalence point is reached.
4. (a) To choose an appropriate indicator, you need to know the nature of the reacting species
meaning, whether the reactants are strong or weak acids and bases, as well as finding the
solution pH at the equivalence point of the reaction.
(b) You can obtain this information by using a pH meter and titration apparatus. Create a pH
curve by performing a titration. Once the endpoint is reached, continue the titration until a
large excess of titrant has been added. The equivalence point occurs at the inflection point of
the pH curve. Use this estimated pH value to select an appropriate indicator for the reaction.

5. You must know the concentration of one reactant solution accurately in order to calculate precise
results.
6. (a) Titration—the process of carefully measuring and controlling the addition of a solution (the
titrant) from a burette into a measured fixed volume of another solution (sample) until the
reaction is judged to be complete
(b) Titrant—the solution in the burette during a titration
(c) Endpoint—the point during a titration when a sudden change in some observable property of
the sample solution occurs, such as a change in colour, pH, or conductivity of the sample.
(d) Equivalence point—the point during a titration when the exact theoretical amount of titrant
has been added to the sample, or in other words, when chemically equivalent amounts of
reactants have been combined.
7. (a) The Erlenmeyer flask holds the sample and collects the titrant as it is added to the sample. It
contains the reaction between the titrant and sample.
(b) The volumetric pipette is used to ensure that precise volumes of the sample are transferred to
the Erlenmeyer flask.
(c) A burette is used to precisely measure the volume of titrant added to the reaction vessel during
a titration.
(d) A meniscus finder is used to read (with a greater level of accuracy) level of the meniscus
present in the burette in order to accurately determine the volume of titrant added to the
sample.
8. (a) 0.120 mol
nNa 2CO3 100.0 m L u
1 L
12.0 mmol
105.99 g
mNa 2CO3 12.0 m mol u
1 mol
1.27 u 103 mg = 1.27 g
(b) Procedure
Part 1 – Preparation of Primary Standard
1. Obtain the predicted mass of sodium carbonate and place it in a clean, dry beaker on a lab
balance.
2. Dissolve the solid in 40–50 mL of pure water.
3. Transfer the solution to a volumetric flask.
4. Add pure water to the flask and use the meniscus finder to bring up the volume of water to
the 100 mL mark.
5. Place the stopper in the flask and mix the contents thoroughly by inverting the flask
several times.
Part 2 Standardization of HCl (aq)
6. Allow several millilitres of the Na2CO3(aq) solution to flow through a burette, making
sure that the solution wets all of the inside surfaces.
7. Fill the wetted burette with the Na2CO3(aq) solution and record the volume in a suitable
chart.
8. Transfer 10.0 mL of the hydrochloric acid solution to a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask.
9. Add 25 mL of previously boiled distilled water and 4 drops of phenolphthalein indicator
to the flask.
10. Place the flask containing the hydrochloric acid solution over a sheet of white paper and
titrate with the sodium carbonate solution in the burette until the endpoint is reached.
11. Repeat steps 8 to 10 two more times.
12. Dispose of all solutions in the sink, and flush with lots of water.

(c) She should wear eye protection and a lab apron, and wash her hands immediately if they come
into contact with any of the lab solutions.
9. Evidence
Table 1: Titration of 10.00 mL of 0.120 mol/L Na2CO3(aq) with HCl(aq)
Trial 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading (mL) 17.9 35.0 22.9 40.1
Initial burette reading (mL) 0.3 17.9 5.9 22.9
Volume of HCl(aq) added (mL) 17.6 17.1 17.0 17.2
Colour at endpoint red orange orange orange
Analysis
17.1 mL + 17.0 mL + 17.2 mL
best average volume of HCl(aq) = = 17.1 mL
3
2 HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) o H2O(l) + CO2(g) + 2 NaCl(aq)
17.1 mL 10.00 mL
c 0.120 mol/L
0.120 mol
n 10.00 m L u
Na 2 CO3 1 L
1.20 mmol
2
n 1.20 mmol u
HCl 1
2.40 mmol
2.40 m mol
[HCl]
17.1 m L
0.140 mol/L
or
0.120 mol Na 2 CO3 2 mol HCl 1
[HCl] 10.00 m L Na 2 CO3 u u u
1 L Na 2 CO3 1 mol Na 2 CO 3 17.1 m L HCl
0.140 mol/L HCl
According to the evidence, the amount concentration of the hydrochloric acid solution is
0.140 mol/L.

Chapter 8 SUMMARY
Make a Summary
(Page 346)
1.
2. 1. The colour of a solution may indicate the ions present. In some cases, the presence of more than
one ion may make ion identification difficult. As well, ions may need to be present in significant
concentrations to affect solution colour. Finally, many ions are colourless in solution.
2. No; since not all reactions proceed to completion, and a calculation assumes that reactants
convert completely to products. As well, there are many normal sources of error in actual
reaction situations.
3. No. Even for the simplest case of gases reacting under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure, where the law of combining volumes can be used to determine the chemical amount
of a second reactant, this still involves multiplying by a stoichiometric ratio.
4. The pH of the basic solution would decrease, but not uniformly. It decreases slowly for a
while, then very rapidly, then slowly again.
Chapter 8 REVIEW
Part 1
(Page 347)
1. C
2. D
3. B
4. B
5. 87.4
6. A
7. B
8. 181
9. B
10. A
11. C
12. D

Chapter 8 SUMMARY
Make a Summary
(Page 346)
1.
2. 1. The colour of a solution may indicate the ions present. In some cases, the presence of more than
one ion may make ion identification difficult. As well, ions may need to be present in significant
concentrations to affect solution colour. Finally, many ions are colourless in solution.
2. No; since not all reactions proceed to completion, and a calculation assumes that reactants
convert completely to products. As well, there are many normal sources of error in actual
reaction situations.
3. No. Even for the simplest case of gases reacting under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure, where the law of combining volumes can be used to determine the chemical amount
of a second reactant, this still involves multiplying by a stoichiometric ratio.
4. The pH of the basic solution would decrease, but not uniformly. It decreases slowly for a
while, then very rapidly, then slowly again.
Chapter 8 REVIEW
Part 1
(Page 347)
1. C
2. D
3. B
4. B
5. 87.4
6. A
7. B
8. 181
9. B
10. A
11. C
12. D

Solutions:
5. 2.16 g
percent yield = u 100 87.4%
2.47 g
8. NaOH(aq) + CH3 COOH(aq) o NaCH3 COO(aq) + H 2 O(l)
0.125 mol/L c
14.5 mL 10.00 mL
0.125 mol
nNaOH = 14.5 m L u
1 L
1.81 mmol
1
nCH3COOH = 1.81 mmol u
1
1.81 mmol
1
> CH COOH(aq)@ = 1.81
3 m mol u
10.00 m L
0.181 mol/L
or
0.125 mol NaOH 1 mol CH 3COOH
> CH COOH(aq)@ = 14.5
3 m L NaOH u
1 L NaOH
u
1 mol NaOH
1
u
10.00 m L CH 3COOH
0.181mol/L CH 3COOH
Part 2
(Pages 347-348)
13.
Limiting reagent Excess reagent Chemical amount of excess reagent remaining
unreacted
(a) sodium chloride lead(II) nitrate 0.075 mol lead(II) nitrate
(b) oxygen propane 1.00 mol propane
(c) acetic acid zinc 0.50 mol zinc
(d) sodium hydroxide sulphuric acid 50 mmol sulphuric acid
Solutions:
(a) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 NaCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)
0.250 mol 0.350 mol
0.250 mol of lead(II) nitrate require 0.250 mol u 2/1 = 0.500 mol of sodium chloride for
complete reaction, so sodium chloride is the limiting reagent. It will react with
0.350 mol u ½ = 0.175 mol of lead(II) nitrate.
There will be an excess of 0.250 mol – 0.175 mol = 0.075 mol of unreacted lead(II) nitrate.
(b) C3H4(g) + 5 O2(g) 3 CO2(g) + 4 H3O(g)
5.00 mol 20.00 mol
5.00 mol of propane require 5.00 mol u 5/1 = 25.0 mol of oxygen for complete reaction, so
oxygen is the limiting reagent. It will react with 20.00 mol u 1/5 = 4.00 mol of propane.
There will be an excess of 5.00 mol – 4.00 mol = 1.00 mol of unreacted propane.

(c) Zn(s) + 2 CH3COOH(aq) Zn(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2(g)
1.00 mol 1.00 mol
1.00 mol of zinc requires 1.00 mol u 2/1 = 2.00 mol of acetic acid for complete reaction, so
acetic acid is the limiting reagent. It will react with 1.00 mol u ½ = 0.500 mol of zinc.
There will be an excess of 1.00 mol – 0.500 mol = 0.50 mol of unreacted zinc.
(d) H2SO4(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H3O(l)
300 mmo 500 mmol
300 mmol of sulfuric acid require 300 mmol u 2/1 = 600 mmol of sodium hydroxide for
complete reaction, so sodium hydroxide is the limiting reagent. It will react with
500 mmol u ½ = 250 mmol of sulfuric acid.
There will be an excess of 300 mmol – 250 mmol = 50 mmol of unreacted sulfuric acid.
14. Cu(s) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) o 2 Ag (s) + Cu(NO3)2 (aq)
4.54 L m
0.0756 mol/L 107.87 g/mol
The predicted mass of Ag formed is
0.0756 mol
nAgNO3 = 4.54 L u
1L
= 0.343 mol
2
nAg = 0.343 mol u
2
= 0.343 mol
107.87 g
mAg = 0.343 mol u
1 mol
= 37.0 g
or
0.0756 mol AgNO3 2 mol Ag 107.87 g Ag
mAg = 4.54 L AgNO3 u u u
1 L AgNO3 2 mol AgNO3 1 mol Ag
37.0 g Ag
29.5 g
29.5 g of Ag are actually produced, so% yield = u 100 = 79.7%
37.0 g
15. CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) o CuCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
750 mL V= ?
0.0634 mol/L 1.00 mol/L
0.0634 mol
nCuSO4 = 0.750 L u
1L
= 0.0476 mol
1
nNa 2 CO3 = 0.0476 mol u
1
= 0.0476 mol
1L
VNa 2 CO3 = 0.0476 mol u
1 mol
= 0.0476 L = 47.6 mL
or

0.0634 mol CuSO 4 1 mol Na 2 CO3 1 L Na 2 CO3
VNa 2 CO3 = 0.750 L CuSO 4 u u u
1 L CuSO 4 1 mol CuSO 4 1.00 mol Na 2 CO3
0.0476 L Na 2 CO3 47.6 mL Na 2 CO3
A reasonable excess volume of sodium carbonate solution to use would be at least
110% u 47.6 mL = 52.4 mL.
16. Zn(s) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) o Pb (s) + Zn(NO3)2 (aq)
65.41 g/mol 375 mL
0.100 mol/L
0.100 mol
nPb(NO3 )2 = 0.375 L u
1L
= 0.0375 mol
1
nZn = 0.0375 mol u
1
= 0.0375 mol
65.41 g
mZn = 0.0375 mol u
1 mol
= 2.45 g
or
0.100 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Zn 65.41 g Zn
mZn = 0.375 L Pb(NO3 ) 2 u u u
1 L Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Pb(NO3 ) 2 1 mol Zn
= 2.45 g Zn
A reasonable excess quantity of zinc to be used to recover the lead would be 110% u 2.45 g =
2.70 g.
17. Curves in Table 1:
Titration Volume of titrant used pH at the Suitable indicator
to reach the equivalence point
equivalence point (mL)
(a) strong base added
to strong acid 20 7 bromothymol blue or litmus
(b) strong base added
to weak acid 20 9 phenolphthalein
(c) strong acid added
to weak base 20 5 bromocresol green
(d) strong acid added
to strong base 20 7 bromothymol blue or litmus
18. When the precipitate in the reaction beaker has settled, a medicine dropper may be used to add a
few drops of the excess reagent solution (the potassium iodide solution) to the clear liquid above
the precipitate in the beaker. No further precipitate formation should be observed, indicating that
the reaction is complete. If more precipitate is formed by the added drops, not enough of the
excess reagent has been used, and more must be added.
19. Analysis
Table 1: Titration of 10.0 mL Samples of Na2CO3(aq) with HCl(aq)
Trial 1 2 3 4
final burette reading (mL) 16.1 31.5 46.9 16.9
initial burette reading (mL) 0.2 16.1 31.5 1.5
volume used 15.9 15.4 15.4 15.4
indicator colour red orange orange orange
15.4 mL + 15.4 mL + 15.4 mL
Best average volume of HCl(aq) = = 15.4 mL
3

1 mol
nNa 2CO3 1.74 g u
105.81 g
0.0164 mol
0.164 mol
> Na 2CO3 (aq)@ 0.100 L
0.0164 mol/L
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) o H2O(l) + CO2(g) + 2 NaCl(aq)
10.00 mL 15.4 mL
0.0164 mol/L c
0.0164 mol
nNa 2CO3 10.00 m L u
1 L
0.164 mmol
2
nHCl 0.164 mmol u
1
0.328 mmol
0.328 m mol
[HCl]
15.4 m L
0.0213 mol/L = 21.3 mmol/L
or
0.0164 mol Na 2 CO3 2 mol HCl 1
[HCl] 10.00 m L Na 2 CO3 u u u
1 L Na 2 CO3 1 mol Na 2 CO3 15.4 m L HCl
0.0213 mol/L HCl = 21.3 mmol/L HCl
According to the evidence collected, the amount concentration of the hydrochloric acid solution is
0.0213 mol/L, or 21.3 mmol/L.

UNIT 4 REVIEW
Part 1
(Pages 349–350)
1. D
2. 2, 1, 1, 1
3. D
4. 480
5. A
6. C
7. A
8. 2.00
9. A
10. B
11. B
12. D
13. A
14. B
15. 260
16. 8.52
17. B
Solutions:
2
4. nNH3 = 240 mol u
1
480 mol
8. 2 H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) o 2 H 2 O(l)
4.00 mol 4.00 mol
4.00 mol of hydrogen require 4.00 mol u ½ = 2.00 mol of oxygen for reaction, so hydrogen is the
limiting reagent.
The chemical amount of excess oxygen remaining unreacted will be (4.00 – 2.00) mol = 2.00 mol.
15. C2H5COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) o NaC2H5COO(aq) + H2O(l)
10.00 mL 14.0 mL
c 0.186 mol/L
0.186 mol
nNaOH 14.0 m L u
1 L
2.60 mmol
1
nC2 H5COOH 2.60 mmol u
1
2.60 mmol
2.60 m mol
[C 2 H5 COOH]
10.00 m L
0.260 mol/L = 260 mmol/L
or

0.186 mol NaOH 1 mol C2 H 5 COOH
[C2 H5 COOH] 14.0 m L NaOH u u
1 L NaOH 1 mol NaOH
1
u
10.00 m L C 2 H 5 COOH
0.260 mol/L = 260 mmol/L C2 H 5 COOH
16. Cr2O3(s) + 2 Al(s) o 2 Cr(s) + Al2O3(s)
20.0 g m
152.00 g/mol 26.98 g/mol
1 mol
nCr2O3 20.0 g u
152.00 g
0.132 mol
2
nAl 0.132 mol u
1
0.263 mol
26.98 g
mAl 0.263 mol u
1 mol
7.10 g
or
1 mol Cr2 O3 2 mol Al 26.98 g Al
mAl 20.0 g Cr2 O 3 u u u
152.00 g Cr2 O3 1 mol Cr2 O3 1 mol Al
7.10 g Al
mass of Al(s) required to have a 20% excess = 120% u 7.10 g 8.52 g
Part 2
(Pages 350–351)
18. Chemical reactions are assumed to be (i) spontaneous—they happen when reactants are initially
mixed, (ii) fast—the reactions reach completion within a short time, (iii) quantitative—reactions
reach >99% completion, and (iv) stoichiometric—reactants react in simple whole-number ratios of
chemical amount according to the balanced equation for the reaction.
19. The limiting reagent is completely consumed during the chemical reaction. The excess reagent has
some quantity remaining after the limiting reagent has been consumed and the reaction ceases.
The purpose of deliberately using an excess of one reagent is to ensure that all of the other
substance reacts.
20. In a gravimetric analysis, once a precipitate has formed, a few drops of the excess reagent are
allowed to run down the side of the container and into the solution above the precipitate. If no
more precipitate forms, then the reaction is complete.
21. (a) In titration analysis, the reaction is complete when the selected indicator changes colour.

(b)
The pH at the equivalence point will be 7.

(c) Nitric acid is a strong monoprotic acid; sodium hydroxide is a strong base; and bromothymol
blue is an indicator that changes colour around pH 7.
22. 3 CaCl2 (aq) 2 Na 3 PO 4 (aq) o Ca 3 (PO 4 )2 (s) + 6 NaCl(aq)
3 Ca 2+ (aq) + 6 Cl (aq) 6 Na + (aq) + 2 PO 43 (aq) o Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 (s) + 6 Na + (aq) + 6 Cl (aq)
3 Ca 2+ (aq) 2 PO 43 (aq) o Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 (s) (only this equation is required of students)
23. Chloride ions and sodium ions are the spectator ions. Although present in the reaction volume,
these ions do not take part in any chemical changes, so these ions (only) are described as
“spectators.”
actual yield
24. (a) % yield u 100
predicted yield
2.47 g
u 100 106%
2.34 g
(b) This answer is unusual because measurement seems to indicate that more product was
obtained than was predicted (the theoretical maximum). Possible sources of experimental
uncertainty include a lab balance error, foreign material in the precipitate (due to not being
washed thoroughly enough), and water in the precipitate (not being dry enough).
25. 2 Fe2O3(s) + 3 C(s) o 4 Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g)
1.00 t m
159.70 g/mol 55.85 g/mol
1 mol
nFe2 O3 1.00 u 106 g u
159.70 g
6.26 u 103 mol
4
nFe 6.26 u 103 mol u
2
1.25 u 104 mol
55.85 g
mFe 1.25 u 104 mol u
1 mol
6.99 u 105 g
699 kg

or
1 mol Fe 2 O3 4 mol Fe 55.85 g Fe
mFe 1.00 u 106 g Fe 2 O3 u u u
159.70 g Fe 2 O3 2 mol Fe 2 O3 1 mol Fe
699 kg Fe
26. (a) Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) o ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
0.42 mol 0.22 mol
1
nZn 0.22 mol u
1
0.22 mol
1
nCuSO4 0.42 mol u
1
0.42 mol
Since 0.42 mol CuSO4(aq) is required to react with 0.42 mol of Zn(s) but only 0.22 mol is
available, copper(II) sulfate is the limiting reagent and zinc is the excess reagent. The
chemical amount of zinc remaining unreacted is 0.42 mol – 0.22 mol = 0.20 mol.
(b) Cl2(aq) + 2 NaI(aq) o 2 NaCl(aq) + I2(aq)
10 mmol 10 mmol
1
nCl2 10 mmol u
2
5.0 mmol
2
nNaI 10 mmol u
1
20 mmol
Since 20 mmol NaI is required to react with 10 mmol Cl2 but only 10 mmol is available, NaI
is the limiting reagent and Cl2 is the excess reagent. The chemical amount of chlorine
remaining unreacted is 10 mmol – 5.0 mmol = 5.0 mmol.
(c) AlCl3(aq) + 3 NaOH(aq) o Al(OH)3(s) + 3 NaCl(aq)
20 g 20 g
133.33 g/mol 40.00 g/mol
1 mol
nAlCl3 20 g u
133.33 g
0.15 mol
1 mol
nNaOH 20 g u
40.00 g
0.50 mol
If AlCl3 is the limiting reagent, the chemical amount of NaOH required would be
3
nNaOH 0.15 mol u
1
0.45 mol
Sodium hydroxide is therefore in excess. The chemical amount of NaOH remaining unreacted
is 0.50 mol – 0.45 mol = 0.05 mol.
27. 2 NaN3(s) o 2 Na(s) + 3 N2(g)
m 70 L
65.02 g/mol 20 qC = 293K
98.5 kPa

PV nRT
PV
nN 2
RT
98.5 kPa u 70 L
kPa L
8.314 u 293 K
mol K
nN 2 2.8 mol
2
nNaN3 2.8 mol u
3
1.9 mol
65.02 g
mNaN3 1.9 mol u
1 mol
1.2 u 102 g = 0.12 kg
or
1 mol Na 1 mol Cl2 8.314 kPa Cl2 • L Cl 2 303.15 K Cl2
mNaN3 105 k g Na u u u u
22.99 g Na 2 mol Na 1 mol Cl2 • K Cl2 95.7 kPa Cl2
60.1 kL Cl2
1 K N 2 • 1 mol N 2 98.5 kPa N 2 2 mol NaN3 65.02 g NaN 3
mNaN3 70 L N 2 u u u u
8.314 kPa N 2 • 1 L N 2 293 K N 2 3 mol N 2 1 mol NaN3
1.2 u 102 g = 0.12 kg NaN3
28. The other assumptions are that the reaction is stoichiometric and quantitative.
29. Sodium metal is highly reactive when it comes into contact with water. Water in the atmosphere
as well as on the skin of an individual, poses a threat if the bag is punctured and sodium metal
escapes. As well, high levels of nitrogen gas could displace oxygen in the car and cause the
passengers to suffocate.
30. (a) Potassium nitrate (KNO3) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) are also included.
(b) These compounds function to remove the sodium metal, which is highly reactive and
potentially explosive, by converting it to a harmless material. First, sodium reacts with
potassium nitrate to produce potassium oxide, sodium oxide, and additional nitrogen gas that
further fills the air bag. The metal oxides produced then react with the silicon dioxide to
produce silicate glass, which is harmless and stable.
(c) From an economic perspective, air bags help prevent serious head injuries. This outcome has
led to a significant reduction in the number of deaths and a reduction in the severity of injuries
sustained during car accidents. Reduction in head trauma incurred during car accidents saves
the health-care system from a significant expense.
Air bags are less helpful for short people, young children, and pregnant women and
can cause such individuals serious injury. Furthermore, undetonated airbags still contain
explosive sodium azide, which can endanger recycling workers and damage equipment. There
is currently no standard in place for the safe disposal of this chemical.
31. H3PO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) o NaH2PO4(aq) + H2O(l)
27.8 mL V
0.115 mol/L 0.245 mol/L

0.115 mol
nH3PO4 27.8 m L u
1 L
3.20 mmol
1
nNaOH 3.20 mmol u
1
3.20 mmol
3.20 m mol
VNaOH
0.245 mol /L
13.0 mL
or
0.115 mol H 3 PO 4 1 mol NaOH 1 L NaOH
VNaOH 27.8 m L H 3 PO 4 u u u
1 L H 3 PO 4 1 mol H3 PO 4 0.245 mol NaOH
13.0 mL NaOH
The minimum volume of sodium hydroxide required for the reaction would be 13.0 mL.
32. NH3(g) + HCl(g) o NH4Cl(s)
2.00 g 2.00 g m
17.04 g/mol 36.46 g/mol 53.50 g/mol
1 mol
nHCl 2.00 g u
36.46 g
0.0549 mol
1 mol
nNH3 2.00 g u
17.04 g
0.117 mol
If HCl(g) is the limiting reagent, the chemical amount of NH3(g) required is
1
nNH3 0.0549 mol u
1
0.0549 mol
Much more NH3(g) than this is present, so HCl(g) is therefore the limiting reagent.
1 mol
33. nHCl 2.00 g u
36.46 g
0.0549 mol
1
nNH4 Cl 0.0549 mol u
1
0.0549 mol
53.50 g
mNH4 Cl 0.0549 mol u
1 mol
2.93 g
or
1 mol HCl 1 mol NH 4 Cl 53.50 g NH 4 Cl
mNH4 Cl 2.00 g HCl u u u
36.46 g HCl 1 mol HCl 1 mol NH 4 Cl
2.93 g NH 4 Cl
The solid product would be ammonium chloride, of which 2.93 g would form.

34. (a) NH3(g) is the excess reactant, some of which will remain when the reaction is complete.
(b) The mass of ammonia that reacts is
1 mol
nHCl 2.00 g u
36.46 g
0.0549 mol
1
nNH3 0.0549 mol u
1
0.0549 mol
17.04 g
mNH3 0.0549 mol u
1 mol
0.935 g
or
1 mol HCl 1 mol NH 3 17.04 g NH 3
mNH3 2.00 g HCl u u u
36.46 g HCl 1 mol HCl 1 mol NH 3
0.935 g NH 3
so the mass of ammonia remaining unreacted is (2.00 – 0.935) g = 1.07 g
35. The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass of reactants consumed is equal to the
total mass of products formed. In this reaction, 2.00 g of HCl reacts with 0.934 g of ammonia to
form 2.93 g of ammonium chloride, and
2.00 g + 0.934 g = 2.93 g
The calculations therefore produce values that support the law of conservation of mass.
36. Prediction
Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq) o MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
m 100.0 mL
24.31 g/mol 1.00 mol/L
1.00 mol
nHCl 100.0 m L u
1 L
100 mmol
1
nMg 100 mmol u
2
50.0 mmol
24.31 g
mMg 50.0 m mol u
1 mol
1.22 u 103 mg = 1.22 g
or
1.00 mol HCl 1 mol Mg 24.31 g Mg
mMg 0.1000 L HCl u u u
1 L HCl 2 mol HCl 1 mol Mg
1.22 g Mg
Analysis
(experimental) mass of Mg that reacted = (3.72 – 2.45) g = 1.27 g

Evaluation
1.27 g 1.22 g 0.05 g
% difference u 100 = 4%
1.22 g 1.22 g
The results obtained experimentally are within 5% of the value predicted using stoichiometry. The
result therefore validates the stoichiometric method for predicting the chemical amount of
substance that reacts.
37. Ɣ Scientists, engineers, and technologists use mathematics with stoichiometry theory to predict
quantities of reagents that are involved in chemical reactions. Technology is needed for
accurate measurement of the various reagent quantities such as mass, volume, and
concentration. Scientists can then mathematically convert these quantities into a chemical
amount (in moles). Once the chemical amount of any one reagent is calculated, multiplying by
the mole ratio with any other reagent will convert it into the chemical amount of the second
reagent. Therefore by using mathematics, predictions can be made about the yield of products
or the required chemical amount of reactants for chemical reactions.
Ɣ A balanced chemical equation allows chemists to understand the relative chemical amounts of
the entities that are involved in the reaction. With this knowledge, chemists can use a mole
ratio to convert the chemical amount of one of the reagents into the chemical amount of
another. Once the mole ratio is determined, it is possible to use stoichiometric calculations to
predict the yield of a product from a known quantity of the limiting reactant.

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CHAPTER 7 Stoichiometry

Exploration: The Problem Is What You Don’t See!

7.1 INTERPRETING CHEMICAL REACTION EQUATIONS

208 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Web Activity: Canadian Achievers—Roberta Bondar

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 209

Section 7.1 Questions

210 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 211

Investigation 7.1: Decomposing Malachite

212 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 213

214 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 215

Lab Exercise 7.A: Testing the Stoichiometric Method

216 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Investigation 7.2: Gravimetric Stoichiometry

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 217

218 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Lab Exercise 7.B: Testing a Chemical Process

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 219

Section 7.2 Questions

220 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 221

7.3 GAS STOICHIOMETRY

222 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

7.3 GAS STOICHIOMETRY

222 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Investigation 7.3: Producing Hydrogen

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 223

224 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Case Study: Producing Hydrogen for Fuel Cells

Section 7.3 Questions

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 225

226 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 227

228 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

7.4 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY

Investigation 7.4: Analysis of Silver Nitrate (Demonstration)

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 229

7.4 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY

Investigation 7.4: Analysis of Silver Nitrate (Demonstration)

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 229

230 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 231

Lab Exercise 7.C: Testing Solution Stoichiometry

232 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Lab Exercise 7.D: Determining a Solution Concentration

Section 7.4 Questions

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 233

234 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 235

236 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

236 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 237

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 237

238 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson Unit 4 Solutions Manual 239

240 Unit 4 Solutions Manual Copyright © 2007 Thomson Nelson

Mini Investigation: SimulationTitration Curves