Pharmacy Book (Sir Zia Notes)
Pharmacy Book (Sir Zia Notes)
Pharmacy Book (Sir Zia Notes)
of Contents
1. PHARMACY ORIENTATION 420
2. SOLUTIONS 2145
3. SOLUBILITY 4667
4. IONIC EQUILIBRIA 6879
5. BUFFER 8090
6. HYDROLYSIS 9193
7. MICROMERITICS 94104
8. COLLOIDS 105127
9. EMULSIONS 128150
PHARMACY ORIENTATION
PHARMACY
Pharmacy is derived from a Greek word “Pharmakon” which means drug, remedy or
medicine. Pharmacy is an ancient noble and life saying profession. It is also called mother of
medicine
The term "Pharmacy" can be defined In following three ways:
"Pharmacy is an art & science of preparing from natural & synthetic sources, suitable &
convenient material used in the treatment and prevention of diseases
OR
The term "Pharmacy" can be defined In following three ways:
Pharmacy can be defined as the knowledge of identification, selection, pharmaceutical action,
preservation, combination, analysis, and standardization of drugs end medicines”
OR
“Pharmacy also includes proper and safe distribution of drugs and medicines by the
prescriptions of physician, dentist and veterinarian & in some instances it may legally be done
dispensed & sold directly to the patient
“Pharmacy is a Health service. It is a System, which generate knowledge about sickness &
health of patient. It also takes knowledge from other sciences, arts & organizes and then used such
knowledge & technologies for the preparation of products.
PHARMACIST
A person who qualifies a degree of pharmacy is called Pharmacist. Pharmacist is only man
who is expert on drugs & knows the spirit of drugs. It is his /her responsibility to handle drugs &
also to know all about drugs. In order to provide sufficient information about drugs to other health
practitioner or to people on large scale
Pharmacist is the only member of health professional team, who has educational background
experience to serve as therapeutic consultant.
Pharmacist is an important source of information not only the health professional team
(Physician, Dentist, Nurse, Veterinarian etc) but also to the public on the matter relating to the
selection & use of various dosage forms of drugs.
DOCTOR
A person who possesses a degree of MBB5 is called doctor.
He is the person who is Responsible to diagnose the disease, prescribe drugs and also
interested in the effects of these drugs on the .patient, either they may be the therapeutical value or
toxicology
A therapeutical value means treatment effect of drug while toxicology means poisonous or
severe side effect of drugs
If therapeutic index is small, then the drug is dangerous and so must be taken under
professional supervision. These are called the potent drugs. And if the therapeutic index
Chapter # 2
SOLUTIONS
PHARMACIST
A person who qualities a degree of pharmacy in called pharmacist. Pharmacist is only
man, who is expert on drug & knows the spirit or drugs.
It is his/her responsibility to handle drugs & also to know all about drugs.
In order to provide sufficient information about drugs to other health practitioner
or to people on large scale.
Pharmacist is the only member of health professional team, who has educational
background & experience to serve as therapeutic consultant.
Pharmacist is an important source of information not only the health
professional team (Physician, Dentist, Nurse, Veterinarian, etc) but also to the public on
matter relating to the selection & use of various dosage forms of drugs.
DOCTOR:
A person who possesses a degree of MBBS is called doctor.
He is the person, who is responsible to diagnose the disease,
prescribe drugs and also interested in the effects of these drugs on the patient,
either they may be therapeutical value or toxicology.
A therapeutical value means treatment effect of drug while toxicology means
poisonous or serve side effect of drugs.
Therapeutic Index = Effective Dose50 / Lethal Dose50 = ED50 / LD50
If therapeutic index is small, then the drug is dangerous and so must be taken under
professional supervision.
These are called the potent drugs. And if the therapeutic index of a drug is large. It will not
toxic to health, so they are called nonpotent drugs.
NURSE:
Nurse is responsible for the patient care during administration of drug to the patient.
Nurse is also responsible for the choice form, selection of route of administration
& toxic manifestation.
PHARMACEUTICAL EDUCATION:
Pharmaceutical education in Pakistan is given in eight
institutions, which give degree of pharmacy and further, education too. Out of eight
institutions five are faculties and rests of are departments.
S Year
Name of institution
#
194
1 Faculty of pharmacy, Punjab university, Lahore
8
196
2 Faculty of pharmacy, Karachi
4
197
3 Faculty of pharmacy, University of Sindah, Jamshoro
4
197
4 Faculty of pharmacy, Gomal university , D. I. Khan
5
197
5 Faculty of pharmacy, BahaudDin Zakria university, Multan
6
198
6 Department of pharmacy, Queta
0
198
7 Department of pharmacy, University of Peshawar
2
199
8 Department of pharmacy, Islamia University, Bahawalpur
0
COURCES OF PHARMACY:
There are two types of courses studied in pharmacy.
A. Pre requisite courses
B. Professional courses
A. PREREQUISITE COURSES:
Those courses, which are other than professional courses, are called pre
requisite courses.
Such courses provide background knowledge for professional pharmacy courses.
They included:
1. Physical science
2. Biological science
3. Mathematics, statistics, computer science etc
B. PROFESSIONAL COURSES:
Beside prerequisite courses some other combination of subjects are
taught in pharmacy according to professional requirements, which make the pharmacy a
professional course. After completing graduation, a pharmacist can do post graduate &
doctorate in such subjects. Such type of subjects includes.
1. Pharmaceutics
2. Pharmacology
3. Pharmacognosy
4. Pharmaceutical chemistry
5. Biochemistry
6. MicroBiology
1. Pharmaceutics:
The general area of study which concerned itself physical, chemical &
biological factors which influence the formulation, manufacture, stability &
effectiveness of pharmaceutical dosage form is called pharmaceutics. It includes:
a. Introductory pharmacy
b. Calculations
c. Pharmaceutical preparation
d. Pharmaceutical Techniques
e. Dispensing Pharmacy
f. Physical Pharmacy
g. BioPharmaceutics
h. Clinical Pharmacy
i. Pharmacy Administration
j. Industrial Pharmacy
2. Pharmacology
That type of professional course, which deals with the study of action & use of
drugs on biological systems, is called pharmacology.
In other words, it is the study of action and use of drugs in living humans and
animals bodies.
3. Pharmacoganosy
It deals with the study of medical plants & drugs with herbal & animal origin.
Pharmacoganosy also concern with the isolation techniques, testing products &
uses of drugs with herbal or animal origin.
4. Pharmaceutical chemistry
Pharmaceutical chemistry is the study of application of basic organic &inorganic
chemistry to pharmaceutical and relation of these principles to drug use.
5. Biochemistry
The study of chemistry of biological changes inside the body is known as
pharmaceutical biochemistry. Pharmaceutical biochemistry provides a basic knowledge of
biochemical changes during drug use and action.
6. MicroBiology
The study of microorganism such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasite etc is said to be
microbiology.
PHARMACEUTICAL AGENTS
Some drugs or medicines have their active ingredient in very small quantities i.e. in
few milligrams. So such drug substances cannot be administered as such but it can be
combined with some other agent. Such agents are called pharmaceutical agents.
The pharmaceutical agents are nonmedicinal in nature. They may be one or more
that one in number. They are added in to drugs in order to improve pharmaceutical
dosage function of pharmaceutical formation (dosage form). These agents may be
solubelize, suspend, emulsify, thicken, dilute, stable, preserve & give color, flavor &
fashion to the drug of medical dosage forms.
DOSAGE FORMS
The way by which a drug or medicine is administered to the patient is called dosage form,
there are many dosage forms, and some are given below:
Liquid used for medical; purposes to be taken orally a intended to care and ill.
1. Tablets
2. Syrups
3. Capsules
4. Injectables
5. Emulsions
6. Elixirs
7. Aerosols
8. Suppositories,
9. Suspensions
10. Collusions etc.
BRANCHES OF PHARMACY
Pharmacy can be divided into many subgroups. This classification of pharmacy is
based open the matter that where pharmacist is working. Some important subgroups are
as follows:
1) Hospital pharmacy
2) Retail pharmacy
3) Clinical pharmacy
4) Industrial pharmacy
5) Forensic pharmacy
1. HOSPITAL PHARMACY:
The function of hospital is to provide health care to the patient. In its organizational
structure, it consists of many departments which are coordinated in their work and
their common take is to provide health care facilities to the patient. In theses
departments, one is hospital pharmacy.
Hospital pharmacy can be defined in to way on the basis of its services i.e.
Departmental services and professional services.
Hospital pharmacy is a department in hospital under the direction of a legally
qualified and professionally competent pharmacist. Where all medicines and related
supplies are stocked, dispensed on prescription to in & out patients supplied to the
nursing units, manufactured in bulk & Injectables are prepared & sterilized.
On the basis of professional services it can be defined as it is an organization where
special types of services called professional services are [provided and this is modern
practice of hospital pharmacy. Such services include:
1. Participation in educational programs for patient, nurse and medical staff.
2. Poison control centre activities
3. Drug information centre
4. Preparation of patient drug use profile
5. Parenteral nutrition program
6. Communicating new drugs information to hospital personnel
7. Dispensing and research of radiopharmaceuticals
RESPONSIBILITIES OF HOSPITAL PHARMACIST
‘’A hospital pharmacist is a competent & well qualified pharmacist.’’ Some of the
important responsibilities of hospital pharmacist are given below:
1. Manufacturing of pharmaceuticals & dispensing of drugs, chemical &
pharmaceutical preparation is one of important responsibility of hospital
pharmacist.
2. The filling and labelling of all drug container used in various wards is
responsibility of hospital pharmacist.
3. Hospital pharmacist also has responsibility to inspect the pharmaceutical supply.
4. Maintenance of emergency drug is also the part of work of hospital pharmacist.
5. He should check the specification of both quality & source after purchase of
drugs, chemicals, antibiotics, biological & pharmaceutical preparations is the
responsibility of hospital pharmacist.
6. Hospital pharmacist must have professional knowledge particularly about drug
stability etc.
7. Hospital pharmacist provides information to nurses & medical staff and in some
cases to patients about drugs & medicines.
8. Hospital pharmacist also has responsibility to control the supply of drug to
hospital.
9. Pharmacist has duty to supply the medication to the nursing unit which further
delivers them to nurses.
10. Hospital pharmacist is also responsible to maintain patient medication record
(PMR).
11. He should identify the drug & medicines which are brought into the hospital
pharmacist.
12. Hospital pharmacist obtains medication history of patient & gives information
to physician.
13. He should monitor patients total drug therapy for
a. Effectiveness / ineffectiveness
b. Side Effect
c. Toxicities
d. Allergic drug reactions
e. Drug interactions
14. Cooperates in teaching courses to students in the school of nursing.
1. RETAIL PHARMACY
Retail pharmacy is the branch of pharmacy which deals with the sale
and distributions of medicines & other products to the consumer according to the
prescription of physician, dentist or veterinarian.
It is the most familiar branch of pharmacy: its main task is the distribution
& dispending of medicines and related products.
Classification of Retail Pharmacy
Retail pharmacy can be subdivided into two groups:
1. Community pharmacy
2. Whole sale pharmacy
1. COMMUNITY PHARMACY
Community pharmacy is also called drug store or medical store, in which
pharmacist works on the basis of private i.e. either as ownership or as a manager.
The role of community pharmacist is to advise the patient not only about
proper use of prescribed medicines but also about nonprescribed medicines or OTC
drugs (over the counter). Community pharmacist can also sell food products and
cosmetics. OTC>>>> without prescription
From business point of view, some points are important for
community pharmacy and pharmacist.
1. Location: Location for community pharmacy is a major factor in its survival. It must
be located near to the physician, medical contents & the residential area, social &
economic qualities of the population in that area must be determined by
community pharmacist.
2. Buying: Drugs or medicines are purchased from whole seller or from manufacturer
by community pharmacist. Those drugs should be purchased by pharmacist which
are stable, easily available, prescribed by the surrounding physicians & which are
common for specific diseases.
3. Price: The prices of drugs should be normal. If they are high, the sale will decrease.
And also the sale will be low if the prices are low, because in this case the customer
is doubtful about the quality of drug.
4. Service: Community pharmacy needs a good service & pharmacist should be have in
good way with patient. Pharmacist must keep family health record of surroundings.
This is not only useful for his business but also for public health. Pharmacist should
educate the patient about:
1. Drugdrug interaction 2. Food drug interaction
3. Side effects of drugs 4. Use of drugs & medicines
2. WHOLE SALE PHARMACY
Whole sale pharmacy is also known as drug agency. Drugs are supplied from
industry wholesale pharmacy, from where these are supplied to the community
pharmacy. Wholesale pharmacy is combination of 3 →6 industries.
1. Wholesale pharmacy is supervised by pharmacist, the owner of wholesale pharmacy
serves as middleman b/w manufacturer &community pharmacy.
2. Wholesale pharmacy plays an important role in assuring the community pharmacist
of quick & convenient sources of supply form manufacturer to retail pharmacist & so
best services is provided to the patient.
3. It also decreases the burden of community pharmacy of carrying large stock of
medicines & drugs.
3. CLINICAL PHARMACY:
The branch of pharmacy which deals with patient care with particular emphasis
(special practice) on drug therapy is called clinical pharmacy.
It is also called ‘’patient Oriented pharmacy’’. So it includes not only the dispersing or
administration of required medications but also advice the patient on the proper use of
all medications. Clinical pharmacy can also be practiced in community as well as in
hospital.
ROLE OF CLINICAL PHARMACY
Some important roles of clinical pharmacy are given below:
Counselling & Guidance of Patient
Clinical pharmacist advice the patient about safe & proper utilization of his
medications, it also gives prescription & advice the patient about the prescribed drugs.
Pharmacist should provide the patient, different types of information about prescribed
drug.
a. How, when & how long to take medicines?
b. Proper storage of drug.
c. Side effects of drugs.
d. Its interaction with other drugs.
Monitoring Drug Utilization
Monitoring the drug utilization of the patient by referring to the patient medication
profile (PMP) with the help of this record, clinical pharmacist is able to know that which
drug is suitable for the patient.
Because pharmacist has a full record (in PMP) of patient about allergies & last
prescription as well as previous disease from which patient suffer.
Health Advisor
Clinical pharmacist serves as a health advisor to the patient by providing advice to
the patient about use of various drugs, adverse effect, contraindication, dosage &
frequency of indications.
Health Educator
Pharmacist of clinical pharmacy serves as a health educator to the community.
Source of drugs information
Clinical pharmacist either in community or in hospital serves as a source of drug
information to the physician, patients & other members of health professions.
4. INDUDTRIAL PHARMACY:
The branch of pharmacy, which deals with formulation, manufactures, analysis,
storage & control of pharmaceutical dosage forms, is called Industrial pharmacy.
It includes basic unit operation like mixing, Milling, Drying, Lyophilization (Freeze
drying for heat sensitive products), Filtration & compression, which leads to the
preparation of liquid, solid, semisolid dosage form & also Injectables.
In brief industrial pharmacy can be defined , as ‘’It is the processing of drugs from
the source upto the finish product & to provide quality assure product to the
professionals as well as to the consumer.’’
INDUSTRIAL PAHRMACIST
Pharmacist who is related to industry is called industrial pharmacist. He has various
jobs in the industry, some are executive like:
1. Production incharge
2. Factory Incharge
3. Production manager
4. Sales manager
And some junior executive are also working there i.e.
1. Production pharmacist
2. Analyst (QC)
3. Assistant pharmacist
4. Documentary pharmacist
5. Research pharmacist
DEPARTMENT IN INDUSTRY
There are various departments in industry. But the major are:
1. Production & manufacture of drug department.
2. Quality control department.
1. Production and Manufacture Department
In production 7 manufacture departments a pharmacist supervises all the steps
involving in the formation of drugs e.g. Mixing, Milling, Drying, Filtration,
Lyophilization and compression.
2. Quality Control Department
In QC Dept pharmacist work as QC Incharge & responsible to check the quality
of product manufacture within the industry. In this department efficiency of drug is
measured.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF INDUSTRIAL PHARMACIST
Some important responsibilities of industrial pharmacist are as follows:
1. In research & development section (product Development), a research pharmacist is
responsible for product development & introducing new products to the conquest
of disease & maintenance of health.
2. Pharmacist with additional knowledge in marketing or business & in law fined more
opportunities in the pharmaceutical industries in order to solve the problems of
marketing & legal section.
3. Some pharmacists are employed supervisor in the packing section, because the QC
section, it is important that drugs should be packed in such a way that quality of
drug should be maintained.
5: FORENSIC PHARMACY
The branch of pharmacy that is responsible to frame rules & regulations about
formulation, manufacturing, sale and distribution of drugs is said to be forensic
pharmacy. OR
It is the branch of pharmacy that concerns with the laws & acts related to profession
of pharmacy.
All these rules & regulations are provided in a book that is called ‘’Manual of drug
act 1976’’. The profession of pharmacy is controlled & protected by ‘’Pharmacy Act
1967’’.
Following authorities are responsible to regulate the regulations of drug act:
1. Divisional Drug Inspector
2. Drug Inspector
Ministry of health is also responsible to issue license for launching of
pharmaceutical industry & process of manufacturing. Drug controller, Deputy Drug
controller & Assistant Drug controller are the responsible authorities in Ministry of Health.
There is a Quality control court (QCC) work in coordination with the Ministry of
health & is responsible to maintain the quality of drugs. There is a Drug court in each
province of the country and is responsible to deal matter, related to drug.
PHARMACY & THERAPEUTIC COMMITTEE
This committee is an advisory group of the medical staff, Pharmacist & may be any
other concerned person belonging to that hospital.
This group serves as a connection b/w medical staff & pharmacy dept. it is also a
policy making body on the matters related to drugs use including investigational drugs.
The agenda should be prepared by the general secretary & submitted to committee
members in sufficient time before meeting for them. The committee should meet
regularly at least two times per year & more often when necessary.
It is composed of at least three physicians, a pharmacist and a nurse. The
pharmacist is the general secretary of the committee.
Recommendation of the pharmacy & Therapeutic committee should be presented
to the medical staff for the adoption.
FUNCTION &SCOPE OF COMMITTEE
The function of pharmacy & Therapeutic committee is given as below:
1. To serve the medical staff & hospital administration in all matters related to the use
of drugs.
2. To serve the medical staff & pharmacist in the selection of drugs which have the
most effective Therapeutic quality standards
3. To prevent unnecessary duplication of the some basic drugs and its combination
4. To make recommendation concerning drugs to be stocked in hospital unit or
services
5. To establish suitable education program for hospital professional staff for drug use
6. To review the problems involved in the proper and safe distribution of medicines for
indoor & outdoor patients
7. To study problems related to the administration of drug
CHAPTER # 2
SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS
A homogenous mixture of two or more substances on molecular level is
called solution OR
A homogenous mixture of chemical substances, which has the same chemical
composition & physical properties, is called solution.
In solution, the mixing substances do not react chemically with each other
but only physical changes take place.
COMPOSITION OF SOLUTION
Solution is usually composed of two components I.e. solutes & solvents.
SOLUTE: The component of the solution, which is present in small quantity & is in
dissolved form, is called solute.
SOLVENT: The constituent of the solution, which is present in large amount &
dissolves the solute, is called solvent.
SYSTEM & PHASE:
A system is a bounded space or a definite quantity of substance, which is
under observation or experiment.
A distinct system’s homogeneous part separated by definite boundaries from
other parts of the system is called phase.
TYPES OF DISPERSED SYSTEM OR SOLUTION:
A system in which one substance is dispersed as particles throughout the
continuous dispersion medium is called dispersed system.
On the basis of dispersed particles or solute molecules, solutions are classified into
three types:
o True solutions
o Colloidal dispersion
o Coarse dispersion
TRUE SOLUTIONS:
A solution resulted due to homogenous dispersion of ions or a molecule of one
Component throughout the other is called true solution.
The particle size in the (true solution) smooth and is less than 10 Ao the example of
true solution with ionic dispersion is solution of NaCl in H2O & that of molecular dispersion
is solution of sucrose in water.
In (true solution) when solute is dissolved in solvent, the volume of solvent
remains the same, because the solute molecules adjust themselves in the intermolecular
spaces of solvent.
COLLOIDAL DISPERSION:
A solute which may be homogeneous or the ferruginous dispersion with particles
size b/w that of true solution & coarse dispersion is called colloidal dispersion or solution
the particles are solute size in colloidal, dispersion is b/w 10 Ao & 2000 Ao . A colloidal
dispersion with homogeneous dispersion, is that of acacia (sodium car boxy methyl
cellulose) in water. And a colloidal solution with heterogeneous dispersion is that of silver
protein ate in water.
3. COARSE DISPERSION:
A solution / dispersion in which particle or solute size is maximum is called coarse
dispersion.
The particle or solute size in such dispersion is larger that 2000Ao . As the particles
size is very large, so cannot adjust themselves b/w the intermolecular space of solvent. Its
example is emulsion (e.g. milk, Oil+ H2O) and suspensions.
Properties of solution (Physical)
On the physical basis, the properties of solutions can be classified into three main
types:
o Additive properties
o Constitutive properties
o Colligative properties
1. ADDITIVE PROPERTIES
The physical properties, which depend upon the sum of the properties of all the
constituents of the solution, are called additive properties. OR
The physical properties which depend upon the total contribution of the atoms of
molecules in the solution are called additive properties.
Examples of additive properties are mass, volume, molecular weight etc.
2. CONSTITUTIVE PROPERTIES
The physical properties, which depend on the arrangement of the atoms within
the molecule, are called constitutive properties.
The constitutive properties mainly depend on the arrangement & to a lesser
extent on kind and No of atoms. The examples of constitutive properties are
refractive index, electrical properties, solubility, surface tension, surface &
interfacial characters, etc.
3. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
The physical properties of the solutions which depend on the No of atoms of the
solution are called Colligative properties. Some important Colligative properties are:
a) Elevation in B.P
b) Lowering of V.P
c) Dispersion in F.P
d) Osmotic pressure
The values of Colligative properties are approximately same for the solution of same
concentration.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS:
The solutes (whether they are in liquid, solid are gaseous phase) are classified in to
two types on the base of their electrical properties:
1. Electrolytes
2. NonElectrolytes
1. ELECTROLYTES:
Those solutes, which are ionized in the solution & conduct electricity are said to be
electrolytes.
Such solutes show greater Colligative properties as compared to other solution with same
concentration.
Electrolytes are subdivided into two types, which are given below:
a. STRONG ELECTROLYTES:
Those electrolytes which ionize completely in the solution are called strong
electrolytes. E.G. Nacl, Na2SO
4, HCl, etc.
b. WEAK ELECTROLYTES:
Weak electrolytes ionize in the solution partially. E.g. Ephedrine, Phenobarbital, etc.
2. NonElectrolytes
Those solutes, which do not ionize in the solution & so such solution cannot conduct
electricity are called nonelectrolytes, their examples are sucrose, urea, naphthalene, etc
CONCENTRATION EXPRESSION:
The concentration of a solution can be defined as:
‘’The amount of solute present in a given amount of solution is called concentration of
the solution.’’
A solution containing a relatively low concentration of solute is called dilute solution
while a solution containing relatively a high concentration of the solute is said to be
concentrated solution.
There are several ways of expressing concentration of solution, some are as follows:
1. Percentage Expression
2. Molarity
3. Normality
4. Molality
5. Mole Fraction
6. Parts per million
1. PERCENTAGE EXPRESSION:
It can be defined as: ’’The specific amount of solute present in 100 gm of solution.
’’OR’’ It is the part of the solute present in 100 parts of the solution.’’ Following are
three different type of %age expressions:
a. %age w/w: It is the weight of solute as a percent of total weight of solution.
%age of solute = weight of solute / Weight of solution x 100
b. %age v/v: It is the volume of solute as a present of total volume of the solution.
%age of solute = volume of solute / Volume of solution x 100
c. %age w/v: It is the no: of parts of the solute by weight in 100 parts by volume of
solution. In this case, total weight or volume of solution is not considered.
%age of solute = weight of solute / Volume of solution x100
1. MOLARITY
Molarity can be defined as:’’ The number of moles of solute per litter of solution is
called Molarity.’’
Molarity = No: of moles of solutes
Volume of solution (in litters)
The Molarity of solution is represented by M and its units are mole /litter.
Example: Determine the Molarity of solution prepared by dissolving 75.5g of KOH in
540ml of solution?
No: of moles of KOH = 75.5/56.1 =1.35moles
Volume of solution = 540 /1000 =0.54 litter
Molarity = 1.35 / 0.54 = 2.49 mol / litter
Normality
Normality can be defined as:’’ The no : of gram equivalent of solute
present per litter of the solution.’’
Normality = No: of gm equivalent of solute
Volume of solution in litters
Where: No: of gm equivalent = weight of substance
Equivalent weight
Equivalent weight = molecular weight
ACIDITY OR BASICITY
Example: calculate the normality of H2SO
4 solution, when 98g of H
2SO
4 is present
in 500ml?
Equivalent weight of H2SO4 = 49 No: of gram equivalent of H2SO4
=98/49 =2
Volume of solution = 500cm3 = 0.5lit
Normality = 2/0.5 =4N
3. MOLALITY
The Molality of solution can be defined as: ‘’ The No: of moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent is called Molality
Molality = moles of solutes / Weight of solvent in KG
The Molality of solution is represented by ’’ m’’ & its units are mole / kg.
Example: Calculate the Molality of solution prepared by dissolving 5gm of
toluene in 225 g of solvent (C6H
6)?
No: of moles of toluene = 5/92 = 0.054 mol
Weight of Benzene =225 /1000 = 0.225 kg
Molality =0.054/0.225 =0.24 Mol/ kg
4. MOLE FRACTION
The mole of fraction of a constituent of solution can be defined as:’’ The ratio of
NO: of moles of one constituent and the total No: of moles of all the constituents of
the solution.’’ It is denoted by’’ X’’ e. g. a solution consists of two components I &II.
Their NO: of mole are expressed as n1& n 2, so mole fraction of component I: x
1 = n
1 /
n1 + n2, mole fraction of component II: x2 = n2 / n1 + n2, total = Component I + II, x = x1
+ x2 = n1 + n2 / n1 + n2 =1
The Mole fraction is unit less & total mole fraction of a solution will always be
unity: X solute + X
solvent = 1
5. Parts per million
Number of parts (by wt or volume) of solute per million parts (by wt or volume)
of solution is called parts per million.
It is denoted by PPM: PPM = mass of solute (gm) x 106
Mass of solution Significance: I) It is used for very low cone of solution.
II) It is used to express the amount of impurities in
H2O
IDEAL SOLUTIONS:
The ideal Solution can be defined as:’’ The solution in which there is no change
in the properties of the components is called ideal solution.’’ OR’’ The solutions
which obey strictly the Raoult’s Law in all conditions are called ideal solution.’’
This type of solution can be obtained theoretically & not practically. In ideal
solutions there is only change in concentration of the solution.
PROPERTIES OF IDEAL SOLUTIONS:
Following are the same important properties of the ideal solutions:
1. During the formation of an ideal solution, only the dilution or change in
concentration occurs.
2. In mixing the components of an ideal solution, no heat is evolved / absorbed.
1. The total volume of the solutions is equal to the sum of the.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
solute Solvent Examples
Gas Gas Air
Gas Liquid Carbonated water
Gas Solid H2 in palladium
Solid Gas (a) Iodine vapour in air
Gas (b) Smoke in air
Solid Liquid Sodium chloride in H2 o
Solid Solid (a) Gold silver mixture
Solid (a) Mixture of alums
Liquid Gas Water in oxygen
Liquid Liquid Alcohol in H2o
Liquid Solid Mineral oil in Par again
R = Universal gas constant
3. The total volume of the solution is equal to the sum of the volumes of the
components
V= V1+V2+V3
4. There is no shrinkage or expansion of molecules or volumes because the size of the
molecules of the components remains same after mixing.
5. The constitutive properties of the ideal solution are the arrange of the properties
pure
individual components.
6. For the formation of an ideal solution, the mixing substances should be with similar
properties e. g.
a. methanol & Ethanol
b. benzene & Toluene
c. methanol & Water, etc.
7. There is a complete uniformity of attractive forces b/w the constituents of an ideal
solution.
8. The osmotic pressure of an ideal solution can be determined by Vent Hoff’s Rule.
According to the rule, osmotic pressure is:
v= nRT
Where:
= Osmotic pressure of ideal solution
V= Total volume of ideal solution
n= No: of moles of solute
R = Universal gas constant
T = Temp
T = Absolute temperature
9) ideal solutions: obey the Raoult’s Law: so their diagrammatic representation is as
follows:
REAL SOLUTIONS
‘’ The solutions which do not obey the Raoult’s Law are called real solution.’’
The solutions in which there is a change in the properties of components after mixing is
said to be real solution.’’
PROPERTIES OF REAL SOLUTION:
Following are the some important properties of real solutions:
o Total volume of real solution is not equal to the sum of volumes of all the
components, i.e. V v1+v2+v3…
o During the mixing of components of real solution, there is either evolution or
absorption of heat, i.e. H O
o When the components of a real solution are mixed, there will be either shrinkage
or expansion of the molecules of the components.
o Real solutions can be obtained by mixing the components of different properties.
o The attractive forces b/w the components of the real solutions are not the same.
o There must be change in properties of the components of the real solution.
o The real solution deviate from Raoult’s Law in two ways:
o If the cohesive forces are greater then adhesive forces. Then real solution deviate
positively from Raoult’s Law e. g. (Acetone, water) (Benzene & Ethyl Alcohol)
(Ethanol & Water)
o If the adhesive forces b/w the molecules of components are greater that
cohesive forces then real solution deviate negatively from Raoult’s Law e. g.
(H2O+ HCl), (Acetone + Chloroform)
Raoult’s LAW
The Raoult’s law explains the behaviour of the solution on the basis of vapour
pressure and mole fraction of each component of the solution. Raoult’s Law can be
defined as:’’ The partial vapour pressure of each component of the solution is equal
to the product of vapour pressure of that component in pure form and its mole
fraction.’’
Mathematically P = po X
P = Partial VP of the component
Po = vapour pressure in pure form
X = mole fraction of component
The solutions which obey the Raoult’s Law are called ideal solutions
while solutions which deviate form Raoult’s Law, either negatively or positively are
called real solutions.
BEHAVIOUR OR IDEAL SOLUTION
The solution in which adhesive and cohesive forces are same, obey the Raoult’s Law
are called ideal solution.
Let an ideal solution consists of two components e.g.
Benzene and ethylene chloride. Then according to Raoult’s Law. Partial vapour
pressure of benzene and ethylene chloride is:
PB = P
B o XB
PEc = P
Eco x EC
When there values are explained by a graph, linear relationship b/w ethylene
chloride and benzene is obtained, which shows the ideality of the solution and also
proved the Raoult’s Law .
BEHAVIOUR OF REAL SOLUTION
The solutions in which the attractive forces b/w the molecules are not same, and
due to which nonuniformity of adhesive and cohesive attraction occur, are called
real solution.
Such solutions deviate from Raoult’s Law in two ways i.e. either negative or positive
deviation.
POSITIVE DEVIATION
The solutions in which cohesive forces are greater than adhesive forces are said to
show positive deviation.
In which solutions, due to greater cohesive forces, the partial VP becomes
greater than expected from Raoult’s Law and so positive deviation occurs.E.g.
(acetone + water),
(Benzene + Acetylene), (Ethanol + water)
NEGATIVE DEVIATION
The solution in which the adhesive forces are greater than cohesive forces, deviate
negatively from Raoult’s Law
In such solutions, due to greater forces, the partial VP becomes lesser than expected from
Raoult’s Law and so negative deviation occurs: E.g. (HCl + H2 O), (Acetone + chloroform)
Mole fraction
ESCAPING TENDENCY
The efficiency of a substance to escape either as heat or vapour form is called
escaping tendency.
Temperature is the quantitative measure of escaping tendency. So the hotter body
has greater escaping tendency than a body at lower temperature. When the system is at
thermal equilibrium i.e. when both the bodies are at the same temperature, then the
escaping tendency of both the bodies will be same.
FREE ENERGY: The substances in which there occur physical or chemical changes,
the quantitative measure of escaping tendency is called free energy.
ABOVE Oo c: The escaping tendency (free energy)of one mole of ice is greater than one
mole of liquid, I.e. F = FL – F
I< O
At Oo c: At Oo c the free tendency (escaping tendencies) of both one mole of ice and
one mole of liquid are same, I.e. F = FL – F
I= O
BELOW Oo c: Below Oo c the free energy of one mole of liquid is greater than that of one
mole of ice , I.e. F = FL – FI < O
HENRY’S LAW
‘’The partial vapour pressure of a true solute in dilute solution is directly proportional to its
mole fraction.’’ It is the statement of Henry’s Law & mathematically, i.e.P = K X
Where, P = partial vapour pressure of solute
X = mole fraction of solute
K = Constant and less than vapour pressure of solute
The vapour pressure of solute is very small because the solute molecules have very
little escaping tendency.
GAS SOLUBILITIES & HENRY’S LAW
The amount of gas dissolved in liquid follows generally the Henry’s: aw, which
states.’’ The weight of gas dissolved by a given amount of liquid at a given temperature is
proportional to its vapour. The extent to which a gas is dissolved in liquid is expressed as
solubility co efficient.
‘’The volume of the gas dissolved by one volume of the liquid under a pressure of
on atmosphere.’’
APPLICATIONS
Henry’s Law is applied to the solubility’s of gas. And Raoult’s law is applied to
solvent in dilute solution to real liquid pair.
Henry’s Law & Raoult’s Law become identical, when partial VP of both the
components (solute & solvent ) are directly proportional to their mole fractions, and at
that condition the solution is said to be ideal solution.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
The physical properties of the solution, which depend on the No: of particles in the
solution and not in any way on the size and nature of the particles are called Colligative
properties.
Dilute solutions having nonvolatile solutes have following four Colligative properties:
1. Elevation in boiling point
2. Lowering of vapour pressure
3. Derision in freezing point
4. Osmotic pressure
(1)ELEVATION IN BOILING POINT
BOLING POINT: The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure is called boiling point.
Boiling Point ELEVATION: When a solute is added to a pure solvent, the boiling point
of solution (solute + solvent) will be greater than the BP of the pure solvent. This
difference b/w the boiling point of the solution & pure solvent at constant pressure
is called elevation in boiling point.
Whenever a nonvolatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the VP of the
solvent is reduced. So< the resulting solution will boil at a higher temperature is
compared to that of pure solvent at. Some atmospheric pressure. And this
difference is said to be elevation in B.P.
GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION:
The elevation in BP can be explained by the following graph.
From the above graph, it is shown that VP curve of solution lies below that of
solvent, so to reach the normal BP, the temperature: is elevated (i.e. increased) in
this increase in temperature of solution is called elevation in boiling point. So: the
elevation in boiling point is given by:
T = T To
While lowering of VP is P = Po – P
The ratio of elevation of BP ( T) to the lowering of VP ( P) is constant: at 100o c
Tb / p = K,
Tb = K’ p,
● Tb = K p / po Equation – 1
●
But according to Raoult’s Law : p / po = X2
Putting in equation 1 we get
Tb = K X2 equation 2
Equation – 2 shows that the elevation in BP is proportional to mole fraction of solute
so the BP is Colligative property. In dilute solution x2 = m /1000/ m
1
Tb = K m. M1 / 1000 x or
Tb = Kbm
Where
Tb = Elevation in BP
Kb = molal elevation constant or the ebullioscopy constant and may be defined
as,
‘’ Increase in boiling point of solvent caused by the addition of 1 mol of solute (non –
volatile & non electrolyte) in 1Kg of volatile solvent’’
EASUREMENT OF BP ELEVATION
M
Elevation in boiling point is measured by Cottrell’s apparatus, which is shown in the figure.
A weighed amount of solute and solvent (i.e. solution) is taken in the tube and is
heated up to boiling point. Then vapours and boiling solution is pumped by the force of
ebullition & sprayed on the bulb of the thermometer, in order to get correct equilibrium
temperature: this is BP of the solution. The forces are again repeated by taken pure
solvent in the tube and the BP of the solvent is determined.
The difference b/ w the BP of the solution and BP of the pure solvent is calculated,
this was the elevation in boiling point.
LOWRING OF VAPOR PRESSURE
VAPOR PRESSURE:
The pressure exerted by the vapours of the liquids at equilibrium state with pure liquid, it
self, at a given temperature is called vapour pressure of the liquid.
VP LOWRING:
When a nonvolatile solute is dissolved or added to a pure solvent, the vapour
pressure of the solvent is decreased. And this decreased in vapour pressure is called
lowering of vapour pressure.
EXPLANATON:
When a nonvolatile solute is dissolved in a pure solvent, the solute molecules adjust
themselves b/w the intermolecular spaces and attractive forces are produced b/w the
solute & solvent.
Now, the solvent molecules cannot easily escape from solution & with the result the
VP is lowered at constant temperature. According to Raoult’s Law: the partial V.P of
solvent (PI) & solute (P
2) are as follows:
P1 = P 1X 1 (1)
P2 = P x
2 2 P 1 = P
1x 1 (1)
P2 = P 2x2 P2 = p2x2
Since the mole fraction of the solution = x1 + x 2
Therefore,
x1 + x
2 = 1 x
1 + x
2 = 1
x1 = 1 –x
2 (2) x 1 = 1 –x2
Put in equation (1) putting in equation (1)
P1 = P1 (1 –x2) P1 = Po 1 (1 –x2)
P1 = P1 – x2 P1 = Po 1 – x2
P1 – P1 = – P 1x2 P1 – P o 1 = – P o 1 x2
= P o 1 – P 1 = P 1x 2 P
1 – P
o
1 = – P
o
1 x
2
P = P 1x2 P o 1– P1 = P o 1 x2
o
P = P 1x2
o
P / P1 = x2 =n2 /n1 +n2 (3)
P / P 1 = x2
From the above equation, it is clear that the lowering of VP in the solution relative to
vp of pure solvent is equal to the mole fraction of the solute and this is called relative
lowering of vapour pressure.
DETERMINATION OF VAPOUR PRESSURE
The isopiestic method is used for the determination of VP. In this method two
solutions are used:
1. Test solution whose V.P is to be determined
2. Standard solution with known V.P
The two solutions are placed in evacuated in separate silver cups.
The vapours of solution with higher VP will pass to other solution with
lower VP. This process is continued until equilibrium is reached, i.e. isopiestic point.
After this, the solutions are analyzed, & the change in concentration of standard
solution is determined & its value of VP is obtained from the table.
The difference in VP of the standard solution is actually the vapour
pressure of the test solution.
DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR WEIGHT:
If the solute is nonelectrolyte the molecular weight of the solute can be
calculated from lowering of vapour pressure.
As we know that the relative lowering of VP is:
P = X2
Po
P = Equation 1
P o
n2 = w
2/ M 2 = no of moles solute.
n1 = w
1 /M 1 = number of moles of solvent.
Putting in equation (1) we have
w2/ M
P / Po = 2 / w 1 /M
1+ w
2/ M
2
In very dilute solutions w2/ M
2 ratio is very small so neglecting it
o =
P / P w2 / M2 / w1 /M1
o =
P / P w2/ M 1 / w 1 M 2
o
M2 = w2 M1 P / w1 P
DEPERSION IN FREEZING POINT
FREEZING POINT:
The FP of a solvent can be defined as:’’ The temperature at which the solid and
liquid forms of the solvent coexist in equilibrium of fixed external pressure (i.e. 1
atm).’’
The FP of solution is defined as:’’ the temperature at which the solid form of the
pure solvent coexist in equilibrium with the solution at fixed external pressure. (i.e. 1
atm).’’
FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION:
When a nonvolatile solute is dissolved in a pure solvent, then it will freezes at a
lower temperature than the temperature at which pure solvent freezes. And this
difference in freezing point b/w the pure solvent & solution is called freezing point
depression.
EXPLANATION:
When a nonvolatile solute is added to a pure solvent at triple point, the lowering
of vapour pressure of solution takes place, so in order to again establish equilibrium
b/w solid & liquid, the temperature is further dropped & this leads to depression in
freezing point of the solution as compared to FP of pure solvent and this is called
dispersion in freezing point.
This can also be explained by the following graph. As the FP of solvent in the
temperature at which solid and liquid forms are in equilibrium while the FP of the
solution is the temperature at which the solid solvent is at equilibrium with liquid
solution.
As VP of solution is less that the VP of pure solvent, so solid solvent and liquid
solutions cannot coexist at freezing point of pure solvent and so the temperature is
further reduced.
It is clear from the graph that Fp depression is proportional to molal
concentration of solute: So
Tf m
The ratio b/w FP depression and lowering of vapor pressure is constant & is equal to K
Tf / P = K’
Tf = K’ P
Tf = K’ P /Po (1)
But according to Raoult’s Law:
P /Po = X
2
Putting in equation (1)
Tf = K X2 (2)
Equation 2 shows that depression in freezing point is proportional to the mol
fraction of solute so freezing point is Colligative property. In dilute solution,
X2 = m/ 1000/M1
Therefore
Tf = Km.M1/1000 OR Tf = Kfm.
Where
Tf = depression in freezing point
Kf = molal depression constant or cryoscopy constant which may be defined as,’’
decrease in freezing point of solvent caused by the addition of one mole of solute ( non
volatile, non electrolyte) in 1 Kg of volatile solvent.’’
DETERMINATION OF FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION
The Beckmann’s apparatus used for the determination of freezing point
depression is shown in the figure.
For the determination of FP depression, firstly the solution is introduced in the
apparatus & its FP of pure solvent is introduced in the apparatus the FP of pure solvent
is determined. The difference in the FP of pure solvent & FP of solution is calculated &
this is depression in freezing point.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
OSMOSIS
The flow of the solvent through a semipermeable membrane from pure solvent
to solution or from a dilute solution to concentrated solution is known as Osmosis.
The tendency to equalize the concentration in all parts of the solution, which is
responsible for the diffusion of solvent, is called Osmosis.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
The osmotic pressure, which prevents the flow of solvent into solution, can be
defined as:’’ The hydrostatic pressure built up on the solution which just stops the
osmosis of pure solvent into solution through a semipermeable membrane is called
osmotic pressure.’’ OR’’ The external pressure applied to the solution in order to stop
the osmosis of the solvent into solution separated by semipermeable membrane is
called Osmotic pressure.’’
EXPLANATION.
If a pure solvent is placed adjacent to a solution separated by a semipermeable
&so dilute the solution & also raise the volume of the solution. And with the result the
hydrostatic pressure (Osmotic pressure) is set up on the solution.
This osmotic pressure can be measured by applying a known pressure, which stops any
movement.
This osmotic pressure obtained is therefore proportional to the reduction in VP
brought about by the concentration of solute present. And so, osmotic pressure is
Colligative property.
MEASUREMENT OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE
The osmotic pressure can be measured by osmometer. The Pfeiffer’s method is
usually used for this purpose & the apparatus used for this purpose is shown in figure.
The solution is taken in pot & pot is placed in water. The water passes through
semipermeable, membrane, diluting the solution & produces osmotic pressure
indicated by manometer. The highest pressure registered by manometer gives the
osmotic pressure of solution.
According to Vent Hoff Rule, the osmotic pressure in a very dilute solution is equal
to the pressure exerted by solute, if it is gas & occupying some volume.
/> universal gas constant
Osmotic pressure → = nRT → absolute temp
= osmotic pressure /
n = number of moles of solute No
R = universal gas constant of
T = absolute temperature moles of
Solute = nRT
Chapter # 3
SOLUBILITY & DISTRIBUTION
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS:
On the basis of concentration of solute present in the solution, the solutions can be
classified into following types:
1.Unsaturated Solution:
The solution in which more amount of solute can be dissolved at a certain
temperature is called unsaturated solution. It is also called subsaturated solution.
2. Saturated solution:
The solution in which more amount of solute cannot be dissolved at room
temperature is called saturated solution.
OR
A saturated solution is a solution in which the dissolved & undissolved solutes are
in equilibrium.
3.Supersaturated Solution
When more amount of solute dissolved in saturated solution by increasing
temperature, then the resultant solution is called supersaturated solution. The
solution, which is saturated at 50o c, will be supersaturated solution in Q>C room b/c
the temperature of Q.C room at 20o C.
SOLUBILITY:
The term solubility can be defined as:
Qualitatively:
‘’ The spontaneous interaction of two or more substances to form a
homogeneous molecular dispersion is called solubility.’’
Quantitatively:
‘’ The concentration of a substance to form a saturated solution in a certainly
solvent is called solubility of the substances.’’
Or
‘’ The amount of solute needed a produce a saturated solution with 100gm of
solvent at given temperature is called solubility.’’
Molar solubility
Molar solubility is defined as the No. of moles of the substances per one liter of
the solution.
SOLUBILITY EXPRESSION:
The solubility of different substances in solvents can be expressed in different ways.
Basically the solubility of substances is expressed as the NO. Of parts of solvent required
for one part of solute. One the basis of this statement the solubility of solute is classified
into following types:
1. Very soluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in less than one part of solvent, then
solute will be very soluble.
2. Freely soluble: If one parts of solute is dissolved in 110 parts of the solvent, then
the solute will be freely soluble.
3. Soluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in 1030 parts of solvent, then solute will
be soluble in solvent.
4. Sparingly Soluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in 30100 parts of the solvent,
then the solute will be sparingly soluble in solvent.
5. Slightly Soluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in 1001000 parts of the solvent,
then solute will be slightly soluble in solvent.
6. Very Slightly Soluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in 100010,000 parts of the
solvent, then solute will be very slightly soluble in solvent.
7. Insoluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in more than 10,000 parts of the solvent,
then the solute will be called insoluble in the solvent.
In same cases, more solute is dissolved in the solvent due to the characteristics of
the solvent.
For example 10gm of Nacl is dissolved in 5ml of H2O, this is due to the
high dielectric constant of the water (solvent).
SOLVENT & SOLUTE INERACTION
The forces b/w the solute & solvent molecules (i.e. adhesive forces) & forces present
within either solute or solvent molecules (i.e. cohesive forces) have principal role in the
solutesolvent interaction & in turn the solubility.
When the adhesive forces b/w the solute & solvent molecules are greater than the
cohesive forces present within either solute/solvent molecules, then the solution is
formed and responsible for the solubility & miscibility.
Polar solutes are soluble in polar solvent & nonpolar solutes are soluble in nonpolar
solvents because of electrostatic attraction & repulsion.
Semipolar solvents like Acetone, Alcohols are helpful in increasing the solubility &
miscibility due to Hydrogen bonding.
For example: water (polar) and Alcohol or Acetone (semi polar) are
miscible with each only due to hydrogen bonding b/w water & such type of substances
(Acetones & Alcohols).
In case of crystalline substances, the solubility is very less. This is because of the very
strong attractive forces within the crystal lattice and so having very little adhesive forces
b/w the Crystalline solid & solvent.
Moreover, the solubility of the Crystalline solid can be determined from
their mp I.e. crystalline solids having high mp have less solubility & having low mp re more
soluble.
SOLUBILITY OF GASES LIQUIDS:
The concentration of the dissolved gas, when it is in equilibrium with
some of the pure gas above the solution, is called solubility of a gas in liquid.
Factors affecting:
The solubility of gases in liquids depends upon the following important
factors:
a. Pressure
b. Temperature
c. Pressure of salt.
d. Chemical reaction.
A. PRESSURE:
At constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the applied pressure by obeying Henry Law, which states:
‘’The concentration (solubility) of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the
partial pressure of the gas above the solution, at constant temperature.’’
C P
C = KP
C= concentration or solubility or gas in liquid.
P = partial pressure of a gas above solution:
K = constant
o
Due to this reason: CO2 remains dissolved in carbonated water (i.e. 7
up etc) until
bottle is capped. But once the bottle is opened, the pressure is decreased which in turn
decreased the solubility of CO2 in water & so it comes out.
b. TEMPERATURE
Generally with the increase in temperature the solubility of gases in liquids decreases.
Because, when temperature is increased, the K.E of the molecules is increased which
result in the evolution of gas from the solution & in this way solubility is decreased.
a. PRESCENCE OF SALT
By the addition of salt (Electrolyte) the solubility of gas in liquid is decreased. And this
phenomenon is called salting out process, e.g. addition of Nacl in carbonated water.
Because, due to the addition of Nacl, the attractiveness of H2O towards dissociated
from the solution
c. CHEMICAL REACTION
If gases are reacted with water, they have greater solubility. For example HCl gas
reacts with water & form HCl acid CO2 reacts with water form carbonic acid.
HCl (g) H2o
→ HCl (L)
CO2 + H
2O
→ H2CO
3
So, by their chemical reactions, the solubility of gases in liquid is increased.
APPLICATIONS
In pharmacy, different solutions of gases in liquids are used, e.g.
1. Hydrochloric Acid
2. Ammonia Water
3. Effervescent preparations with CO2.
4. Aerosol products.
SOLUBILITY OF LIQUIDS IN LIQUIDS
The solubility of liquids depends upon the following important factors:
1.ATTRACTIVE FORCES & RAOULT’S LAWCTIVE FORCES & RAOULT’S LAW
When two liquids are mixed, either
Real or ideal solution is formed. If the adhesive forces are greater than cohesive
forces, then there will be negative deviation from Raoult’s Law, so the solubility
(Miscibility) is increased.
And if the cohesive forces are greater than adhesive forces then there will be
positive deviation from Raoult’s’ Law, leading to decreased solubility.
TEMPERATURE
The mutual solubility’s of partially miscible liquids are greatly affected by
temperature. So by this we can obtain following three types of graphs (solubility
curves).
TYPE 1: In binary liquid system such as phenolwater: the solubility’s of
two phases increases with increase in temperature until a temperature is obtained at
which a homogenous mixture is formed. And this temperature is called upper critical
temperature or upper consulate temperature (UCT).’’
The temperature at which two phases merge into a single phase ids
called critical solution temperature’’
Above this temperature: the phenol & water miscible with each other at all
proportions.
TYPE 2: The binary liquid systems such as triethylaminewater & paraldehyde water
are completely miscible by decreasing the temperature.
So they have lower consulate temperature (LCT). Above this temperature they are
partially miscible with each other.
TYPE 3: Few binary mixtures such as nicotinewater shows both UCT & LCT, with an
intermediate temperature peg ion. Such mixtures are soluble in all proportion above
UCT & below LCT, while b/w UCT & LCT they are partially miscible with each other.
3. I nfuence of foreign substances
The addition of a foreign substance in a binary liquid system effect the critical
solution temperature or consulate temperature & in turn solubility. There will be two
cases:
Case 1:
When the additional substance is soluble in one component, then the mutual
solubility of binary mixture is decreased. If binary mixture has UCT then it will be raised
further & if mixture LCT then the temperature will be further decreased.
Case 2:
If the third foreign substance is soluble in both the component, then it will
increases the mutual solubility’s by decreasing UCT & raising the LCT.
SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS
From the experimental evidences it is concluded that solubility’s of solids in liquids
are influenced by following factors:
1. TEMPERATURE
The solubility of solid in liquid is greatly affected by temperature change. Due to
temperature change four cases are observed in solubility’s.
CASE 1
The solubility of many solids is increased by increasing temperature
I.e system is endothermic e.g. sucrose.
CASE 2
When the system is exothermic then solubility will be favored by low
temperature e.g. Ca (OH)2
CASE 3
Some solids has very low or no change in their solubility’s by changing
temperature e.g. Nacl at Oo c having solubility 35.7 g/dl & at 100o c 39.1 g/dl.
CASE 4
In some cases, there is abruptchange in their solubility e.g. Na2SO
4, 10H
2 O,
o
whose solubility increases upto 32.5 c & then decreased b/c the substance is
dehydrated.
2.PH
For their solubility, the drugs should have a specific pH of the medium. The
solubility of weakly acidic drugs is increased by increasing the pH of the media & the
solubility of weakly basic drug is favoured by decreased in pH .
Because by increasing the pH , the Basicity of the medium is increased & acidic
drugs are more soluble in basic medium.
And by decreasing the pH of the basic drugs acidity is in creased and basic drug
are more soluble in acidic medium.
This can be explained by following equations:
pH o = p
k
o + S – S for acids p
H
o = p
k
o +
S o for base
S S o
Where: S = Overall solubility of drug.
S o= solubility of unionized drug.
3. MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
The structure of solid has a great effect on solubility. For example:
a. Ephedrine is insoluble in water in its pure from but its salt ephedrine – HCL is soluble
in water.
a. Same is the case of Phenobarbital converted into Phenobarbital Na.
b. Erythromycin is decomposed in gut, when it is in its pure from avoid this, it is
converted into erythromycin propionate.
ARTICLE SIZE
4. P
The solubility of solid is also affected by particle size.
As the particle size is reduced, the surface area is increased with increases the surface
free energy & so in turn solubility is increased.
This is also upto a certain limit of particle size reduction.
5. SOLVENT EFFECT
Polar substances are soluble in polar solvents & nonpolar in nonpolar, when two
or more than two solvents are used to dissolve a substance then, the phenomenon
is called cosolvency & solvents are called cosolvents.
Cosolvents are responsible to decrease the solubility precipitation may occur.
Some examples of cosolvents are Glycerol, and polyethylene Glycol & sorbitol
6. COMMON –ION EFFECT
The reduction of the degree of dissociation of a salt by the of a commonion is
called commonion effect.
In saturated solution of Agcl, we have the equilibrium:
Agcl Ag+ + Cl Ksp = [A+ g] [cl ]
When Nacl is added to the solution:
Nacl Na+ + Cl Ksp = [Na+ ] [cl ]
The concentration of Cl ions will increase. As Nacl is more soluble in water than
Agcl, so the solubility of Agcl is further reduced & it is precipitated out and Nacl
solution is formed.
7. COMPLEX FORMATION
When a third substance is added to the solution, it will form a complex with solute.
This complex formation either increases or decreases the solubility of solute. E.g.
Iodine negligibly soluble in water, but if potassium is added, then complex formation
takes place which increases the solubility of the iodine in water.
8. SURFACTANTS Organic compounds are usually insoluble in water. For this
surfactants are added to the solution which reduces the surface tension of the
liquid &its affinity towards solute is increased. After CMC of surfactants, the organic
compounds become soluble by the process of micellization / solubilization.
9. ELECTROLYTES IN NON ELECTROLYTE SOLU
The addition of electrolyte in the nonelectrolyte solution decreases the
solubility of the nonelectrolyte. This b/c that electrolytes have greater affinity
toward water due to electrostatic force so nonelectrolytes are replaced by
electrolytes. E.g.
10. EFFECT OF NONELECTROLYTES ON SOLUBILITY OF ELECTROLYTES
The addition of nonelectrolyte in the electrolyte solution decreases the
solubility of electrolyte. If Nacl is added in sucrose solution, the solubility of the
sucrose is decreased.
DISTRIBUTION LAW
The distribution Law/Nernst Distribution Law/ partition Law can be defined as:
‘’ If a solute X distributes itself b/w immiscible solvents A and B at constant
temperature and X is in the same molecular condition in both solvents.’’
Concentration of in A = Ko
Concentration of X in B
If C1 denotes the concentration of X in solvent A & C
2 in solvent B, then the
distribution law can be expressed as:
= Ko
Where Ko is called. Distribution coefficient/partition, coefficient/ Distribution
Ratio.
APPLICATION OF DISTRIBUTION LAW
There are numerous applications of distribution law in laboratory and in industry.
Among these some are given by:
1. Extraction:
This is the process used for the separations of active ingredients from the crude
substances, by using selective solvents & standard extractive procedure.
So by the process of separation the inert solvents are distilled off while
leaving behind the active ingredients. This process is more efficient if the solvent
is used in a number of small portions than one whole lot.
2. Partition chromatography:
This method is used to separate a mixture of small amount s of active
ingredients. This technique depends upon the difference in distribution
coefficient b/w two components.
a. The component with highest coefficient will first move down in the
separating column while a component with a lower distribution ratio
comes down later.
3. Adsorption of drug: The
passage and extent of drug absorption through cell membrane depends upon
the distribution coefficient. When the drug comes in contact with cell
membrane, it is absorbed due to its distribution coefficient and enters into the
cell.
4. Preservation: The
preservatives enter into the microorganisms due to distribution coefficient &
act on the DNA of the microorganism & so stop the growth of that
microorganism. This process is called preservation.
5. Chromatography: The
principle of partition coefficient is used in chromatography.
6. Preservation of Emulsion & Creams:
In Emulsion & Creams, one component is dispersed through out
the other. The preservation of such products (i.e. Emulsion & Cream) also follows
the distribution law.
7. Release of Drug:
When drugs are made available at the site of action, the active
ingredient is selectively absorbed from the dosage from dueto its distribution
coefficient.
ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS
All the ophthalmic and Injectables solutions should be isotonice.g.
ophthalmic solutions should be isotonic with lachrymal secretions (tears) to
prevent irritation and pain: similarly, Injectables solutions should be isotonic
with blood plasma.
Solutions having the same osmotic pressure are said to be isotonic. As
compared to blood plasma if a solution has lower osmotic pressure it is said to
be hypotonic but, if it has higher osmotic pressure it is said to be hypertonic.
The solutions which are not isotonic with plasma may be harmful to use. On
injecting the hypotonic solutions into blood stream, it may enter the red blood
cells in an attempt to produce equilibrium, the cells swells rapidly until they
burst leading to haemolytic. As this damage is irreversible may lead to serious
danger to red blood cells.
When hyper tonic solution is injected into the blood stream, the water comes
out of the membrane of red blood cells in order to reach equilibrium.
The cells shrink leading to crenulations which are only a temporary
damage. When the osmotic pressure of two solutions becomes equal the
damaged cells will come to its original position.
Hence hypertonic solutions may, therefore be administered without
permanent damage of the blood cells. They should be injected slowly to ensure
rapid dilution into the blood stream and to minimize the crenulations of blood
cells.
For the adjustment of tonicity of Injectables solutions, substances like
sodium chloride and dextrose etc, are added. About 0.9% solution of sodium
chloride is isotonic 0.45% solution is hypotonic and 5% solution of sodium
chloride is hypertonic with plasma.
Calculations for preparing Isotonic solutions
For making isotonic solutions the quantities of substances to be added may
be calculated by following methods:
1. Based on freezing point data.
2. Based on molecular concentration.
3. Based on sodium chloride equivalents.
4. Based on freezing point data.
1. Based on freezing point Data
Freezing point is physical property of solutions (also called Colligative property)
which is most often used in the calculations of isotonic solutions because it can be
measured easily and accurately.
The temperature at which blood plasma and tears (lachrymal secretions) freeze is
0.52oc which is the same value of a 0.9 per cent solution of sodium chloride. All
solutions which freeze at 0.52 will be isotonic with blood plasma and lachrymal
secretions.
The freezing point of pure water is Oo C. The freezing point of a
solutions. At the freezing point of water the liquid and the solid exist in equilibrium
and have the same vapour pressure which ultimately lowers the freezing point of
the liquid. Adjustment to tonicity of solutions is simplified if the freezing point of
medicament and the inert substance are known.
The tables giving such information are usually provided for reference.
The freezing points are usually expressed in terms of 1% solutions. The quantity of
adjustingsubstance needed for
Percentage w/v of adjusting substance required
=
Where a represents the freezing point of the unadjusted solution, b
represents the freezing point 1% w/v solution of the adjusting substance.
Each substance exerts its effect on the freezing point thus if two or
more substances are present then the value of ‘a’ should be taken as sum of their
depressions.
1. Based on Molecular Concentration
Freezing point of a solution depends on the concentration of the solute
dissolved in it. Greater the concentration of the solute lower will be the freezing
point. Thus the freezing point depends on the concentration of gram molecules of
the solute, which ultimately depends on number of ions, molecular weight of the
substance.
If one gram molecule of any nonionizing substance is dissolved in 100 gm of water
the resulting solution will be of 1% gram molecular concentration. For example the
molecular weight of urea is 60, if 60 gm of urea dissolved in 100 gm of water the
resulting solution will have 1% molecular concentration.
An aqueous solution having 1% molecular concentration depresses the freezing
point to 18.6o C and the freezing point of blood plasma is 0.52o C. Therefore the
molecular concentration of blood plasma and Lachrymal secretions can be determined
as follows:
o o
A depression of 18.6 C given by a mol. Cone, of = 1% A depression of 1 C is given by a
mol. Cone, of =
(3)On human skin
The repeated contact b/w the skin and certain detergents may cause mild irritation and
dry skin leading to blisters and pustules. This lead to onset of infection.
DITRIBUTION LAW
If a solid or liquid is soluble in two different liquids which are immiscible with each other, it
is seen that at constant temperature the solute distributes itself between two solvents
until equilibrium is reached and the process is K/a distribution law.
CONDITION FOR DISTRIBUTION LAW
These are conditions for distribution law,
Temperature must be constant.
Two solvents must be immiscible..
Solution must be dilute
Molecular states of solute must remain unuttered
MATHEMATICAL FORM
Let C1 is the concentration of succinct acid in either and C
2 is the concentration of
scenic acid in water then,
C1 / C2 – KD (at constant temperature)
Where KD is constant called distribution coefficient or partition coefficient,
(B) PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS.
(1) AS SOLUBILIZING AGENTS:
Chloroxylenol, a phenolic compound is used as anti septic agent. Due to presence of
surfactants Chloroxylenol is made solubilized.
Similarly surfactants have been used to increase water solubility of
phenobarbitone, volatile oils, chloroform, iodine hormones, dyes and
sulphonamides.
(2) AS WETTING AGENTS:
Hydrophobic powdered are difficult to wet and either float on the water surface
or form large floccules.
So viscosity of the preparation is increased up to such an extant that it is difficult
to pour or with drawl of the correct dose from an inject able suspension is not
possible so surfactants are added which reduce the inter particle attractive
forces and increase adsorption at the solid / liquid interface.
(3)AS FLOCCULATING AGENTS:
A controlled amount of the flocculation is often desirable in the formulation of suspension
in order to obtain the required rheological properties and optimum stability.
(4)AS EMULSIFYING AGENTS:
Synthetic and natural surfactants are widely used as emulsifying agents in order to
get pharmaceutically elegant emulsion preparation.
(5) They are used as additives to ointment and suppository bases.
Chapter # 4
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM
BRONSTED LOWRY THEORY
Bronsted lower theory for acids and bases can be defined as:
‘’ Any species donating proton (H+ ) is an acid while the other species which is accepting its
proton (H+ ) is known base.’’
Consider the reaction:
HCl + H2O H3+ O + Cl
A1 B2 A2 B1
+
In forward reaction: HCl is an acid & H2O is base because HCl is donating H
& H2O is
accepting it.
While in the backward reaction H3+ O is acting as acid due to donation of
H+ & chloride ion is acting as base due to acceptation of H+ .
The tendency of donating or accepting proton by species depends upon the solvent. For
example:
+
HCl is strong acid in H2O because in aqueous solution it can donate H
easily. While in
glacial acetic acid its tendency to donate proton is decreased & so it act as weak acid.
Types of solvents:
On the basis of accepting or donating proton, solvents can be classified into four groups.
1. Protophillic
2. Protogenic
3. Amphiprotic
4. Aprotic
1. Protophillic:
Any solvent that can accept proton (H+ ) from solute is called Protophillic. For
example liquids like (acetones, ether & liquid ammonia) are Protophillic solvents.
Also called basic solvents.
2. Protogenic:
Those solvents which can donate proton (H+ ) are called Protogenic solvents. They
are usually acids in nature e.g. H2SO
4, HCl, CH
3COOH, etc.
3. Amphiprotic:
Those solvents which can donate or accept the proton are around into
amphiphiprotic solvents. This group contains H2O 7 alcohols.
4. Aprotic:
Those solvents which can not donate or accept protons are said to Aprotic.
They are used to study acidic and basic reactions of other compounds.
Hydrocarbons are grouped in this class of solvents.
Equilibrium:
The state at which two opposing forces or actions are balancing each other
is called equilibrium.
Chemical Equilibrium:
‘’The state of reversible reaction when the two opposing reactions occur at
the same rate and the concentration of reactants and products do not change with
time is called chemical equilibrium.’’
Consider a general reversible reaction:
A+ B C+D
Then according to law of mass action:
Rf [A] [B]
Rf = K f [A] [B]
And rate of backward reaction is: then
Rf [C] [D]
Rf = K
f [c] [D]
And we know that, at equilibrium, the rate of forwards reaction is balancing the rate of
backward / reverse reaction:
K f = K
r
K f [A] [B] = Kr [C] [D]
=
Kc =
Where ‘’ Kc’’ is called constant of law of mass action, and is equilibrium constant for a
specific chemical reaction.
IONIZATION OF WEAK ACIDS:
When weak acids are dissolved in water, the acids are ionized. This process of
ionization is firstly very fast but with the passage of time, forward reaction (ionization)
decreases & backward reaction increases, until at certain storage the ionized & unionized
acid molecules are in equilibrium.
Concede the reaction:
CH3COOH + H
2O
CH3COO +H3+ O
Then according to law of mass action:
Rf = K f [CH3 COOH] [H2 O] (1)
And the rate of backward reaction is then
Rb = K
b [CH
3COO
] [H3+ O] (2)
Rf = Rb
+
K f [CH
3COOH] [H
2O] = K
b [H
3 O] [CH3COO ]
kC =
kC [H
2O] =
(3)
o
1L H2O at 25
C weights = 997.07 gm
So No: of moles 997.07 /18.02 = 55.3 mol / liter
As the concentration of water is constant & which is 55.3 mol/liters, so putting in equation
(3).
55.3 Kc =
Ka =
(4)
Let at equilibrium the concentration of CH3COOH is cx & concentration of CH
3COOH
&
+
H3 O will x then putting in equation(4).
Ka =
Ka =
Ka =
But the decrease in concentration is very small so neglecting x: we get.
Ka =
= Ka C
Taking square of both sides, we get:
X = C
As concentration of H+ is equal to x, so
[H3 + O] = Ka C (5)
WHERE c = concentration of acid
And Ka = Ionization constant of acids / acidity
Constant/dissociation constant.
And the equation (5) shows the ionization of weak acids.
IONIZATION OF WEAK BASES
When weak bases dissolved in water they form alkaline solution, due to their
ionization. The general formula for the ionization of weak bases is given by:
B + H2O
HO + BH
+
OR B + H2O OH + HB
Then according to law of mass action the rate of forward & backward reaction are given
by:
Rf = K
f [D] [H
2O]
+
Rb = K
b [H B] [OH ]
At equilibrium point rate of forward reaction is in balance with rate of backward reaction
then:
Rf = R b
+
f [B] [H
K 2O] = K
b [H
B] [OH ]
=
K. [H2O] =
Kb =
(1)
Where kb shows the ionization constant for weak bases. At equilibrium the concentration
of base B is decreased by cx & the concentration of H+ B & OH will x then putting these
values in equation(1):
We get: Kb =
Kb =
As change in concentration of base is very small so neglecting x in denominator: we get
Kb =
Kb . C
= x
2
X =
As X = (OH ) = Kb . C
(2)
Where K
b = Ionization constant of weak bases.
C = concentration of base.
X = concentration of Hydroxyl ion:
While the equation (2) shows the ionization of weak bases.
IONIZATION OF WATER
Water is a weak electrolyte and in pure form ionize to very small extent. But when
few drops of a strong acid or base is added to it, the two molecules of water, one acting as
solute and other as solvent, ionize into H3+ O & OH ions. This process is called
autoprotolysis.
H2O + H
2O
H3+ O+ OH
According to law of mass action, the ionization constant for this reaction is given by:
K =
K =
K = (1)
As the water is in excess, therefore the concentration of water is taken to be content
So K = Kw (2)
Putting this value in equation one (1) =we get:
Kw =
Where Kw is called dissociation constant or autoprotolysis constant or ionic product of
14
water. The experimental value of Kw is 1 x10
mol/ litter at 25o c.
mol/ litter
= 1 x1014
As water is a neutral molecule and gives equal amount of & ions.
= = 1x107 mol /litter
The Kw is temperature dependent & varies with increase / decrease in temperature.
RELATIONSHIP B/W Ka & K b
HB + H
2O
+ B
Ka =
(1)
Now consider the ionization of a weak base: the general equation for this process is given
by
B + H2O
>HB +OH
Kb =
(2)
Multiplying equation 1 and 2, we get
Ka. K
b = x
Ka. Kb = = (3)
But we know that:
Kw =
Putting in equation 3, we get:
Ka. K
b = = K
w
(1) Ka = K
w / K
b
(2) Kb = Kw / K
a
1) The strength of an acid can be expressed in terms of either Ka or the K
b if its
conjugate base is known.
2) The Ka of an acid can be calculated if the K
b of its conjugate base is known.
3) The stronger an acid is, the weaker is its conjugate base and vice versa.
AMPHOLYTES
‘’A species that can act, both as an acid and a base at a time is called impolite and
amphotyric in nature.’’
Amino acid (basic unit of proteins) is the familiar example of impolite. They are
amphotyric in nature an have carboxylic group on its one side and –NH2 (Amino) group
on other side carboxylic group act as an acid while Amino group act as base. When
Amino acid is ionized in water, zwitter ion is formed.
(Zwitter ion)
Consider the ionization of phosphoric acid(H3PO4).
In the aboye ionization the two species, H2PO4 & HPO42 ARE ACTING AS AMPHOLATES.
Because in the forward direction, due to donation of proton they act as acid. And in
backward direction. Due to acceptation of proton, they act as base.
SORENSEN’S PH SCALE
Hydrogen ion concentration are typical’y very small numbe, it is b/w 1 (in one molar
(in one molar strong basic solution). So, it is very
strong acidic solution) and 1x1014
difficult to handle such small calculations.
A chemist sorensen established a method to express hydrogen ion
concentration of a solution. This method is called sorense’s PH scale: and it is defined
as:
‘’ The logrithm of reciprocal of hydronium ion is called PH.’’
PH = log
PH = log 1 – log
PH = o log
PH = log
Or PH = log
(e.g. aspirin) the medium should have high concentration of hydrogen ions (low PH ) &
for the absorption of basic drug. (e.g. pracetamol) the absorption medium should have
low concentration of hydrogen ions (having high PH ).
SUM OF PH & POH
As we know that ionization constant of water is
Kw =
14
Put Kw = 1 x10
mol/ liter
=
1 x1014
Taking –log on both sides, we have:
log { ]
} = log [1 x1014
log log
= log1 log x1014
{ log } + {log
} = 0 – (14) log10
PH + POH
= 0+4(1)
PH + POH
= 14.
Chapter # 5
BUFFERS
BUFFER SOLUTION
‘’ A solution that resists the change in PH by the addition of small amount of acid or
base on called buffer solution.’’ The mixture of solutes that is responsible for the
buffering action of solution is called a buffer.
‘’A buffer solution is one which maintains its PH fairy constant even upon the addition
of small amount of acid or base,’’
A buffer solution is usually a weak acid with its salt with strong base or a weak with its
salt with strong acid.
TYPES OF BUFFER SOLUTION:
On the basis of sonstituents of buffer solution, the buffer solution can be
grouped into two types:
1. Acidic Buffers.
2. Basic Buffers.
1. Acidic Buffer:
Those buffer solutions, which are prepared by mixing a weak acid with its salt with
strong base e.g. CH3COOH / CH
3COONa, H
2CO
3 / Na
2CO
3. ETC
2. Basic Buffer:
These are buffer solution which are formed by mixing base with its salt with strong
acid e.g. NH4OH/NH 4Cl & ephedrine / ephedrine HCl, etc.
MECHANISM:
The resistance, which is offered to the change in PH of buffer solution is said
to be beffer action or mechanism of buffer solution.
As an acidic buffer has weak acid & salt of strong base, so buffer solution contains
an acidic species which react with base added to the solution & a basic species
which react with incoming acid in order to maintain PH of buffer solution. And this
whole process reversed in case of basic buffer.
For example, buffer solution CH3COOH / CH
3COONa has acidic species
& basic
species CH3COOH. When a basic species (e.g.
) is added to this buffer solution.
CH3COOH react with it & neutralizes it. And in the same way if acidic species (e.g.
) is added to this buffer solution, the CH3COOH react with it & neutralizes it.
CH3COOH=========CH
3COO
+ H
CH3COONa======== CH
3COO
+ Na
On addition of
CH3COOH +
=========CH3COO+H 2O
CH3COO
+H3O========= CH
3COOH+H
2O
Henderson equation for acidic buffers
The PH of an acidic buffer can be calculated from the dissociation constant of
a weak acid (Ko) and the concentration of acid & salt used for the preparation of
buffer solution.
The dissociation expression of the weak acid HA can be represented by:
HA ========== + A
Ka =
Ka X [HA] =
= Ka [HA] /
Taking log on both sides,we have:
Log = log Ka [HA] /
Log = log Ka +log [HA] /
Multilplying both sides by1, we have:
log = log Ka log [HA] /
(1)
But
log = PH
log Ka =P
ka
Putting in equation (1), we have:
PH =Pka –log [HA] /
OR
PH =Pka +log
/[HA] (2)
As HA is weak acid, its dissociation is very small, which is further reduced by salt
with common ion, so concentration of unionized acid remains constant.
And the concentration is taken as initial concentration of salt
because salt is completely dissociated during reaction. So, equation(2) can be
written as:
PH =Pka + log [salt] / [acid]
This relationship is called Henderson Hasselbalch equation or simply Henderson
equation for PH of acidic buffer solutions.
HENDERSON’S EQUATION FOR BASIC BUFFER
The PH of basic buffer solution can be calculated from the dissociation constant (Kb)
of the weak base and the concentrations of base and salt used for the preparation
of buffer solution.
The dissociation expression of weak base (B ), may be represented as:
B + H2O ============HB +
Therefore,
Kb = [HB] [
] / [B ]
Kb . [B
] =[HB] [ ]
[ ] = Kb . [B
] / [HB](1)
As we know that
Kw=
= Kw /
Putting in equation1, we have:
Kw /
= = Kb . [B
] / [HB]
Taking log on both sides, we have
Log Kw /
= log Kb . [B
] / [HB]
Log Kw –log = log Kb . [B ] / [HB]
Log = log Kw + log K
b +log[B
] / [HB]
Log = log Kw – (log Kb)+log [B ] / [HB]
But
log
= PH
log Kb = p
kb
Putting these values in equation 2, we have:
= pkw p
PH kb + log[B
] / [HB]
Here the [B ] is the concentration of weak base & [HB] is the concentration of conjugate
acid or concentration of salt of base B. so, equation 3, can be written as:
= pkw
PH pkb
+ log [base] / [salt]
The above realtionship is called the Henderson – Hasselbalch or simply Henderson
equation for buffer of weak base and their corresponding salts.
BUFFER CAPACITY
‘’ The magnitude of resistance of buffer solution to PH change is called buffer capacity.’’
‘’ Ratio of a small addition of acid or base to PH change is called buufer capacity .’’
Mathematically:
β = B PH
Where β = Buffer capacity of solution.
B = Small addition of acid or base into buffer solution.
PH = change in PH .
Buffer capacity is also known as buffer efficiency, buffer value / index.
The buffer capacity of a solution has a value one, when the addition of 1gram equivalent
of strong base or acid to 1 litter buffer solution changing the PH by 1 unit.
The buffer capacity of solution can be calculated by van slick’s equation, which is given by:
β = 2.3 C ka /[ka + ]2
MAXIMUM BUFFER CAPACITY
The capacity of a solution will be maximum, when salt to acid ratio of buffer
solution is one (i.e. PH =Pka)
According to buffer equation:
PH =Pka + log [salt] [acid]/
If [salt] = [acid]
PH =Pka + log 1
PH =Pka + O
PH =Pka
At this point, the buffer solution will have maximum buffer capcity . According to van
slyke’s equation.
β = 2.3 C ka /[ka +
]2
When,
PH =Pka
= ka
β mox = 0.576 C
This relationship is known as the van slyke’s equation for the maximum buffer capacity.
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOF BUFFER SOLUTION
There are some factors which influence the PH of buffer solution . Among these
factors some are as follows:
1. NEUTRAL SALT
By the addition of small quantity of neutral salt, there is no effect on the PH
of the buffer solution. But when the concentration of added neutral salt is
increased, then PH of buffer solution changes due to change in ionic strength.
2. DILUTION
If the buffer solution is diluted to a small extent, then there will be no change
in PH of buffer solution. But if the solution is diluted to sufficient extent it will change the
PH of buffer solution by altering the ionic strength.
‘’The change in PH on diluting the buffer solution to one half of its
original strength is called dilution value.’’
If a buffer solution has positive dilution value, then its PH rises with dilution, and the buffer
solutions with negative dilution value have decrease in PH with dilution.
3. TEMPERATURE
Temperature has a little effect on PH of buffer solution. In acidic buffer
solution, the change in temperature has a very little change in PH of solution.
But in basic buffer solution, it has marked effect because the PH of basic
buffer solution depends upon Pkw , which changes with temperature.
BIOLOGICAL BUFFER
The buffer which are present in different biological systems are called Biological or
Invivo Buffers. Biological buffers are classified into two groups:
1. Primary Buffers
2. Secondary Buffers
1. PRIMARY BUFFERS
These buffers help in maintaining the PH of the blood. The normal value blood PH is 7.4. If
it exceeds 8 alkalosis & if lower than 7 acidosis is resulted.
These are the buffers which are present in human blood plasma. Plasma has three types of
buffer systems.
A. Carbonic acid & its salt i.e. H2CO 3 / NaNCO
3
B. Phosphoric acid & its salt i.e. H3PO 4 /Na
3PO
4
C. Plasma protein in acts as acid & salt is formed. This resultant salt & uncombined
protein form a system, which acts as buffer.
2. SECONDARY BUFFERS
The buffers are present in the RBC’s or erythrocytes are called secondary
buffer. Following are the some examples of secondary buffers.
a. Hemoglobin & oxy – hemoglobin (oxidizing buffer)
b. Phosphoric acid & potassium salt of phosphoric acid.
DRUG AS BUFFER
The solutions of drugs are usually weak electrolytes, so they act as buffers in
their own fashion.
Explanation:
When salicylic acid is kept in glass bottle, the ions (e.g. Na+ ) reached out from
walls & react with salicylic acid to form the conjugate base or salt (e..g. sodium salicylate).
The salicylic acid & resulting salt from a buffer which resists the change
H
in P of the salicylic acid.
Another example is of ephedrine (base). When HCl is added to its solution, ephedrine HCl
is formed which is conjugate acid or salt of ephedrine. So both forming buffer and so
stable the PH of the drug.
PHARMACEUTICAL BUFFERS
The buffer action of drugs is very small, which only maintains the PH drug by the
addition of atmospheric CO2 or ions of glass.
So far the stability of drugs, same additional buffer is used known as
pharmaceutical Buffers.
Some familiar examples of pharmaceutical buffers are as follows:
1. Gifford Buffer: [H3BO
3+ NaCO
3 – H
2O]
→ 9
This buffer solution is formed by mixing the solution of boric acid with solution of
Monohydrated sodium carbonate and it is used in PH b/w 5→ 9.
2. Sorensen Buffer: [Na3PO
4] 6
→ 9
This buffer solution is obtained by mixing salts of sodium phosphate (Na3PO4). It is
used in the PH range from 6 to 8. Nacl is also added in order to make the buffer
isotonic with body fluid.
3. Palitzsch Buffer: [H3BO
3+ Na
3 BO
3] + Nacl 79
This buffer is obtained by mixing the solutions of boric acid & sodium borate.
In this buffer, Nacl is added in order to make the solution isotonic with
body fluid. It is used for ophthalmic solutions in the PH range of 7 to 9.
4. Clark – Lubes
Buffers: Ome examples of clarklubs buffers are given by:
1. HCl & KCl (PH : 1.2→ 2.2)
2. HCl &K – Hydrogen Phthalate (PH :2.2→ 4.0)
3. NaoH & K – Hydrogen Phthalate (PH :4.2 → 5.8)
H
4. NaoH & KH2PO 4 (P
:5.8 → 8.0)
H
5. H3BO
3 , Nacl & Kcl (P
:8.0 → 10)
Acid Base Indicators / PH Indicators
These are the indicators, which change their colours upon change in PH of solution.
Acid – Base Indicators are also called PH Indicators because they change their colour in
change in hydrogen ion concentration or exhibit change in colour upon their degree of
dissociation.
They show maximum change in colour when the ionized & unionized
forms of indicators are in equilibrium & this point is called end point. Examples of
acidbase indicators or PH indicators are Methyl Orange, Methyl Red, phenolphthalein, etc.
Phenolphthalein: This is weakly acidic PH indicator, which is colourless in acidic medium.
While in basic medium it is ionized & turns pink (or red) colour its PH range is 8.3→ 10.0.
Methyl Orange: This PH indicator is weakly basic in nature and changes its colour in PH
range of 3.1 → 4.5. It is Red in acid and Yellow in alkaline solution.
BUFFER EQUATION FOR INDICATORS
The dissociation equation for an acidic indicator (HIn) is given by:
+
HIn + H2O ============= H
3O
+In
Acid base
+
KIn = [H3O ] [In] / [HIn]
+
[H3O ] = KIn [HIn] / [In ]
Making log on both sides, we get,
+
log [H3O ] = log { KIn [HIn] / [In ]}
+
log [H3O ] = log KIn+log [HIn] / [In ]
Multiplying by 1 on both sides, we have
+
log [H3O ] = log KInlog [HIn] / [In ]
+
log [H3O ] = log KIn+log [In ]/ [HIn] (1)
Where
+
log [H3O ] = P
H
log Kin = PKIn
In = conjugate base,
HIn = Acid
Equation (1) can be written in the form:
PH = PKIn+log [conjugate base] / [Acid]
If [conjugate base] / [Acid] =1
Then,
PH = PKIn
This is the point at which there is a formation of middle colour of indicator. But the
effective range of indicator is b/w its full acidic or basic i.e.
PH = PKIn 1
This shows that eye will be able to see the change in colour when the [acid] to [base] or
[base] to [acid] ratio is 1/10.
PH = PKIn + log 1/10
PH = PKIn +log 1log 10
PH = PKIn 1 (A)
PH = PKIn +log 10/1
PKIn +log 10log 1
PH = PKIn +1 (B)
From (A)& (B)
PH = PKIn +1
This shows the range of PH where the indicators are effective.
Like buffers several indicators can be combined to yield universal indicators. The best
example of the universal indicator is that which consists of mixture of methyl Yellow,
methyl red,
phenolphthalein, bromothymol, and thymol blue, which covers the range from PH 1 to 11.
PREPARATION OF PHARMACEUTICAL BUFFERS
In order to prepare a pharmaceutical buffer, following steps are very important & to be
known by the pharmacist.
H
1) For maximum buffer capacity, weak acid having PKa value equal to P (of required
solution) is used in the formation of pharmaceutical buffers.
2) In order to get required PH for buffer, the ratio of salt & weak acid is determined by
buffer equation. It should be in the range of 4.0 → 10.0.
3) The acid and salt used for the preparation of buffer solution should be 0.05 → 0.5
molar & final buffer solution with buffer capacity 0.01→ 0.1 is best.
4) Other important factors for the preparation of pharmaceutical buffer are:
➢ Availability of chemicals
➢ Sterility of final solution
➢ Stability of drugs & buffer with time
➢ Freedom from toxicity
➢ Cost of materials
5) Final step is the determination of PH & buffer capacity of final product. It may be
different from calculated value because of activity co efficient of different
chemicals used.
Chapter # 6
HYDROLYSIS
HYDROLYSIS
The decomposition of a substance by the addition of water molecule is called
Hydrolysis’’.
OR
‘’The degradation of pharmaceutical preparation by reacting with water is known as
Hydrolysis’’.
OR
The reaction of an anion / cat ion with water accompanied by the cleavage of OH bond as
called Hydrolysis.
For example: the Hydrolysis of acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) leads to the formation of acetic
acid and salicylic acid.
The Hydrolysis may be ester hydrolysis, salt hydrolysis, starch hydrolysis etc.
TYPES OF HYDROLYSIS
On the basis of substrate, the hydrolysis is classified into following two groups:
1. Ionic Hydrolysis
2. Molecular Hydrolysis
1.IONIC HYDROLYSIS
→ That type of hydrolysis in which water reacts with the ions of salts (which are made up
of weak acid or base) is called ionic hydrolysis.
This is amphotyric type of hydrolysis, in which water either acts as acid or base depending
on the provided ion. The water & ion react to form new acid & base. As in this process
transfer of proton is involved so also called protplysis.
Acid1 Base
2 Acid
2 Base
1
H2O +CH
3COO
→ CH3COOH +OH
+ +
NH4 + H2O
→ H3 O +NH3
2. MOLECULAR HYDROLYSIS
That type of hydrolysis in which water reacts with a molecule of a compound is called
molecular hydrolysis.
Due to this hydrolysis, decomposition of molecule takes place. For example: when aspirin
is hydrolyzed it gives acetic acid & salicylic acid.
EFFECT OF HYDROLYSIS ON DRUG STABILITY
The process of hydrolysis has a great influence on the stability of the drug.
As due to hydrolysis drug is decomposed & new products are formed these new products
may be toxic in nature & so decrease the therapeutic effect of the drug. Moreover the
hydrolysis also decreases the attractiveness of the drug i.e. inelegant take place.
PROTECTION OF DRUGS FROM HYDROLYSIS
To avoid the hydrolysis of drug, various methods are used. Among these methods, some
important ones are as follows.
1. SOLID DOSAGE FORM
To the hydrolysis and to retain the activity of solid dosage forms, they are kept in air tight
vessels.
And at the time of administration they are first dissolved in water & then used.
This process is called reconstitution & the product is called reconstitute product is
penicillin & its derivatives are commonly used by this method.
2. LIQUID DOSAGE FORMS:
The hydrolysis of liquid dosage forms is prevented by changing their PH with the addition
of certain buffers. By this not only an optimum PH of drug stability is obtained but the
therapeutic activity of drug is also retained.
3. COMPLEX FORMATION
Some drugs are prevented from hydrolysis by complex formation such complexes not only
prevent the process of hydrolysis but the therapeutic effect is also not effected.
For example: when caffeine is added to Benzocaine,
(caffeineBenzocaine complex) is formed, which resist the hydrolysis of Benzocaine, in this
way its therapeutic activity is retained.
4. PACKAGING & HYGROCOPIC MATERIALS
They drugs are provided in such packaging which do not allow the H2 O molecules to
pass for this purpose; (aluminium foils are used.
Moreover, hydroscopic materials bags are placed in drugs which attract
the water molecules or moisture & in this way hydrolysis of drugs may not take place.
5. PH OF MEDIA
Some substances are more soluble in alkaline PH & basic drugs are more soluble in
acidic PH . So by changing the PH , their solubility is decreased & hence the hydrolysis of
drug is prevented.
Chapter # 7
MICROMERITICS
The science and technology of small particles is known as micromeritics. It deals with the
study of fundamental and derived properties of both individual as well as collection of
particles’’.
Particle size distribution and surface area of the powder are two fundamental properties
of a powder while porosity of the powders, packing arrangements, densities of the
particle, bulkiness and flow properties are called derived properties of powder.
The unit of particles size used most frequently is the micrometer, also
called the micron and is equal to 106 m or 104 cm or 103 mm.
TYPES OF PARTICLES.
Depending upon their size particles are divided in to three groups.
1. COLLOIDAL DISPERSION.
Such types of particles are not seen by ordinary microscope and are only
observed by ultra microscope.
2. EMULSION AND SUSPENSION.
Particles of suspension and emulsion can be observed by light microscope.
3. COARSE PARTICLES.
These are observed on the basis of sieves. They are of three types
➢ Particles of coarse powder, larger than sieve number 20
➢ Particles of intermediate size, in the range of sieve number 20 & 200
➢ Particles of fine powders i.e., smaller than sieve number 200.
PARTICLE SIZE.
Particle size is related to the shape and surface area of individual particles.
According to their shape, the particles are divided in to two groups.
SYMMETRICAL PARTICLES
The particles having specific crystal shape and cane be expressed in term of their
diameter (for example spherical) are known as symmetrical particles.
Symmetrical particles are mainly found in spherical shape. So if we
know the diameter of spherical particles we can easily determine its surface area
and volume by following expression.
Surface area = d2
Volume = d3 / 6
ASYMMETRICAL PARTICLES.
The particles which have no specific crystal shape are termed as asymmetrical
particles.
As the asymmetry of the particles increases then surface area and volume of the
particles also become complex to be determined.
In order to determine their surface area and volume four different types so
equivalent diameters are used i.e.
1. Surface diameter
2. Volume diameter
3. Projected diameter
4. Stokes diameter
SURFACE DIAMETER (ds)
The diameter of a shape having same surface area as that of asymmetric particles.
VOLUME DIAMETER (dv)
The diameter of sphere having same volume as that of asymmetric particles.
PROJECTED DIAMETER (dp)
The diameter of sphere having same observed area, as that of asymmetric particles when
viewed normal to its most stable plain. This diameter is usually determined by microscopic
technique.
STOKES DIAMETER (dst)
This is the diameter of the sphere having same sedimentation rate as that of asymmetric
particles.
● AVERAGE PARTICLE SIZE.
Any collection of particles is usually poly disperse (particles of more than one size)
so if a sample of powder have particles of different sizes then the average particle
size is determined by Edmondson equation.
d mean =
Where
d = diameter of the particle in a given size range.
n = number of the particles in the sample.
P = index related to the size of an individual particle.
f = frequency index.
The use of Edmondson equation depends upon the value of p & f For example if,
P = 1, it becomes the expression of the particle length.
P = 2. It becomes the expression of surface area.
P =3, it becomes the expression of volume of particles.
The value of p also decides the type of mean obtained.
If, P = positive, the mean is arithmetic.
P = negative, then mean is harmonic.
P = o, then mean is geometric.
If,
F = O, it indicate the expression for the number.
F =1, it indicate the expression is for surface area.
F =3, it indicate that the expression is for volume.
Particle size distribution.
In a sampler of powder, particles of various sizes are present. This distribution of particles
of various sizes in a sample is known as particle size distribution.
Types of particles size distribution.
There are two types of particles size distribution i.e.
Number particle size distribution:
In this technique, we count the number of particles in specific size range. The numbers of
particles are usually calculated by microscopic technique.
Weight particle size distribution.
In technique we weight the particles in specific size range. The weight of the particles is
usually calculated by sedimentation or sieving method.
Frequency distribution curve.
If the number of weight fractions is plotted against their size range, a frequency curve is
obtained. This curve is known as particle size frequency curve or frequency distribution
curve or histogram.
Such plot gives a visible representation of the distribution that an
average diameter can not achieve. This is important b/c it is possible that two sample may
have the same diameter but different distribution.
A poly dispersed powder is said to have a normal distribution if a typical
bell shaped frequency distribution curve is obtained. In this case one half of the curve is
super imposable on the other half.
However normal distribution is not commonly found in pharmaceutical
powders. Which are frequently processed by milling or precipitation? More commonly
asymmetric or skewed distribution is obtained.
DETERMINATTION OF PARTICLE SIZE:
There are different methods for the determination of particle size. These methods are
mainly divided into two groups i.e. direct method and indirect method.
In direct method, the dimensions (i.e. length width) of particles are directly measured with
the help of a scale e.g. microscopy and sieving methods where as during indirect method,
some characteristics of particles are determined which are then correlated to the particle
size e.g. sedimentation following are the three main methods for the determination of
particles size distribution
1. Microscopy
2. Sieving method
3. Sedimentation
Microscopy
This is the accurate and direct method for the determination of particle size. At least
300500 particles must be counted in order to obtain good size distribution analysis of
data. According to this method a dilute suspension of the powder particles whose size are
to be determined is prepared in liquid vehicle in which it is insoluble.
When it is slightly soluble a saturated solution of the powder can be
used for the preparation of a suspension. A drop of suspension is mounted on a slide and
placed on mechanical stage.
The microscope eye piece is fitted with a micrometer by which the size
of particle may be estimated. Generally three type of microscopes are used depending on
the size of the particles i.e.
❖ Simple microscope(for 0.2 100 m)
❖ Ultra microscope (for0.010.2 m)
❖ Electron microscope (for less then 0.01 m)
Sometimes the observed field is projected or photographed for permanent record.
Electronic scanners have been developed to remove the necessity of measuring the
particle by visual observation.
Some have used video recording equipments to observe, record, store
and retrieves particle size data.
Advantages:
The presence of agglomerates as well as particle of more than one component can be
detected by this method.
Disadvantages:
1. The measured diameter represents to dimensions only i.e. length and breadth.
There is no estimation of depth or thickness of the particles.
2. The number of the particles to be counted (300500) to obtain a good estimation
makes this method slow and tedious
3. If particles aggregate on the slide, inaccurate results are obtained.
Sieving method
This method is applicable for particles in the size range of 50 5000 . Sieving is the
most widely used method for measuring the particle size distribution.
It is based on ‘’ GO”NO GO’’ principle. During sieving process the
powder is passed over a perforated screen, with the result small particles will pass
through sieve while the over sized particles will be retain on the sieve.
For detailed analysis of sample of a powder, a set of sieves are arranged
in such a way that the finest sieve is on the bottom and the coarser is on the top. The
weighed amount of the powder is placed on the top of the sieve and the sieve set is
shaken for specific period of time, the standard sieves used are calibrated by the
national bureau of standards.
During the vibration of the sieves a fraction of powder will be retained
on each sieve while the other fractions will pass through the sieve. After specific time
the shaker is stopped and the weight of each fraction is determined and the %age is
calculated.
Then these results are presented in the form of a cumulative over size curve or as a
histogram.
Advantages
This method is generally useful for coarser particles b/c measurement of sizes smaller
than 50 m is difficult.
Disadvantages:
1. A particle tends to aggregate during the process due to electrostatic charges.
2. Moisture can also lead to aggregation of powder the actual particle size may not be
obtained.
3. Attrition of particles during sieving lead to size reduction.
4. Sieve loading and duration of shaking can influence the results.
5. The sieving process is affected considerably by the particle size distribution. Smaller
particle will pass easily and larger size particle will block the mesh and even smaller
particle will not pass.
Sedimentation
This technique is applicable for particle lying in the size range on 0.5100 . This
technique is based on the sedimentation rate of particles.
Several methods based on sedimentation are used. Most commonly
used method is pipette method using Andersen apparatus. It consists of a cylindrical vessel
having a nominal capacity of about 550ml.
It has a vertical scale graduated from 020cm. it also contain 10ml
pipette which is fitted with a two way stop cock for discharging the sample.
For analysis, 1 or 2% suspension of powder in a medium containing a suitable
deflocculating agent to prevent coagulation is introduced into the vessel. The vessel is
shaken to distribute the particles uniformly through out the suspension and the apparatus.
At various time intervals, 10ml samples are with drawn which are then
evaporated and weighed or analyzed by appropriate means, correcting for deflocculating
agent that has been added.
The sedimentation of the particles is governed by following stokes law
equation. V= d2 ( s o) g / 18
= h/t
Where, V = rate of sedimentation, h = distance of fall in time ’’t’’
d = stokes diameter s = density of the particle
o = density of the medium
g = acceleration due to gravity
o = viscosity of the medium.
The weight of each sample residue is called weight under size and the sum of successive
weights is known as the cumulative weight under size.
This is then plotted on the log scale against the particle diameter using a log probability
graph paper. Various statistical diameters are then obtained from the plot.
Advantages.
o The apparatus is inexpensive and technique is simple.
o The results obtained are precise provided the technique is adequately standardized.
Disadvantages.
o This method is time consuming, since separate analysis is required for each
experimental point on the distribution curve.
o It is difficult to determined very small particles b/c their sedimentation is prolonged
due to convection, diffusion, and Brownian motion.
Importance of micromeritics in pharmacy.
The knowledge and control of the size and the size range of particles is of profound
importance in pharmacy like.
➢ The physical properties of powders such as bulk density and compressibility are
dependent on particle size and size distribution. For example the bulk density of
light and heavy magnesium carbonate difssfers b/c of the difference in their
particle size.
➢ The rate of dissolution of poorly soluble drug is directly related to the size of
particles. Generally decrease in size of particle increases the dissolution rate.
➢ The chemical properties of particles such as the surface oxidation also depend on
particle size.
➢ The rate of absorption of drug and hence pharmacological activity depends on
particle size of the drug material.
➢ Elegance of the pharmaceuticalpreparation such as emulsion, suspension
ointments, often depends upon particle size of the dispersed phase.
➢ The drug release properties are also particle size dependent for example cream,
ointment, suppositories.
➢ The stability of system such as colloids suspensions and emulsion depends on the
particle size. Increase in particle size decreases the stability of these systems.
➢ Texture and colour of certain drugs depends on the particle size for example, the
difference in colour of yellow and red mercuric oxide is due to difference in their
particle size.
➢ Pharmaceutical processes like extraction and drying are accelerated following the
reduction in particle size of the material.
➢ The adsorption capacity of a material increases by decreasing the particle size.
COLLOIDS
When the; diameter of the particles of a substance dispersed in a solvent ranges from
about 10A0 to 2,000 A0, the system is termed as colloidal solution or colloidal solution or
colloidal dispersion or simply a colloid
OR
“The colloidal solutions on colloids are intermediate between true solutions &
suspensions”
OR
“A system with at least one dimension (length, width or thickness) of the dispersed
particles in the range of 10 A0 to 2,000 A0, is known as colloidal dispersion or colloids”
The substance distributed as the colloidal particle is called dispersed phase & the
second phase in which it is dispersed is called dispersion medium.
The dispersed phase and dispersion medium can be in either of three states of
matter on the basis of this. There are eight colloidal system given by
Type Dispersed Dispersion
Example
Name Phase Medium
Foam Gas Liquid Shaving cream, Whipped cream
Solid
Gas Solid Pumice stone, Foam rubber
Foam
Aerosol Liquid Gas Fog, Mist, Clouds
By using a continuous flow of H2O, the concentration of electrolyte inside the
membrane tends to zero.
So after some time all the electrolytes which are present in the sol can be
removed easily.
Factors Affecting Dialysis:
Efficiency & speed of dialysis is determined by several factors. Dialysis is
hastened by the following factors.
● Increase surface of solution exposed to membrane.
● Increase in temperature
● Electric potential across the membrane
● Maximum concentration difference of dissolved substances across the
membrane.
B. ELECTRODIALYSIS:
During this process, dialysis takes place by using electric field. In this process,
potential is applied between metal screens supporting the membrane. So the ions are moved
to opposite electrodes and in this way sol is purified.
The apparatus which is used for electro dialysis consists of three compartments. The
two lateral compartments contain electrode and water while the central compartments contain
sol.
The main disadvantage of this process is that waste materials which are nonelectrolytes will
not be removed from the sol because they are not forming anions & cautions.
C. ULTRAFILLITRATION:
The separation of sol particles from the liquid medium & electrolytes by
filtration through an ultra filter is called ultra filtration.
Ultra filtration is a slow process and this can be speeds up by increasing pressure. The
colloidal particles are left on be the ultra filter in the form of slime. The slime may be again
added to fresh medium to get back the pure sol.
Ultra filter paper is a filter paper whose relative larger pores are made small by using
specialized solvents e.g. nitrocellulose. It is also called graded filter.
PROPERTIES OF SOLS (COLLOIDS)
Following are the some important physical properties of lyophobic colloids:
1. Optical properties
2. Kinetic properties
3. Electric properties
1. Optical Properties:
Following are the some important optical properties of colloids.
a. Tyndall Effect: The phenomenon of scattering of light by the sol particles is called
Tyndall effect & resulting scattered became of light is called Tyndall became or
Tyndall cone. Tyndall effect is very useful in determining the particle size of
colloidal solution.
True solutions do not show Tyndall effect because ionic or molecular sizes are very
small & so can not scatter the light. Thus by using this phenomenon we can
distinguish true solution & colloidal solution.
b. Electron microscopy: In electron microscopy when a focused became of electrons
is allowed to pass through a colloidal solution. The size & shape of colloidal
parties can easily be determined individually. By this process size & shape of
several sol particles like paint pigments, viruses and bacteria are determined. The
resolving power of an electron microscope is very high resolving power 1/^. Thus
by decreasing ^ Thus by decreasing ^ resolving power in increased.
c. Light Scattering: This phenomenon of colloids can be explained on the basis of
Tyndall EFFECT. When light is passed through colloidal system, it will be
scattered & turbidity of system is exulted. The fractional decrease in intensity due
to scattering as the incident light passes through 1cm of solution. By this we can
calculate the size of particles & also their molecular weight, correlating with
turbidity, equation expressing this is
HC/T = 1/M +2BC
T= TURBIDITY
C= = Concentration of colloidal system
H = optical constant
M = molecular weight of particle
B= interaction of the particles
2. Kinetic Properties: The properties which are based on the motion of particles with
respect to the dispersion medium are called kinetic properties. Following are the same
important kinetic properties of colloids:
a. Brownian movement: The continuous rapid zigzag movements executed by a
colloidal particle in the dispersion medium is called the Brownian movement or
motion. At any instant a colloidal particle is struck by several molecules of
dispersion medium from various directions. When vapour molecules struck on
one side than other the particles changes its direction of motion. This constant
pushing of particles by dispersion medium does not permit the particles to settle
down.
b. Diffusion: The movement of particles from their higher concentration to lower
concentration is known as diffusion. It is the direct action of Brownian
movements. And the amount of substance (colloid)moved from one place to
another can be determined by FLICK’s first law (given by: Formula,
Dq = DA dc / dx dt
Dq = rate of diffusing substance
D = diffusion coefficient
A = area of diffusion
Dc /dx = conc. Gradient
Dt = time of diffusion
c. Osmosis: It is special type of diffusion in which the particle moves from region of
its higher concentration to lower concentration through semi permeable
membrane.
The external pressure applied on solution to stop the osmosis of the solvent into
solution separated by a semi permeable.
Membrane is called osmotic pressure .and this can be determined by vent Hoff
equation:
∏ = NRt
n = W/M
∏ = W/M RT = M = WRT / ∏
Where,
∏ = osmotic pressure.
R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature
M = molecular weight
d. Sedimentation: The process by which the colloidal particle settles down in the
dispersion medium due to force of gravity is known as sedimentation.
The velocity of sedimentation can be determined by following equation called
stokes Law:
V = 2r2 (
o ) 9 no
Where
V = velocity of sedimentation.
= density of particle.
o = density of dispersion medium.
g = acceleration due to gravity
No= viscosity of medium.
r = radius of spherical particle.
Most colloids do not show the process of sedimentation
b/c the particles are very small sedimentation is opposed by their Brownian motion.
However sedimentation can be achieved by placing the particle in a high speed
centrifuge. Thus gravitational.
Forces are replaced by centrifugal forces as much as 100000 times greater.
d. Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of fractional
e.
Resistance offered by a system towards applied force. And it mainly
depends upon the shape & size of particles of the system. In colloidal system, the Lyophobic
colloids are more viscous than solvents. The equation of flow for a dilute colloidal system
can be written as:
n = no (1+2.50)
Where,
N= viscosity of the total dispersion
no = viscosity of the dispersion medium
ǿ = volume fraction = volume of dispersed phase / volume of dispersion medium
3. Electric properties: The properties of colloids that depend upon the charge on colloids
particles are called electric properties of colloids.
Electrical Double Layer: The combo nation of compact & diffused layer is called EDL. The
colloidal (sol) particles get a positive or negative charge by adsorbing positive or negative ion
from dispersion medium.
For example: Fe (OH)3 sol are positively charged by adsorption of Fe3 ions from Fecl3 use in
the preparation of sol.
The force of repulsion between similar charges on colloidal particle prevents them to
aggregate, and to settle under the action of gravity.
For example: the surface of colloids particle esquires’ positive charge by selective adsorption
of positive ion layer around it.
The counter ions (which are negative in this case) form a layer around colloidal
positively charged particle & this is called stern layer or solvated layer or compact layer.
The stern layer is surrounded by another layer of counter ions (positive in this case) this layer
is called diffused layer or Guy’s
Chapman’s layer.
The stern layer & diffused layer both are forming an electric double layer, which is
very important for stability of colloids by preventing them from coagulation.
When different layers are formed on the charged colloidal particles, potential difference
will also be present between them. These are:
➢ Epsilon or Electro Kinetic Potential = sum of zeta potential & stern potential is
called E.P.
➢ Zeta Potential: The potential difference between the compact layer diffused layer is
called zeta potential.
➢ Stern potential: The potential difference between compact layer & surface of the
particle.
ELECTRO KINETIC PHENOMENON
The phenomenon associated with the movement of charged particles through a
dispersion medium or with the movement of dispersion medium over a charged surface
is called E.K.P.
1) ELECTROPHORESIS:
The movement of colloidal is applied across two platinum electrodes dipping in
hydrophilic colloids, the dispersed particles move towards one or the other
electrode.
If water is used as dispersion medium then by this process, we can determine the
charge on sol particles. E.g. metals, AS2S3, starch & clay are positively charged
because they move towards positive electrode while Fe (OH)3, Al(HO)3,basic dyes
& haemoglobin are positively charged because they move towards negative
electrode.
2) ELECTRO OSMOSIS
The movement of the dispersion medium under the influence of an applied
potential is known as electroosmosis.
It occurs due to the existence of zeta potential between the sol particles & the
diffused layer moves & causes electro osmosis.
3) STREAMING POTENTIAL:
When dispersion medium is made mobile between two electrodes, a potential
difference is produced between two electrodes & this is indicated by applying
galvanometer in open circuit, this type of potential is called streaming potential.
4) SEDIMENTATION POTENTIAL
When colloidal particles are settled down in the dispersion medium due to force
Of gravity (i.e. sedimentation) a potential difference is created between top &
bottom surfaces of colloidal medium known as sedimentation potential.
PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATION OF COLLID
Colloids have very important pharmaceutical application some of these are given
by,
1. The tendency of colloids towards absorption & adsorption depend upon their
surface area. Greater is the surface area greater will be adsorption by it, e.g. Kaolin
is very effective in adsorption of toxin due to its surface area for adsorption.
2. Aluminium hydroxide solution is good antacid because of its particles size in
colloidal range, so it is used to neutralize the stomach acidity and also to protect
the mucus membrane if there is ulcer.
3. Colloidal iron is used as astringent , colloidal iodine is less toxic , colloidal
–Ag 9is more germicidal , colloidal Hg in the treatment of syphilis are more
effective than their non colloidal forms.
4. Colloidal copper is used in the treatment of cancer.
5. Colloids are used as diagnostic agent e.g. the colloidal gold is used to diagnose
the syphilis.
6. Proteins are important naturally occurring colloids founds as component in
many body parts e.g. muscles, bone, hair etc.
7. Dextrin which is colloidal system used as plasma substitute during accident or
during any other disease.
8.Colloidal electrolyte (surfactants) are used to increase stability, solubility & taste of
certain compounds in aqueous & oily pharmaceutical preparations.
9. Colloidal calomel prepared by dialyzing a mixture of HgNo3 in its coarse powdered
form.
10. Polyvinyl pyrolidone a synthetic macro molecule used as plasma
substitute.
DLVO THEORY
When two uncharged hydrophobic particles are in close
Proximity they attract each other by Vander walls forces and if the particles are positive or
negatively charged, they cause repulsion to the particles of the same charges.
If dispersion medium contains both the positive & negative charges then they attract each
other and coagulation will occur.
This theory explains the stabilization of colloids by electrostatic repulsion. This theory
was suggested by four scientists namely. Derjaguin, Landau, very & over beak that’s why
called DLVO theory.
This theory is explained in the form of graph where VA AND vr’’ represent the
Vander walls attractive energy & electrostatic repulsive energy respectively. Both of these
energies decrease with the increase of the distance of separation of the colloids.
By the summation of attractive & repulsive forces between the colloidal particles, a net
interaction curve (ABCDEF) is resulted that explain the stability of colloids. The net curve
indicates that as two particles approach each other (from dD to left side). The repulsive
potential predominates & will be called as energy barrier at point ‘’c’’ If K.E of particles
exceeds the potential energy barrier point ‘’C’’ then the distance between the particle
decreases, the attractive forces.
Predominating & there will be irreversible flocculation at primary minimum & their will be
unstability of colloids.
On the other hand, if we go from pint C to right side, there is fall of repulsive forces & at a
certain distance de, there will also be flocculation of particles at secondary minimum but this
type of flocculation is called reversible flocculation.
Total energy vT = VA+ VR
Where,
VA = Vander waols attractive
forces,
VR = electric repulsive
forces.
INTER ACTION OF COOLIDS
When two or more colloidal systems are mixed with each other, they interact with
easy other and effect the properties of other some of such types of interactions are given by.
1. Mutual precipitation flocculation
2. Co acervation
3. Sensitization
4. Protection
MUTUAL PRECIPITION: When two hydrophobic colloids , having
particles with opposite charge , interact with each other , the oppositely charge
particles attract each other so with the result coagulation occur , this type of
coagulation is known as mutual precipitation or flocculation.
For example, when sulphur colloid (having negatively charged particles) mixed with
colloidal solution of Fe (OH)3 (having positively charged particles) flocculation will
occur due to oppositely charged particles .
COACERVATION: When two hydrophilic colloids with oppositely charged particles
are mixed together, the charged particles forming two layers, the upper one is called
colloidal poor layer while the lower one is called colloidal rich layer, this process of
separating the colloids into layers is called co acervation.
Co acervation can be found when colloidal solution of acacia (having negatively
charged particles) is mixed with colloidal solution of gelatine (having positively
charged particles) at PH 3.
SENSITIZATION: If a hydrophilic colloidal solution is added to a hydrophobic
colloidal solution in very small amount, the hydrophobic colloid will decrease the zeta
potential of hydrophobic colloids and make them sensitive for un stability & broken
on the addition of electrolyte, this process is called sensitization.
PROTECTION : If in a mixture of hydrophobic & hydrophobic colloids , concentration of
hydrophilic colloid is greater than hydrophobic colloid , it will stable the hydrophobic colloid
on addition of electrolyte & protects it from broken , The hydrophobic colloid which protects
the hydrophobic one , is called protective colloid.
For example, when 20% acacia solution (hydrophilic) is added to sulphur
solution (hydrophobic) acacia will increase the stability of the hydrophobic sulphur colloid %
acacia will be called protective colloid.
FACTORS AFFECTING STABILITY OF COLLOIDS
Following are the factors which affects the stability of colloids.
1. Presence of charge
2. Removal of charge
3. Presence of solvent shealth
4. Addition of electrolyte
1. PRESENCE OF CHARGE: For the stability of colloids, the presence of charge on
the surface of particles of colloids is must in the absence of charge the hydrophobic colloids
will be unstable & will coagulate,
2. For this, dispersed particles of hydrophobic contains a like electric charge (all
positive or negative) on their surface, Due to similar charges they repel each other & so the
colloidal system will be stable.
4. REMAVAL OF CHARGE OR ELECTROLYTE: By the process of dialysi, when
charges which are present in colloidal system as impurities, are removed the pure
colloidal solution is formed.
5. PRSENCE OF SOLVENT LAYER: The presence of solvent layer around the particles of
lyophilic colloids makes them stable & on addition of an electrolyte they have layer of
solvent bound on the layer. This solvent layer prevents the electrolyte to react with
charge on particle & so also from aggregation.
For example, gelatine particles have positive charge & a water layer around itself. When
electrolyte (like Nacl) added to it, the water layer prevents the sodium ions to reach with
gelatine & discharge them, so aggregation does not occur. The stability of hydrophobic
colloids is resulted by electric double layer around particles which present the coagulation of
particles.
6. ADDITION OF ELECTROLYTE: According to DLVO theory, the potential energy
barrier is main factor in the stability of colloids, greater the energy barrier for colloid ,
more will be it stable.
When small amount of electrolyte is added to a hydrophobic colloid, the energy barrier
of the colloid will decrease which cause the flocculation of colloid by reduction in electric
double layer.
When a sufficient amount of electrolyte is added
To hydrophobic colloid,it will further decrease the electrical double layer & energy barrier
for colloid will become zero ,
with the result coagulation of colloidal particles will occur which unstable the colloidal
system.
SCHULZE HARDY RULE
According to the rule ‘’ Not only the amount of electrolyte but the valency of
electrolyte is also responsible for aggregation of colloidal particles.
GOLD NUMBER:
The hydrophilic colloids are used as protective colloids for hydrophobic colloids. But
the power of protection of different hydrophobic colloids differs from each other & is
determined by their gold number.
‘’The gold No: is the No: of milligrams of hydrophilic colloid that will just prevent the
precipitation of 10 ml of gold sol on the addition of 1 ml of 10% Nacl solution.’’
The onset of precipitation of gold sol is indicated by change in colour from red to
violet, due to increase in particle size.
Different protective colloids have different gold numbers. The smaller the gold number
of hydrophilic colloid, the greater is the protective power.
Protective
colloids Gold No:
0.01
Gelatin
Albumin 0.1
Acacia 0.2
Tregacanth 2
DETERMANATION OF GOLD NO:
For this purpose, 10ml of gold sol is taken in different test tubes and then different
concentration colloidal solution is added to gold sol,
After this 1 ml of 10 % Nacl solution is added to all test tubes. The test tube, in which there is
no precipitation & thus no change in colour of gold sol, will be the gold number of used
hydrophilic (protective) colloid.
ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY:
The artificial kidney machine is used for the haemodialysis. The success of the
artificial kidney machine depends on the reduction of blood urea by passage of the patient’s
blood through the coils of cellophane tubing which is immersed in a suitable rising fluid.
The molecular composition is designed to create a diffusion gradient from blood to
rinsing fluid of substances which are present in excess in the blood (urea) and from the
rinsing fluid to the blood of the substance which are different in the body.
(Bicarbonate), while the concentration of those diffusible substances which are present
in normal amounts in the blood is kept unaltered by having them present in the same
concentration as in the rising fluid.
The length of the cellophane tubing is about 60m giving a dialyzing surface area of just
over dialyzing membrane in place of coils.
Cellophane is an idea semipermeable membrane for haemodialysis as its pore size is such
that electrolytes, urea and glucose all can pass freely across it, while the larger molecules
such as plasma protein, lipid fractions and blood cells can not pass.
The cellophane tube does not allow the bacteria to pass across it, so that only the inside
surface need sterilization. The
Chapter # 9
Emulsions
EMULSION
An emulsion is thermodynamically unstable system containing at least two immiscible
liquid phases, one of which is dispersed as globules in the other liquid phase, stabilized by the
presence of an emulsifying agent.
Or
An emulsion is an intimate mixture of two immiscible liquids that exhibits an
acceptable shelf life near room temperature.
In emulsion, the component which is present in the form of small droplet is called internal /
discontinuous/dispersed phase and the other component present as liquid is called external
phase or continuous phase or dispersion medium.
The particle diameter of the dispersed phase generally extends from about 0.1 to 10µ m,
although the particles diameters as small as. 01µm and as large as 100 µ m are not
uncommon in some preparation.
COMPOSITION OF EMULSION
An emulsion usually consists of following three components.
➢ Aqueous phase
➢ Oily phase
➢ Emulsifying agent
Aqueous phase:
The aqueous phase of an emulsion consists of purified or the ionized water which
contains water soluble drug preservatives, colouring and flavouring agents.
If tap water or hard water is used in the formulation it has adverse effect on the
stability of emulsions, particularly those emulsion containing fatty acids and soap as
emulsifying agents.
Oily phase:
The oily phase of an emulsion consists of fixed, volatile or mineral oil which
contains oil soluble vitamins and antiseptics.
The oil used in the formation of an emulsion should be auto oxidation as well as
from microbes.
Emulsifying agents:
It is the component of emulsion which bound the two immiscible liquids by forming
a film around the dispersed globules and makes the emulsion stable.
So, it prevents the two liquids (water and oil) from separating as two distinct layers.
The emulsifying agents are of great importance in any type of emulsion i.e. o/w, w/o ,
multiple or micro emulsion.
TYPES OF EMULSION
On the basis of relative amount of oil and water phase, the emulsions are classified into
following groups.
➢ Oils in water emulsion (o/w)
➢ Water in oil emulsion (w/o)
➢ Multiple emulsions
➢ Micro emulsion
Oil in water emulsion (o/w)
That type of emulsion in which oily phase is dispersed as droplets throughout the
aqueous phase is called oil in water emulsion (o/w). OR
The emulsion in which the external phase is water and the internal phase is oil surrounded by
specific emulsifying agent is called oil in water emulsion.
Milk is a natural emulsion of o/w type. Most emulsions designed for oral administration are
of o/w type. Emulsified creams and lotions are either of w/o or o/w type depending on their
use.
Water in oil emulsion (w/o):
That type of emulsion in which aqueous phase is dispersed as droplets through out
the oily phase is called water in oil emulsion (w/o). OR
The emulsion in which the external phase is oil and internal phase is surrounded by
emulsifying agent is called water in oil emulsion.
Solid creams and butter are w/o type of emulsions.
Multiple emulsions:
Emulsion in which o/w or w/o emulsions are dispersed in another liquid medium is
called multiple emulsion.
When very small droplet of oil is dispersed in the water globules of w/o emulsions, then is
called o/w/o emulsion.
And when very small droplets of water are dispersed in oily globules of o/w emulsion,
then it is called w/o/w emulsion. These types of emulsions are specially developed to delay
the release of ingredients from drug.
MICRO EMULSIONS:
Clear dispersion of oil in water or water in oil is designated as micro emulsions. They are also
known as solubility system.
Micro emulsions can be prepared with emulsifying agent giving a negative interfacial
tension.
They are also free from some of the stability problems of emulsions.
Normal emulsions generally contain globules ranging from 0.1100 micro meters in diameter,
where as micro emulsions contain globules having diameters of less than 0.1 micro meters.
Droplets of such dimension can not refract light and as result are invisible to the naked
eye.
Micro emulsions, there fore appear as transparent solutions and are more acceptable
physically in comparison to conventional emulsions.
These have been employed for the preparation of both external as well as internal
formulation,
where they have exhibited better bioavailability than conventional emulsions.
Following are the differences b/w micro emulsion and coarse emulsions.
❖ Micro emulsions contain particles at least on order of magnitude smaller than those in
coarse emulsion.
❖ Micro emulsions are clear while coarse emulsions are cloudy.
❖ Micro emulsions can be formed spontaneously while the other required vigorous
shaking.
❖ Micro emulsions are stable with respect to separation in to their component, while
coarse emulsions may have a degree of kinetic energy stability, but ultimately they got
separate.
Micro emulsions are used in
➢ Floor waxes, shaking lotions
➢ Beverages concentrates
➢ Pesticides preparations.
➢ Cold creams.
IDENTIFICATION OF EMULSIONS:
During dealing with emulsion it is necessary to know about the type of emulsion. For
this purpose a number of tests are developed to identify the type of emulsion. But
during this operation it should be noted that the type should be identified by more than
one type.
Following are the some important method for the identification of type of
emulsion.
DILUTION METHOD:
This method is based on the assumption that on emulsion can be diluted with its
own vehicle. So an emulsion is compatible with dispersion medium and incompatible
with dispersed phase.
So if oil is added to o/w then they can not be mixed with systems and separation
is produced.
So for identification of an emulsion, add small amount of water, if it is mixed
with system it will be o/w emulsion, and if it is not mixed, then it will be w/o emulsion.
CONDUCTING METHOD:
This type of method depends upon the conductivity of current through continuous
phase. So an emulsion having water as continuous phase (i.e. o/w phases much higher
conductivity than those having oil as continuous phase (i.e. w/o emulsion)
For this purpose, when a pair of electrode is connected to a lamp and electrical source
is applied in emulsion, if lamp light due to passing of current b/w the two electrodes,
emulsion will be o/w type and if lamp does not light, than it will be w/o type of emulsion.
DYE SOLUBILITY
This type of test is based on the assumption that a water soluble dye will be dissolved in
the aqueous phase and oil soluble dye will be dissolved in oily phase.
For this purpose, first a water soluble dye is mixed with given emulsion if microscopic
examination shows that the dye has been taken up by continuous phase with colourless
dispersed droplets, and then the emulsion will be o/w type.
If dye is not mixed then the process is repeated with oilsoluble dye, then
colouring of the continuous phase confirms that emulsion is of w/o type.
COBALT CHLORIDE TEST:
In this method a filter paper is soaked with cobaltchloride solution and dried, and
then the given emulsion is applied on the filter paper, if it turns from blue to pink then the
emulsion will be o/w type.
FLOURESCENT TEST:
This method is based on the assumption that many oils have property to show
fluorescence.
So a drop of emulsion is exposed to ultra violet radiation and observed under
microscope, if a continuous fluorescence is obtained then the emulsion will be w/o type and
spotty fluorescence is the character of an o/w emulsion.
CREAMING TEST:
The direction of creaming in an emulsion can help in identifying the type of emulsion.
w/o emulsion would normally cream downwards as oil is generally less dense than water.
On the other hand o/w emulsion would normally cream upwards (as in milk).
THEORIES OF EMULCIFICATION:
The preparation of emulsion of one liquid in another liquid is known as emulsification.
When a liquid broken in to small droplets, the surface area of the droplet increases,
resulting in the increase of surface free energy and the system become unstable with the result
two phases are separated.
To stabilize the system emulsifying agents are added which from a film around the
droplets and form a stable emulsion.
This whole process of emulsification is explained by various theories among these
important ones are
➢ Surface tension theory
➢ Orientedwedge theory
➢ Plastic or interfacial film theory
➢ Viscosity theory
SURFACE TENSION THEORY:
According to this theory when an emulsifier (stabilizer or emulsifying agent)
is added in the two immiscible liquids, the emulsifier lowers the interfacial tension b/w
the two liquids and reduces the repellent force b/w the liquids, with the result a stable
emulsion is produced.
Actually when the surfactants are added in two immiscible liquids, it not only
reduces the interfacial tension b/w the two liquids but also tends to reduce the larger
molecules in to smaller molecules.
As smaller globules have a lesser tendency to re unite, so stable emulsion is
resulted.
ORIENTEDWEDGE THEORY:
This theory is based on the fact that the emulsifying agent oriented its self in
that liquid phase of emulsion in which it is more soluble and will be embedded more in
this phase then the other phase.
Bancroft stated that this phase form the continuous phase of the emulsion.
This theory also explains that the curvature of the interface depends on the relative
volume of the polar and non polar groups of emulsifiers.
So when the polar group is heavier (bulkier) then o/w emulsion is formed and on
the other hand if non polar is bulkier then w/o emulsion will be formed.
HLB is also very helpful in determining the type of emulsion.
If emulsifying agent has greater hydrophilic property than lyophilic property
then o/w emulsion is formed and vice versa.
PLASTIC OR INTERFACIAL FILM THEORY:
According to this theory emulsifying agent adsorb at the interface b/w the
oil and water, the emulsifying agent forms a film by adsorbing around the surface of
droplets of internal phase.
This film prevents the contact and coalescing (reuniting) of internal phase.
The stability of the emulsion depends on the strength (toughness) of film formed
around the internal phase molecules.
The type of emulsion is determined by the degree of stability of emulsifying
agent in two phases. If it is more soluble in aqueous phase, then the emulsion will o/w
type and vice versa.
VISCOSITY THEORY:
According to this theory greater is the viscosity of emulsion greater will be its
stability,
but this theory is not perfectly explained the stability of all the emulsions. Because
milk which is an emulsion which is less viscous and more stable.
However have greater viscosity than coarse emulsions.
FORMATION OF EMULSION:
The preparation of a stable emulsion mainly depends upon the following two
factors.
1) Dispersion of one liquid as droplet in another liquid.
2) Stabilization of dispersion against coalescence by using an emulsifying agent.
DISPERSION AND COALASCENCE:
If two immiscible liquids are taken and shaken vigorously the interface b/w the two
phases become b/w the two phases become distorted (shaped is changed).
Because the finger of one liquid penetrates in to other so they become mixed
with each other to some extent. Thus in mixture of oil and water there is simultaneous
formation of droplets of one liquid in to another liquid.
The size of the droplet formed depends upon May factors. Among which rate of
shear is principal one? The size of droplet is inversely proportional to the rate of
shear. So we can reduce the size of the droplet by increasing rate of shear.
But this reduction in droplet size is also up to some extant. Because at this point
the number of new droplets formed are off set by increased number of collision.
Which result in coalescence? Thus at this point agitation is stopped.
Coalescence is the fusion of two droplets to form bigger droplets, this occurs when
two immiscible liquids are mixed. When an emulsifying agent is introduced to
two immiscible liquid systems, it forms a film at the interface b/w the dispersed
droplets and dispersion medium, with the result emulsion become stable.
STABALIZATION OF DISPERSION or EMULSION:
Usually the emulsion is made stable by forming a film at the interface b/w the oil
and water phases. The substance, that is adsorbed to form this film is called
emulsifying agent.
Emulsifying agent should have affinity for both phases to some extant and
remain at the interface. If it is soluble in one phase then cracking is resulted (two
phases will be separated). The film which is formed by emulsifying agents at
interface is of three types,
a) monomolecular film
b) Multi molecular film
c) Solid particles.
MONO MOLECULAR FILM:
Emulsifying agents which form mono molecular film are highly surface active, so they
greatly reduce the surface free energy and reduction in interfacial tension, so emulsion
becomes stable.
If the emulsifying agent is ionic, then the charged molecules of the system is increased.
However emulsifying agents with nonionic nature are frequently used.
MULTI MOLECULAR FILM:
Hydrophilic colloids mainly form multi molecular films around the dispersed phase.
Usually they don’t lower the surface tension but the film which is the formed act as coating
around the droplet and resist the coalescence.
Moreover, such emulsifying agent increases the viscosity of continuous phase which
in turn increases the stability of emulsions.
SOLID PARTICLES FILM:
Small solid particles that are wetted to some extent by both aqueous and no aqueous
liquid phases of an emulsion can act as emulsifying agents.
If the particles are too hydrophilic, they remain in aqueous phase and vice versa.
Secondly, the particles of such emulsifying agents are in small relation to droplets of
dispersed particles.
EMULSIFYING AGENTS:
Chemical substance which reduce the interfacial tension between two phases i.e.
aqueous phase and oily phase and make them miscible resulting in the formation of a stable
emulsion is called emulsifying agent or emulsifier.
OR
The chemicals which are used to reduce the coalescence between the two immiscible liquids
are called emulsifying agents.
Mechanism:
The emulsifying agents actually form a film at the interface between the dispersed phase
and dispersion medium. Due to this film the interfacial tension b/w the two phases is reduced
and the emulsion become stable. Moreover, the emulsifying agents also increase the viscosity
of external phase of the emulsion, resulting in the increased stability of emulsion.
Properties of emulsifying agents:
In order to obtain the highest emulsifying property, on emulsifying agent, should
posses the following important properties.
1) An ideal emulsifying agent should reduce the interfacial tension between the two
phases below 10 dyne/cm.
2) It should increases the viscosity of emulsion.
3) It should be stable, inert and free from toxic and irritant properties.
4) It should produce stable emulsion of desired type by very low concentration.
5) It should be odourless, tasteless, and colourless.
6) It should rapidly adsorb at the surface of droplet and form such a film which reduces
coalescence.
7) It should produce an adequate electrical potential so that mutual repulsion occur.
Classification of emulsifying agents:
Emulsifying agents are classified as follows.
1) synthetic emulsifying agents.
2) Finally divided emulsifying agents.
3) Natural emulsifying agents.
4) Auxiliary emulsifying agents.
(1) SYNTHETIC EMULSIFYING AGENTS:
Surface are used as synthetic emulsifying agents. They are classified as follows.
1. Anionic/anion active surfactants. They ionize in aqueous solutions into a large
anion which is responsible for their soaps of monovalet and divalent metals,
sulphated compounds like sodium laurel sulphate. Sodium acetyl sulphate,
sulphonated compounds like diocthl sodium sulfosuccinate, etc.
2. Cat ionises/ caution active surfactants: They ionize in aqueous solutions into
large cat ions, responsible for their emulsifying ability. Examples are
benzylkonium chloride, acetyl trimetyl ammonium bromide, etc.
3. Nonionic surfactants: They do not ionize in aqueous solutions. Examples are
glycerol mono stearate, spans and twins. This is the most widely used classes of
surfactants in pharmaceutical industries because they offer a wide range of
physical properties and are stable over a wide range of pH.
Natural emulsifying agents:
Those emulsifying agents which are obtained from natural sources such as plants and
animals are called natural emulsifying agents. Due to their chemical complications, their
emulsifying properties vary. Moreover, these emulsifying agents also increase the viscosity
of emulsion, so also considered stabilizer along with emulsifier. They should be preserved
from microorganisms during their strange. Among these following are important ones,
➢ Acacia (carbohydrate)
➢ Gelatine (protein)
➢ Egg yolk (lecithin)
➢ Cholesterol and wool fat.
Acacia:
It is a carbohydrate gum. It is soluble in water and gives o/w emulsions. Emulsions
prepared with acacia are stable over a wide range of PH and are of low viscosity. So they are
stabilized with other gums such as agar and tragacanth. As it is carbohydrate, so can easily
attacked by microbes for their preservation 6% alcohol or 0.2% benzoic acid is used.
Gelatine:
Gelatine is protein in nature, obtained from boiling animal bones and connective tissues.
It is represented negatively when PH is above its isoelectric point and positively when PH is
below its isoeletric point. So it is of two types:
Gelatine A and gelatine B.
Gelatine A (cationic) generally used to prepare acidic o/w emulsions. While gelatine B
(anionic) is used for w/o emulsion of PH 8 and above.
Lecithin
This is phospholipids in nature and is obtained from eggyolk nerve cells and soya bean oil.
Lecithin shows surface activity and also forms highly stable w/o emulsions with droplet size
of less than 1µm.
The emulsion prepared should contain a suitable preservation b/c they rapidly degraded in
unpreserved form.
Cholesterol.
That is major constituent of wool alcohols obtained from wool fats. They are used in w/o
emulsions and ointments b/c they have the capacity to absorb water.
B.FINELY DIVIDED SOLIDS AS EMULSIONS.
Certain finely divided solids having suitable hydrophilic & lyophilic properties have a
tendency to accumulate at the oil/water interface to yield a coherent interfacial film.
That prevents coalescence of dispersed globules and so acting as emulsifier.
If the solid are wetted by the oil, a w/o oil emulsion results and if it is wetted by water, then
result in the formation of an o/w emulsion.
Although such emulsions have coarse texture, yet they show good stability and there is less
chance of microbial contamination.
A number of colloidal clays and May inorganic substances in finally divided state are
preferably used as emulsifying agents.
Among these the most common agents used in pharmacy are
Betonies
❖ Bees wax
❖ Veegum
C. Auxiliary emulsifying agents.
Auxiliary emulsifying include those compounds that are normally incapable of forming
stable emulsions but their main function is to act as thickening agent,
and help to stabilize the emulsion, for example agar, tragacanth, sodium car boxy
methyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, satiric acid etc.
HYDRIPHILIC LIPOPHILIC BALANCE (HLB).
Surfactants are amphiphilic in nature that is having both polar and non polar groups. If the
polar groups are relatively greater than the non polar, they make surfactant hydrophilic on the
other hand if non polar groups are relatively greater than polar, they make the surfactant
lyophilic.
And if the polar non polar groups in a surfactants are equal (non ionic) then this
condition is called hydrophilic lyophilic balance (HLB)
Higher the HLB of an agent the more hydrophilic in is, for example spans have low HBL
value 1.88.6 so are lyophilic.
Where as twins have high HLB value 9.616.7 so are hydrophilic.
The HLB values ranges from 1 to 20.
The HLB of a number of polyhydric alcohols, fatty acids esters, such as glycerol mono
stearate may be estimated by using the formula,
HLB = 20)1S/A)
Where,
S = Saponifacation number of ester.
A = acid value of fatty acid.
For those materials, whose saponification number can not be determined, for example, bees
wax.
Following equation is used determine the HLB value.
HLB = E+P?S
E = % w/w of oxy ethylene chain.
P = % w/w of polyhydric alcohol.
And if the hydrophilic groups contain only poly oxy ethylene chain, then HLB can be
determined by following modified equation.
HLB + E/s
DAVIS METHOD
In this method hydrophilic lyophilic balance is (HLB) determined by splitting the various
surfactant molecules in to hydrophilic and lyophilic groups. In this case the HLB value can be
calculated by following equation.
HLB = poly hydric group number) (lyophilic group number) +7
Preparation of Emulsions
For small scale work emulsions can be prepared by the following methods:
(a) Dry gum method
(b) Wet gum method
(c) Bottle method
I n dry gum method the oil is first triturated with gum and then water
is added to make a primary emulsion whereas in wet gum method the gum is first
triturated with water to form mucilage and then oil is incorporated in small
quantities with constant trifurcation to form a primary emulsion.
For extemporaneous compounding of emulsions by dry gum method and wet
gum method the most efficient apparatus used is mortar and pestle.
The mortar should be flat bottomed and rough on the inner surface so as to
produce fine particles of the dispersed globules. Glass mortars should not be
used because of their smooth surface.
Table given below shows the proportions of oil, water and gum acacia required for
fixed oils and volatile oils for the preparation of primary emulsion.
Proportion of oil : WATER : GUM
Fixed oils 4 : 2 : 1
Volatile 4 : 4 : 2
The most commonly used fixed oils and volatile oils are:
Fixed oils
Caster oil, cod liver oil, shark liver oil, olive oil, almond oil and liquid paraffin
(mineral oil)
Volatile oils:
(a)Dry Gum Method
This method is called as continental method
This method is also known as 4 : 2: 1 method because these figures represent the
proportions of oil, water and gum acacia required for the preparation of primary
emulsion.
That is, for example, if there are 40 ml of fixed oil to be emulsified then 10
example, if there are 40ml of fixed oil to be emulsified then 10 gm of gum acacia and
20 ml of water or vehicle will be required for preparing the primary emulsion.
Measure the given quantity of oil with a clean and dry measure and transfer it to a
dry mortar. To this add the calculated quantity of acacia and triturate rapidly so as to
form a uniform mixture.
Then add the required quantity of water for primary emulsion and triturate rapidly
without ceasing till a clicking sound is produced and the product becomes white or
nearly white.
At this stage the emulsion is known as primary emulsion. Then add more of water
to produce the required volume.
If any soluble ingredient is also to be incorporated, that must be dissolved in the
second portion of water to be added after making the primary emulsion and to produce
the final volume.
(b) Wet Gum Method:
This method is also called English method.
The proportions of oil, water and gum are some as for dry gum method. In this
method the calculated quantity of gum is triturated with water to form mucilage.
Then the given amount of oil is incorporated in small portions with rapid
titration until a clicking sound is produced and the product becomes white or
nearly so.
When the primary emulsion is formed, the titration in continued for few
minutes more and then more of water is incorporated in successive small
portions to produce the required volume.
© Bottle Method:
Bottle method is used for the preparation of emulsions of volatile and other
nonviscous oils. The emulsions can be prepared by both the dry gum and wet gum
methods.
Because of low viscosity the volatile oils require greater amount of gum for
emulsification therefore the proportions for oil, water and gum for primary
emulsion are 4 : 4 : 2.
In this method the oil is put in a large bottle and then the powdered dry
gum is added. The bottle is shaken vigorously until the oil and gum are mixed
thoroughly.
Then the calculated amount of water is added all at once and the mixture is
shaken vigorously until primary emulsion is formed.
More of water is added in small portions with constant agitation after each
addition, to produce the final volume.
Other Methods.
Various homogenizers and blenders are used for preparing emulsions. Q.P.
homogenizer is the most widely used hand homogenizer for extemporaneous
preparations.
A coarse emulsion is prepared in a mortar which is then transferred to the hand
homogenizer where in the emulsion is forced to pass through a narrow aperture
under pressure and thereby the particle size of the globules is reduced.
The emulsion may be passed through the homogenizer several times until a
satisfactory product is formed.
The reduction of particle size of globules increases with the speed of
pumping.
PHYSICAL STABILITY OF EMULSION
A stable emulsion may be defined as a system in which the globules retain
their initial character and remain uniformly distributed throughout the continuous
phase.
The stability of pharmaceutical emulsion is characterized by the.
1. Absence coalescence of the internal phase.
2. Absence of creaming.
3. Maintenance of elegance with respect to appearance, order colour and other
physical properties.
The instability of pharmaceutical emulsions may be classified follows:
a) flocculation and creaming
b) Coalescence and breaking
c) Some physical and chemical changes and
d) Phase inversion.
a. Flocculation and creaming stake’s law)
Creaming is a phenomenon characterized by the accumulation of droplets of the dispersed
phase @the top of the emulsion. The rate of creaming in governed by stake’s law i.e.
V = d2(p2 po )g
18 o
V = Terminal velocity in cm/sec.
d = Diameter of the particles of dispersed phase in cm.
po = Density of the dispersion medium.
Ps = Density of the dispersed phase.
g = ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY.
O = Viscosity of the dispersion medium.
Analysis of the equation shows that if the dispersed phase is less dense than continuous
phase, which is generally the case in o/w emulsions, the velocity of sedimentation
becomes negative. I.e. Upward creaming results.
If the internal phase is heavier than the external phase, the globules settle, a phenomenon
noted in w/o emulsions, in which internal aqueous phase is denser than continuous oil
phase. This is referred to as creaming in a downward direction.
The greater the difference between the density of two phases and larger the oil globules
and less viscous the external phase, the greater is the rate of creaming.
The factors in stake’s equation may be altered to reduce the rate of creaming in an
emulsion.
1. The viscosity of the external phase can be increased without exceeding the limits of
acceptable.
Consistency by adding a viscosity improve or thickening agent, such as methyl cellulose,
tragacanth, sodium alginate and gelatine etc.
2. The particle size of the globules may be reduced by homogenization.
3. Minimizing the difference in density of the two phases. This is however difficult
since the density changes with temperature and agents required to increase the density
of oil phase, such as bromonaphthalene, bromo form, carbon tetra chloride, are toxic
for internal use.
b. Coalescence and breaking or Cracking:
Cracking involves coalescence of the dispersed globules and provides eventual separation of
the emulsion in to two phases. Some of the factors that cause cracking are,
➢ The addition of a substance that is incompatible with the emulsifier may destroy its
emulsifier ability.
➢ An increase in temperature may coagulate certain types of emulsifying agents.
(proteins)
➢ Freezing of aqueous phase will produce ice crystals that may exert unusual pressure on
the oil globules.
➢ Attempts to incorporate excessive amount of dispersed phase may cause cracking of an
emulsion.
Those factors which reduce the chances of coalescence & breaking include.
1. Uniformity of particle size of the dispersed phase.
2. Increase in viscosity of the emulsion to optimum level since this
hinders flocculation coalescence.
3. phase volume ratio: the dispersed phase should be less than 74%
otherwise the oil globules may coalescence and emulsion may
break.
A phase volume ratio of 50:50 is likely to give most stable emulsion.
1. If one attempts to incorporate more than about 74 % of oil in an o/w emulsion, the oil
globules often coalesce and emulsion breaks. Thos value, known as critical point, in
defined as,’ the concentration of internal phase above which emulsifying agents cannot
produce a stable emulsion of the desired type.’’
c. physical and chemical changes:
1. Natural gums, starches etc used as emulsifiers may contain excessive amount of bacterial
load. Bacterial growth may cause change in PH and consequent breakdown of
emulsion.
2. Synthetic emulsifiers are comparatively more stable.
3. Some emulsifiers such as soaps carry electric changes. Neutralization of the charge by on
added substance may cause breakdown of the emulsion.
d. Phase Inversion:
In phase inversion the o/w type emulsion changes into w/o type and vice versa.
It may be brought about by the addition of an electrolyte or by changing the phase volume
ratio or by temp change.
Explanation:
An o/w emulsion stabilized with sodium stearate can be inverted to the w/o type by adding
calcium chloride to form calcium stearate.
Inversion may also be produced by alterations in phasevolume ratio. In the
manufacture of an emulsion, one can mix an oil /water emulsifier with oil and then add
a small amount of water since the volume of water is small compared with the oil, the
water is dispersed by agitation in the oil even though the emulsifier preferentially forms
oil in water system.
As more water is slowly added, the inversion point is gradually reached and the water
and emulsifier envelope, the oil as small globules to form the desired o/w emulsion.
This procedure is some times used in the preparation of commercial emulsions, and it is the
principle on continental method used in compounding practice.
Phase inversion can be prevented by choosing proper emulsifier in suitable
concentration wherever possible, it is better to ensure the internal phase does not
exceed 74% of the total volume of the emulsion.
PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS OF EMULSIONS.
➢ Emulsions can be used to administer orally unpleasant tasting drugs such as
liquid paraffin, cod liver oil, and castor oil in a palatable formulation.
➢ Oil soluble as well as water soluble materials can be formulated in to a single
dosage form as an emulsion. For example, oil soluble vitamins, A, D, E, and
water soluble ones like B&C can be formulated as a palatable fine emulsion.
Such formulation also leads to better absorption of vitamins.
➢ Radioopaque emulsions are used for diagnostic applications such as xray
examination.
➢ O/w type emulsions are used for i/v administration of oil and fats with high
caloritic value patients who are to ingest food orally.
➢ Emulsions of both o/w &w/o types have extensively been used to prepare
pharmaceutical preparation for external used and cosmetic preparation such as
cream and lotion.
➢ Emulsification has also been used aerosol products to prepare foams.
➢ Drugs sensitive to oxidation or hydrolysis can be stabilized by formulating them
in form of emulsion.
➢ Bioavailability of certain poorly soluble drugs can be improved by dissolving
them in oil and emulsifying agents
Chapter# 10
SUSPENSION
SUSPENSION:
A coarse dispersion containing finely divided insoluble material suspended in a liquid
medium or available as dry powder to be distributed in the liquid medium when desired
is known as suspension.
OR
A biphasic system containing a solid phase (dispersed medium) uniformly dispersed in
a liquid phase (dispersion medium) is called suspension.
The particles in the suspension have diameter greater than 0.1µ. The individual solid
particles ranging form 0.5µm5.0µm.While the aggregate of particles may attain the
size of 50µ or larger.
Nearly all the suspensions must be shaken
Before use to ensure the uniformity of the
Preparation and proper administration of
dosage form.
Qualities of good suspension.
The desirable properties of well formulated pharmaceutical suspensions are,
➢ The dispersion of particles in the suspension must be adequate (uniform).
➢ The settling of the dispersed particles should be minimum.
➢ The particle should not form a cake on sedimentation.
➢ The viscosity should be such that the preparation can be easily poured.
➢ It should be physically and chemically stable.
➢ It should have resistance to microbial contamination.
➢ It must have smooth elegant appearance.
The main characteristic of an ideal suspension is that it should be thixotropic i.e.
becomes viscous on standing and thin readily on shearing.
Advantages of suspension.
Following are the some advantages of suspension as a pharmaceutical dosage form.
➢ They help in the formation of poorly soluble drugs as liquid dosage form.
➢ The drugs which are unstable in aqueous medium can be formulated in
suspension forms in nonaqueous solvents.
➢ Drugs with unpleasant taste in solution form can easily be formulated as
suspension to provide palatable medication.
➢ Suspension is an ideal dosage form to those patients who can not swallow tablets
or capsules.
➢ They prolong the action of drugs by using their derivatives in suspension form.
➢ Suspension for external use have fine particles size and so avoid the gritty
feelings to the skin.
➢ Sterile suspensions are injected hypodermically to produce sustained action.
Example:
Suspension are given by oral route, external applications, and Parenteral use inhaled to
lungs & used for ophthalmic purposes in the eyes.
The drugs which are available in the form of suspensions include analgesics,
antipyretics, antibiotics, antifungal, antacids etc.
For example.
o Calpol suspension
o Ponstan suspension
o Vermox suspension
o Amoxil suspension
o Erythrocin suspension
Flocculated and NonFlocculated Suspensions
In flocculated suspension the individual particles are in contact with each other to
form loose aggregates and create a network like structure.
Although the rate of sedimentation is high but the sediment is loosely packed
which can re dispersed easily on shaking so as to reform the original suspension.
However the flocculated suspensions meant for oral, Parenteral ophthalmic or external
use may not be elegant because they are difficult to remove from bottles or vials and on
transferring from the bottle the floccules remain sticking to the sides of the bottle.
These properties can be improved by adding protective colloids.
In nonflocculated or deflocculated suspensions all individual particles exist as
sediment is formed slowly but the sediment is closely packed due to weight of upper
layers of sediment is closely packed due to weight of upper layers of sediment
materials.
A hard cake is formed which is difficult to re disperse to get original suspension.
The nonflocculated suspensions have pleasing appearance as compared to flocculated
suspensions because the substances remain suspended for a sufficiently long time.
Relative properties of flocculated and nonFlocculated Suspensions
Flocculated NonFlocculated
1 Particles form loose aggregates and Particles exist as separate
form a network like structure. entities.
2 Rate of sedimentation is high Rate of sedimentation is low
3 Sediment is rapidly formed. Sediment is slowly formed
4 Sediment is loosely packed and does Sediment is very closely
not form a hard cake. packed and a hard cake is
formed
5 Sediment is easy to re disperse. Sediment is difficult to re
disperse.
6 Suspension is not pleasing in Suspension is pleasing in
appearance. appearance.
7 The floccules stick to the sides of the They do not stick to the sides
bottle. of the bottle.
FORMULATION OF SUSPENSION
The proper formulation is a key in the proper functioning, physical and chemical state
of an ideal suspension. In addition to functional and organoleptic additives (for example,
vehicles, stabilizers, colorants, lovourants and sweetening agents etc). Suspension has also
another group of additives, among these following are important.
Suspending and thickening agents:
These are pharmaceutical additives which increase the apparent viscosity of
continuous phase and so preventing the rapid sedimentation of dispersed particles for
example, gum acacia, gum tragacanth, sodium car boxy methylcellulose. Methyl cellulose,
hydroxyl propyl cellulose, hydroxyl methyl cellulose, betonies etc.
Wetting agents:
In some cases dispersed particles have affinity towards vehicle and so easily wetted
by it. And when they have very little or no affinity towards the vehicle then wetting agents
are used. They remove the air film b/w vehicle and solid particles and so vehicle can easily
penetrate in to solid particles. For example, surfactants, hydrophilic polymers (Acacia,
) and hydrophilic liquid (alcohol, glycerol etc).
colloidal SiO2etc
Dispersing agents:
These are pharmaceutical additives which are used to get the uniform distribution and
dispersion of solid particles of dispersed phase. And they are usually used when the
suspension are deflocculated in nature. For example, surfactants.
Flocculating agents:
These are the substances which are added to the suspension to cause controlled
aggregation of particles of dispersed phase. They include surfactants, electrolytes and
hydrophilic polymers (tragacanth) cellulose derivatives etc.
Antioxidants:
These are the pharmaceuticals additives which are added to the suspension in order to
prevent the oxidative degradation of labile substances of the products.
For example, ascorbic acid, tocopherol, butylated hydroxyl toluene etc.
Anti microbial preservatives:
These are the pharmaceutical additives which are used in to formulation of
suspension in order to prevent the growth of micro organisms. They include chloroform,
benzoic acid, ethanol etc.
Flavouring agents:
These are the substances which are added to the pharmaceutical preparations to mask
the unpleasant taste and odour of medicaments.
That make the medication more acceptable to the patient. For example: cinema
butter scotch, chocolate and various fruit syrups.
Colouring agents:
They are added to the formulation to mask the unpleasant appearance and chlorophyll,
riboflavin, saffron, xanthophylls etc.
FORMATION OF SUSPENSION:
The preparation of suspension is some what easy to other pharmaceutical dosage
forms. During the preparation of suspension following are the mask factors,
1) Particle size
2) Addition of additives
3) Method of mixing.
1. Particle size
The basic step in the preparation of an ideal suspension is to obtain the particle size of
proper range. The solid particle size of an oral suspension is such that it should not feel
gritty to the skin.
For topical suspension the particle size in the range that preparation should feel
smooth to touch whereas for inject able suspension should not case tissue irritation.
On the other hand the particle must not be so small that which again cause problems
during the formation of an ideal suspension.
2. Addition of additives:
In addition to principal and organoleptic additives. Some additional additives are also
added to increase viscosity. Wetting agents to reduce interfacia tension and facilitate
the wetting of the dispersed particles.
3. Principle of mixing:
After achieving uniform particle size and addition of additives, the other main factor
is the proper dispersion of the solid particles. This depends upon the following two
factors,
1. Proper flow of vehicle
2. Sufficient shear.
The proper flow of the vehicle must be attained so that the solid particles uniformly
dispersed in the vehicle. In both cases, that vehicle is less viscous or more viscous. It does
not favour the ideal suspension. A sufficient shear must be given to the system to achieve
the dispersion of individual particle rather than floccules.
Along with these two factors, size and location of impeller, speed of impeller, presence or
absence in the container also effect the mixing of the systems.
SMALL SCALE PROCESSING
On small scale processing of suspensions, pestle and mortar are used following steps
are involved in this process.
➢ The insoluble drug is triturated in pestle and mortar to fine size particle.
➢ The suspending agent is added with small amount of water to form mucilage.
➢ The mucilage and powdered drug is levigated to form paste. the suspending agents
helps the uniform dispersion of particles.
➢ The paste is mixed with remaining vehicle (containing soluble drugs, colorants,
flavourants)
➢ The vehicle is added in portions to get the desired volume.
➢ Sometimes, the dispersion of final product is improved by passing suspension
through a homogenizer or colloidal mill.
LARGE SCALE PROCESSING:
During the large scale processing of suspensions following steps are involved.
➢ The drug particles are treated with small portion of water (containing wetting
agents) and allowed to stand for several hours. During this period the entrapped air
is released and drug is uniformly wetted by vehicle.
➢ The suspending agents is dispersed in the external phase and allowed to stand until
complete hydration takes place.
➢ In the next step, the wetted drug is added portion wise in the dissolved suspending
agents.
➢ Other excipients such as electrolytes and buffer should be added with care to
prevent variation in particle charge.
➢ The other pharmaceutical additives such as flavouring, colouring, sweetening agents
are also added.
➢ After complete mixing different ingredients of suspension, the product is subjected
to suspension equipments (either colloidal mill or homogenizer) in order to reduce
the particle size and to form a suitable preparation.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF DISPERSED PARTICLES
Uniform dispersion of particles is the main factor in the formation of an ideal
suspension. Uniform dispersion of particles depends on the physical stability of
particles which in turn depends on the following three important factors.
1. Particles vehicles interaction
2. Particle – particle interaction
3. Rheology of suspension.
Particle – vehicle interaction:
The particle vehicle interaction is responsible for wetting of particles with vehicle and
the uniform dispersion of particles. So if particle vehicle interaction is good, then there
will be formation of a good suspension.
Consider the following equation,
∆F = surface free energy
Y = interfacial tension
∆A = increased in surface area.
This equation shows that as we increases the surface area by reducing the particle size,
the interfacial tension and surface free energy of particles are also increased.
Due to this reason the particles with increased surface free energy tends to
agglomerate in order to get low surface free energy.
This agglomeration is commonly known as flocculation. And this process does not
favour an ideal suspension.
A suspension will thermodynamically stable if interfacial tension or surface free energy
is zero. The interfacial tension is reduced by using surfactants.
As these surfactants cannot exactly make the interfacial tension zero, and promote
the dispersion of particles in vehicle by removing air film between particles and vehicle. So
they are called wetting agents.
There are certain particles, with are not wetted easily by vehicle. Such particles are
known as hydrophobic particles. For example, sulphur or magnesium stearate in water.
There wet ability may be increased by passing them through colloidal mill in the
presence of wetting agents (alcohol glycerine etc).
On the other hand there are certain types of particles which are easily wetted by
vehicle and such particles are called lyophilic particles. For example, Talc and magnesium
carbonate in water.
(2) Particle – PARTICLE INTERACTION:
Attraction or repulsion b/w particles of suspension are due to the presence of charge
(forces) present on the surface of the particles or due to the distribution of ions around
them.
This interaction b/w the particles lead to flocculation or de flocculation.
If the particles of suspension have some charges i.e. either negative or particles have
opposite charges i.e. some have positive and some have negative, then there will be
flocculation.
In some cases the surface of the particles may adsorb the ion of oppose charge. This
adsorption of opposite charges is called salvation. This effect also prevents flocculation.
Flocculation results from the collision and combination of particles suspension.
If they are protected by a barrier of electric charge on adsorbed molecule then all
collision will not result in combination of particles (& thus flocculation).
Greater the protective barrier slower will be the rate combination of particles.
RHEOLOGY OF SUSPENSION:
The rheological properties are of particular importance in formulating ideal suspension.
The rheological property of a suspension mainly depend the degree of flocculation in the
suspension.
If there is flocculation in to product, there will be decrease in the apparent viscosity
flocculated suspension, there types of non Newtonian flows are observed. If the forces
responsible for flocculation with stand weak external stress then it will have some yield
value, below which it will have some characteristics of solid when the liquid stress with
increase in she stress, thus flocculated suspension will tend to exhibit plastic or pseudo
plastic behaviour.
If the breakdown or reformation of floccules is time dependent, then to thixotropy
will be observed.
On the other hand deflocculated suspensions (having low dispersion particle
concentration i.e. 10%) show the Newtonian flow. So they are easily poured and spread on
the skin.
PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS OF SUSPENSION.
A pharmaceutical suspension consists of a dispersion of finely divide insoluble
material suspended in a liquid medium.
The major applications of suspension in pharmacy can be divided main divided in to
four groups.
(1) SUSPENSIO FOR (ORAL ADMINISTRATION) :
These suspensions are administrated when there is a difficulty in the swallowing of other
solid dosage forms (such as tablets or capsule) or the drug has unpleasant taste or odour.
For example, chloramphenical etc as these are orally administered, so colouring,
flavouring, and sweetening agents are also added to the formulation.
Examples of orally administered drugs are antacid (e.g. aluminium hydroxide, magnesium
hydroxide) paracetamol suspension, Ponstan suspension etc.
(2) SUSPENSION FOR (INJECTTION):
Such suspensions have particle size such that they can easily pass through syringe needle
and for this purpose their crystal should be of needle type.
Such preparations are of particular importance in the field of depot therapy. For
example, kenokort A, Depo provera, solucortif etc.
(3) SUSPENSION FOR (TOPICAL USE:)
In such type of suspensions, the particle size should be in the range that they can not
produce gritty feeling on the skin. Such suspensions are of prime importance in pharmacy.
Their best examples are lotions (for example calamine) paste (zinc and salicylic acid paste
and magnesium sulphate paste) etc.
Stability of suspensions
One aspect of physically stability I pharmaceutical suspensions is concerned with
keeping the particles uniformly distributed throughout the dispersion. While it is seldom
possible to prevent settling completely over a prolonged period of time, it is necessary to
consider the factors which influence the velocity of sedimentation:
Theory of sedimentation:
The sedimentation velocity of suspended particles is given by stokes law i.e.
V= d2(ps – po)g (i)
18n
Where,
V = the rate of settling in cm/sec.
d = the diameter of particle in cm.
ps = the density of dispersed phase.
Po = the density of dispersions medium
n = the viscosity of dispersion medium in poise.
The stake’s law is generally applicable to dilute suspensions containing 0.55gm solid per
100ml of liquid. The more concentrated suspension has hindered settling due to collision
between the particles. Also ‘d’ may not be uniform as particles in real suspensions vary in
size and shape. Stokes equation (1) may be written in general form:
V = k d2(p
s –p
o) (2)
no
Here K is an experimentally determined constant from the equation (2) it is apparent that
velocity of fall of a suspended particle is greater for larger particles than it is for smaller
particles,
while all other factors remain constant, thus according to stokes law, the role of
sedimentation of particles in a suspension may be reduced by reducing the particle size
provided the particles are deflocculated.
The rate of sedimentation can also be decreased by increasing the viscosity of
dispersion medium, for example by increasing the viscosity of dispersion medium, for
example by addition of thickening / suspending agents.
Another approach to reduce the sedimentation is to narrow down the difference in
the density of the dispersed particles and the dispersion medium.
But this approach is seldom possible because the density of the suspended solid
particles is mostly greater than the liquid.
Effect of Brownian movement:
The appearance of turbulence limits the maximum size of particle which will settle
under the force of gravity according to stokes law when the size of dispersed
particles is very small such as about 25µm,
Brownian movement sets in however it depends on the density of particles and the
density & viscosity of dispersion medium, the Brownian movement prevents or
reduces the sedimentation to a considerable extent at room temperature by
keeping the dispersed material in random motion.
Effect of flocculation:
When sedimentation is studied in flocculated systems, it is observed that the
flocks tend to fall together producing a distinct boundary between the sediment and
the supernatant liquid, such is not the case in deflocculated suspensions, where the
larger particles settle relatively at faster rate than the smaller particles.
As a result a clear boundary between the sediment and the dispersion medium
cannot be easily distinguished and the supernatant liquid remains cloudy for a
considerable period of time.
Settling in flocculated suspensions depends on the size and porosity of the flockss but it
is faster than deflocculated suspensions. The term ‘’subsidence’’ is sometimes used
to describe settling in flocculated systems.
Chapter # 11
Adsorption
Surface phenomenon:
When two or more phases exist together, the boundary between these phases
is termed as an;; interface.’’ The properties of the molecules forming the interface
are often sufficiently different from those in the bulk of each phase that’s why these
molecules are referred to as forming an;; interfacial’’ phase’’.
An interface may exist between a liquid and gas, liquid. The term surface is customarily
used when referring to a gas/ solid or a gas / liquid interface. This phenomenon is a
significant factor as
1. Adjuncts in dosage forms.
2. Penetration of molecules through biological membranes.
3. Emulsion formation.
4. Stability and the dispersion of insoluble particles in liquid
media to form suspensions.
Adsorption:
Certain molecules and ions when dispersed in the liquid move of their own accord to
the interface so that their concentration at the interface exceeds their
concentrations in.
Bulk of liquid. Obviously the surface free energy and surface tension of the system is
automatically reduced. Such a phenomenon, where the added molecules are
partitioned in favour of the interface, is termed as adsorption or more correctly.
Positive adsorption, since certain (E.g. inorganic electrolytes) are partitioned favour
of the bulk, leading to negative adsorption.
Adsorption shows the ration of concern of a substance at the interface and the bulk
phase.
Positive adsorption ➔ of concern of adsorb ate is greater at the interface then it is
called positive adsorption.
Adsorption should not be confused with adsorption. Adsorption is solely a surface
effect, whereas, in adsorption the liquid or gas being adsorbed, penetrates into the
capillary spaces of adsorbent.
The taking up of water by a sponge is absorption and the concentrating of
alkaloid molecules on surface of the clay is adsorption.
‘’The process of accumulation of gas or liquid molecules at the surface of a solid or
liquid is called adsorption’’.
OR
‘’The concentration of a substance (e.g. molecules of a gas or of a dissolved /
suspended substance) on the surface of solid or liquid are called adsorption’’.
The substance whose molecules are adsorbed is called (adsorb ate) while surface on
whose the adsorption occurs is called (adsorbent)
Physical Adsorption
It is also called phsio sorption and can be defined as ‘’ that type of adsorption in
which the absorbent species are held together by Vander weal’s forces.
OR
That type of adsorption in which the dispersion forces are predominant over the chemical
forces b/w adsorb ate and adsorbent species is called physio adsorption.’’
2. chemical Adsorption:
It is also called chemisorptions & can be defined as ‘’that type of adsorption in
which the adsorbent species are held together by chemical bonding with each other is
called chemical adsorption.
Difference b/w Chemical & Physical adsorption
Physical adsorption chemical adsorption
In the type, dispersion forces are It this type, there occur chemical reaction
predominant. (i.e.) chemical bonds)
It occurs at room temperature. It occurs at high temperature.
Heat of adsorption is less than about 40 KJ Heat of absorption is greater than about
/mol. 40KJ / mol.
It is usually multi layer adsorption In leads to at most a mono layer adsorption
No activation energy is involved in this type Activation energy may be involved in this
of adsorption type of adsorption.
It is a reversible process It is an irreversible process.
It increases with increase external pressure. An increase in pressure has no effect in this
case.
The heat of adsorption is about 5k cal /mol The heat of adsorption is about 20100 K
cal/mol
The increase in temp usually decrease the The increase in temp increases the
physio sorption chemical adsorption.
FACTORS AFFECTING Adsorption:
Following are the factors that can affect the adsorption phenomenon:
1. Concentration of solute: It has direct effect on adsorption i.e. if solute
concentration is greater then adsorption is also greater.
2. Surface area: The surface area is increased by reducing the particle size and also has
direct affected i.e. increased. Surface area will lead to increased adsorption.
3. Temperature: adsorption is an exothermic process, so when temperature is increased,
physical adsorption is decreased while chemical adsorption is increased.
4. Removal of adsorbed impurities: (The removal of such impurities will increase the
efficiency of the adsorbent). The adsorbing material is over heated to remove the
impurities at 110o C for one hour. This substance is then said to be activated, like
activated charcoal (being used as an antidote in poison in for gastric lavage).
5. Adsorbent solute interaction: Whenever a process of adsorption under goes, if adsorb
ate material is going to adsorb at surface, there is breakage of bounds between solute.
Solvent, adsorbent solvent.
Also there is formation of bounds between adsorbent solute due to Vander weal’s
forces. Some times adsorbent shows strong affinity for particular type of solute, thus
result in selective adsorption .e.g. charcoal will adsorb dye magenta from solution.
But is spooning is added to the system the magenta is released b/c charcoal has
strong affinity for spooning.
6. Solvent competition: If substance is soluble in solvent, no adsorption will occur and if
solute particles are sparingly soluble then there will be maximum adsorption.
7. PH: pH has indirect effect. If the nature of adsorbent is ionic than it leads to ionization
as a result there will be no adsorption. However if adsorbent’s nature is nonionic there
will be no ionization as a result solubility is decreased a, hence maximum adsorption
occurs.
8. Hydrogen bonding and Vander wall forces: They are responsible for physical, adsorption
of the substance
Pharmaceutical /medicinal applications.
➢ The phenomenon of adsorption is used in decolourization process.
➢ It is the mode of action of certain antidotes, for example activated charcoal adsorbs
poisoned substance and hence saves ones life.
➢ Adsorption helps in desiccation processes for example silica gel bags, alumina bags
are used to protect the drugs from moisture and other unfavourable environmental
conditions.
➢ The drugs like kaolin & pectin are used as anti diarheals via process of adsorption.
➢ Used in the removal of pyrogens from Injectables.
➢ Adsorption usually affects the stability of colloidal i.e. increased adsorption will lead
to electrical double layer and hence increased stability of colloidal.
➢ The stability of emulsions is also affected by adsorption, for example an emulsifying
agents is adsorbed at interface and stability is enhanced.
➢ Certain excipients act via adsorption processes, in formulation of the drugs to
control the release of active ingredients.
➢ Pharmacological activity may involve adsorption of the drug molecules at the
receptor site in the cell.
➢ The rheological, properties of suspensions are markedly affected by the adsorption
of various materials especially surface active agents at liquid / solid interface.
Viscosity.
The viscosity of a liquid is the internal resistance or friction involved in the relative
motion of one molecule to another. In order to maintain a constant rate of flow, a
shearing stress has to be continually applied. The viscosity is greatly affected by the
intermolecular forces.’’
TYPES OF LIQUIDS:
On the basis of the motion shown by the liquids & whether
they obey Newton law of flow or not, the liquids are classified in to two types which are
given by,
A. Newtonian liquids
B. Non. Newtonian liquids
1. Newtonian liquids:
Those liquids is composed of layers, when stress is applied on the upper layer of liquids
each of areas ‘’A’’ separated ‘’dr’’ is directly proportional to the applied force per unit area
(i.e. shear stress) mathematically,
F/A ∞ dv/dr
F/A = n dv /dr
n= F/a / dv/dr (replacing F/A =F, dv/dr =G)
n= F/Gs
where,
n= coefficient of viscosity
F = F/a = shear stress
G = dv/dr = rate of shear
UNITS.
The unit of viscosity is poise which is defined as,’’ the shearing force required to produce a
velocity of 1cm /sec b/w two parallel lines of liquid having area 1cm2 and distance 1 cm,
the smallest unit is centipoises, dynes, sec /cm2 is also the unit of viscosity.
When a graph is plotted b/w shear stress (F) and rate of shear (G) straight line is
obtained, which indicates that Newtonian liquids obey the Newton law of flow. The
examples of Newtonian liquids are water, alcohol, acetone etc.
The slop of the graph is equal to the reciprocal of viscosity of fluid & is called fluidity: Φ
Φ = 1/n
2.Non Newtonian LIQUIDS.
Those liquids (fluids) which do not obey Newton law of flows are called non Newtonian
liquids.
Among these colloidal solutions, emulsions, ointments, liquid suspensions are included.
When the graph is plotted b/w shear stress and rate of shear for non Newtonian liquids,
several types of graphs are obtained, for example, plastic flow, pseudo plastic flow,
dilatants flow etc.
Kinematic viscosity.
USP or NF has included the explanation of kinematic or absolute viscosity, kinematic
viscosity =n/бљ
TYPES OF FLOW IN NON NEWTONIAN LIQUIDS.
Those liquids which do not obey Newton law of flow are non Newtonian liquids. When
ever a shear stress is applied on such liquids, they show following types of flow.
1. Plastic flow
2. Pseudo plastic flow
3. Dilatants flow.
1.Plastic flow:
In certain non Newtonian liquids when stress is applied, they can not begin to flow and
when shear stress crosses a certain limit, then they begin to flow at this stage their rate of
shear becomes direct proportional to shear stress. This point is called yield value.
This type of flow is called (plastic flow) and the liquids showing this type of flow are called
(Bingham liquids.) Rheologists have divided the plastic bodies into two classes.
One which has got yield value, solids and other which begin to flow at smaller shearing
stress, liquids. The slop of rheogram is called (mobility) and its reciprocal is known as
plastic viscosity ’’U’’.
U = (Ff) /G
‘’U’’ may be defined as,’’ the shearing force in excess of yield value required to induce a
unit shear rate ‘’G’’.
where
F=shear stress
f = yield value
g = rate of shear
U = plastic viscosity
The yield value indicates that there is a force of attraction or flocculation among
molecules. Thus the firstly applied stress overcomes this force of flocculation &then flow
starts. All liquids having flocculating properties show plastic flow.
(2) Pseudo Plastic flow:
In pseudo plastic systems, when stress is applied, they begin to move with no yield value
like in plastic flow,
so the viscosity of pseudo plastic system decreases with increase in shear stress, so
making the rheogram (flow curve) concave towards the shear rate axis.
Pseudo plasticity is sometimes called’ shear rate thinning’’. The substances which show
pseudo plastic flow usually have fibber molecules like methyl cellulose fibbers, gum acacia,
car boxy methyl cellulose, liquid dispersions of tragacanth etc
The equation for pseudo plastic flow is given by
FN = n’ g 1 n’ G
F = shear stress
n’ = viscosity
G = shear rate N = exponent and is always greater than 1.
In logarithmic way equation 1 can be written as,
N log f = log n’ + log G
Or
Log G = n log f log n’
This is an equation for a straight line.
The pseudo plastic systems of methyl cellulose have fibbers
like structures which are coiled and entangled.
When stress is applied these fibbers are firstly align and then flow, so their viscosity is
decreased due to the decrease in the internal resistance of the system
(3)Dilatants flow
In some systems when applied stress in increased, their viscosity is increased & the
flow of such material is called dilatants flow. Dilatants flow is the reverse of pseudo
plastic flow. Graphically it can be represented as.
Dilatants flow is exhibited by suspensions containing high concentration of
deflocculated particles. When a dilatants material is rapidly stirred it becomes more
viscous that it was before agitation.
→In this case the dispersion medium is in minimum quantity while dispersed phase is
in maximum quantity. In such cases at rest (i.e. when there is no stress) the particles
are closely packed with each other.
→ When shear stress is increased the volume is increased and at this stage the
dispersion is not sufficient to lubricate the dispersed phase and so viscosity of the
material is increased, and these processes are called shear rate thickening.
Dilatants flow may be described by the equation of pseudo plastic flow.
FN = n’ G
In dilatancy value of N is always less than 1.when it approaches unity the line becomes
more and more linear while the flow becomes
THIXO TROPY
It is observed that certain nonNewtonian dispersions are broken down on stirring and
when they are allowed to stand for few hours they once again resettle, themselves.
This phenomenon is termed as thixotropy means to change by touch.
The term thixotropy can be defined as:
‘’The isothermal gel, sol transformation (brought about) by shaking or other
mechanical means is called thixotropy.’’
OR
‘’ A time dependent changes in viscosity of the materials at varying shear stress is called
thixotropy’’.
‘’slow and isothermal recovery of the materials, when shearing stress is removed at
certain temperature is known as thixotropy.’’
Thixotropy is a shear thinning process in which the structural break down of the
material is decreased
But when the applied shear stress is removed the material particles come close to
each other due to Brownian movement and type viscosity or consistency of material is
recovered.
This type of phenomenon is shown by thinning materials i.e. having either plastic
or pseudo plastic flow. The thixotropy in plastic or pseudo plastic flow is shown by
following rheographs.
Bentonite when dispersed in water forms magma (Bentonite gel) which is highly
thixotropy in nature. When this dispersion is shaken (i.e. shear stress is applied), the
magma is dispersed in water and Bentonite sol is resulted.
THIXOTOPY TIME DEPENDENT:
The criterion of thixotropy in the flow diagram of nonNewtonian fluids is
hysteresis loop. In order to analyze such substances in a rotational viscometer the
shear stress is increased gradually to obtain up curve, it is stopped.
At an arbitrary chosen upper values and then shear rate is gradually decreased to
get down curve.
If the material is simple nonNewtonian fluids with out thixotropy then upper and
lower curve coincide.
If they do not coincide then the material is thixotropy and area of hysteresis loop is
proportional to the extant of thixo tropic break down.
Consider that the shear rate of a thixotropic material is increased from point (a) to
point (b) and then decreased by the same rate to point (e) then a hysterias loop (Abe) is
obtained.
Now the rate of shear is kept constant for a time interval ‘’t1’’ b/w point ‘’b’’ and ‘’c’’
and then decreased at the same increasing rate resulting a rheographs ‘’abce’’
If the shear rate of the material is again kept constant for t2 seconds up to point ‘’d’’
and then decreased, a hysterias loop ‘’abce’’ is obtained.
Therefore, the above rheographs of thixotropic material show that they are highly
dependent on
(1) The rate of which shear rate is increased or decreased
(2) The time at which a sample is subjected to any are rate of shear
(3) The previous history of the materials.
Measurement of thixotropy.
There are two methods for the quantative measurement of thixotropy.
At constant shear rate.
In this process the thixotropy is measured by the structural break down of the material
with time at constant shear rate by following rheographs.
The thixotropy coefficient ‘’B’’ (rate of breakdown at constant shear rate) is calculated by
the following formula.
B = µ 1 µ
2
Log (t2 /t1)
µ 1 & µ
2 are the plastic viscosities of the down curves.
t2 & t
1 is the time for constant shear rate.
2. At increasing shear rate:
In this method the coefficient of break down (thixotropy) is measured by two hysterias
loops having different maximum rate of share i.e. v1 & v2.
In this case M (Coefficient of thixotropic breakdown or loss in shearing stress per unit
increases in shear rate)
By following equation
M = 2(u1 – u2)/Log (v2 / v1)
THIXOTROPY IN FORMULATION:
In most of the pharmaceutical systems thixotropy is an ideal property having
consistency in the container yet pour and spread easily.
For example, if a suspension is thixotropic it will not settle easily and will become
fluid on shaking and will remain consistent for enough time until the drug is dispersed.
Such behaviour is likely to be shown by emulsions creams, ointments, lotions and other
types of suspensions.
In a suspension, thixotropy & rate of sedimentation are related. As when suspension
shows greater thixotropy settling rate is lower, for example a concentrating suspension
of procaine penicillin G in water is formed to have high thixotropy & is shear thinning.
The break down of structure occurs when it is caused to passthrough a hypodermic
needle.
At the site of injection in the suckle the consistency is recovered and formulation of
depot of drug occur from which drug is slowly removed and is made available to the
body.
Thixotropy systems are complex and different rheological changes are concerned with
aging of formulation.
RHEOPEXY
The process in which due to gentle shaking and rolling (i.e. by applying shear stress) a
sol material is converted in to gel is called rheopexy. In this process the material
particles come close together by Brownian movement.
And so the viscosity or consistency of the material is increased. In rheopexy the gel
is the equilibrium form.
Sol =============gel ================ sol.
ANTI THIXOTROPY
Anti thixotropy is the process in which viscosity of the system increases
by increasing the shear stress.
OR
A comparative slow fall in the consistency that was gained by shearing or on standing
the sample is called anti thixotropy. This phenomenon is shown by shear thickening
materials i.e. having dilatants flow.
In such materials at any one rate of shear the stress is greater on the down curve
then on the up curve. The difference b/w anti thixotropy and dilatancy is that, in case
of dilatancy the particles are flocculated and concentration of dispersed phase is high
e.g. 50%.
While in anti thixo trophy the particles are mainly flocculated and containing
110% of dispersed phase. The difference between antithixtropy and rheopexy is
that, sol is the equilibrium form in anti thixotropy and gel in rheopexy.
DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY.
Choice of correct instrumental method leads to successful rheological
properties of a system. As the rate of shear (in Newtonian system) is directly
proportional to the shearing stress so one can use instrument.
That can operate at a single rate of shear such an instrument is called one point
instrument as it gives only one point on rheogram and joining of that point with the line
gives only one point on rheogram and joining of that point with the line gives the line of
flow but for nonNewtonian fluids multi point instrument is used b/c it can operate at
different rates of shear.
Following are the some important methods for the measurement of viscosity of
Newtonian liquids.
❖ Capillary or Oswald viscometer
❖ Falling sphere viscometer
❖ Cop & bob viscometer
❖ Rolling sphere viscometer
OSTWALD’S VISCOMETER.
OSTWALD – CANNON VISCO METER
The Ostwald viscometer is shown in the figure.
It works on the basis of time of flow of liquids b/w two points under the action of
force of gravity. Ostwald’s viscometer consists of capillary tube having two bulbs X
and Y.
The liquid under test is added in to lower bulb and sucked in to upper bulb to
a specific point ’’a’’ and then it is followed to fall from point ‘’a’’ to ‘’b’’ and time
taken by this process is noted.
The same process is repeated by the standard liquid (i.e. whose viscosity is
known) and then the viscosity of the test liquid is determined by the following
equation.
n1 = d1xt1/dw x tw x nw
FALLING SPHERE VISCOMETER.
The falling sphere viscometer is based on the stokes law, which states that the drug
force (fo ) acting on the spherical body of radius moving with a velocity (v) through a
fluid having same viscosity (n) is given by ,
FD = 6
πnrv (1)
In this process when a drop of liquid is allowed to fall b/w two points A& B.
There are two forces acting on the spherical drop of the liquids which are,
1. The weight of drop acting wards.
2. The drug force acting up wards.
At a specific point the two forces balance each other: at this point,
Drug force = weight of drop.
FD = w
6πnrv= mg
6πnrv= d4/3πr3 g
But m = dxv
= d x/3 π r3
18 nv =d4 r2 g
n = 4/18 x r2 gd / v
n = 2/ 9 r2g ( d2 d1)
where,
n = viscosity of liquid
n = radius of sheer
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = terminal velocity
ds = density of sheer
dl = density of liquids
ROLLING SPHERE VISCOMETER
This type of viscometer is used to determine the viscosity ranges from 0.5 200,000
poises.
It consists of a short glass tube of diameter and having a closely filling ball of
either glass or steal. The tube is inclined at a specific angel and the time of fall of ball
b/w two specific points is noted.
As the motion of ball is very slow, so it is measured by telescope & moreover the
viscosity of liquid in the tube is measured by following equation.
,n = t (ℓb ℓL) k
Where,
n = viscosity of liquid
t = time of fall of ball.
K = constant for instrument.
ℓb = density of ball
ℓL = density of liquid.
APPLIACTIONS OF RHEOLOGY
Following are the some important applications of Rheology in biology as well as
pharmaceutical systems.
1. BLOOD CIRCULATION
The Rheology of blood is very important for physiologists because it helps in
the circulation of blood and lymph in blood vessels and in b/w intra cellular spaces.
2. MUCOUS RHEOLOGY.
The Rheology of mucous has a central role in various systems. The nasal mucous
helps in protection from foreign particles, gastric mucous helps in the lubrication of
the food and the micellization of fats and the mucous of genital organs helps in the
transfer of germs. So Rheology of mucous helps in migration, protection, digestion,
lubrication in various systems of the body.
3. SYNOVIAL FLUIDS.
The Rheology of synovial fluids present in joints helps in the movement of
joints freely and also responsible for the adsorption of shocks.
4. FOR PHYSICIANS.
For physicians the Rheology is very important and governs the fluidity of
solutions to be injected with hypodermic syringe or infused intravenously.
5. EMULSIONS RHEOLOGY.
Emulsions Rheology is very important for pharmacist in their flow through colloid
mills in the formation of paints, links, cosmetics, and dairy products etc.
6. FOR CONSUMER.
Rheological properties of substances for example, squeezing of tooth paste from
collapsible tube, spreading of lotion on skin, butter on slice or bread, and spraying
liquid from atomizer is helpful.
7. RHELOGY OF DOSAGE FORM.
The Rheology is also very important in the administration of various dosage
forms.
For example Rheology is involved in the shaking of suspensions, elixirs, and
pouring them from bottle etc.
8. POWDER RHEOLOGY.
The Rheology of powder is also helpful in transferring in from hopper in to die
cavities of table ting machine or to capsule during encapsulation.
9. OINTMENT AND SUSPENSION.
Rheology is important in the working of ointments on slabs, triturating or
suspension in pestle and mortar.
10. IN INDUSTRY.
Rheology is important in certain industries like petroleum industry where one
can extract for different types of products, depending on the rheological properties.
11. PROCESSING.
During processing the rheological properties of materials help in the
production capacity of the equipments and processing efficiency.
Chapter # 13
Physico –chemical processes
Efflorescence
The spontaneous dehydration of a compound is called efflorescence.
OR
The loss of water of crystallization by hydrate 9crystaline substance with water of
crystallization) to form anhydrous salts or hydrate with less molecules of water of
crystallization is called efflorescence.
OR
The property of certain crystalline substances with water of crystallization, of losing
a part of their water of crystallization and of falling to a powder is said to be
efflorescence, such crystals are known as efflorescent crystals.
Principle
When the vapour pressure of the water in the surrounding atmosphere is less
than from the vapour pressure of water by the hydrate until equilibrium is
established b/w vapours pressure of water in atmosphere and hydrate
For example,
Water of crystallization of following substances are removed by efflorescence,
1. Na2CO3.10H2O
2. Na2SO
4.10H
2O
3. Na2B
4O
7.10H
2O
4. Na2HPO
4.12H
2O etc
In case of Na2CO3.10 H2O the pressure of water vapour in the surrounding
atmosphere is about 13.33x102 n/m2 . And the vapour pressure of Na2CO3.10H2O is
32x102 N/m2 .
But this pressure is much greater so if this salt is placed at the room
temperature then it loses its, water in the form of vapours as a result of which the
surrounding atmosphere also becomes wet.
If the salt loses its 9 molecules of water then Na2CO3. H2O is obtained & its
vapour pressure becomes equal to 16 x102 N/m2 .
If the salt again loses its 9 molecules of water then Na2CO
3.10 H
2O is obtained
&its vapour pressure becomes equal to zero. Which is much lower than the
atmospheric pressure, so the salt will gain the water molecule from surrounding
atmosphere and become hydrated salt
Pharmaceutical applications of efflorescence.
➢ Hydrated drug on weight basis is less potent but when it is converted by
efflorescence to its corresponding lower hydrates, or anhydrous form
then its potency can be increased.
➢ Anhydrous form is easy to handle during manufacturing process.
Precautions
➢ The containers that prevent the loss of the water vapours should be
used to avoid the instability.
➢ Store in a cool place b/c greater is the temperature greater is the
release of the water of crystallization.
Exsiccation
The process of removing water of crystallization from crystalline salt or
rendering crystalline salts anhydrous is called exsiccation.
OR
The process of accelerating the rate of efflorescence by increasing the
temperature (110120o c) is called exsiccation. The difference b/w
efflorescent and exsiccated crystal is that, the exsiccated substance is
necessarily anhydrous.
Examples of exsiccated salts used in pharmacy are exsiccate Na2CO
3 and exsiccated alum
etc. Substances capable of forming more than one hydrate may be exsiccated in various
stages, for example CUSO4.5H
2O.
when it is heated at 303k then it will lose its two molecules of water and thus
converts into its trihydric form and when it is heated at 373 K then it will lose three
molecule of water and gives the monohydric form and when CUSO4 H 2O is heated at 473K
then it loses its molecule of H2O and gives anhydrous CUSO
4 .
Desiccation
The removal of mechanically adhering moisture (last traces of moisture) from solids and
liquids or gases is called desiccation.
This is a dry process applied on precipitates, crystals and crude drugs etc, so in this
way they are easily reduced to powder when desired.
Solids are dried by placing them in a desiccators which contains drying agents such
as concentrated sulphuric acid or calcium chloride etc, the liquids are dried by placing
them over the desiccating agents, shaking well and then distilling the liquids in the
presence of desiccating agent.
Desiccation of drying is the process of removing mechanically adhered / admixed
water from substances. The term desiccation refers to the complete removal of water and
the adjective desiccated is applied only to substances from, which water has been
completely removed.
Decantation
Decantation is the gentle pouring of a liquid with out disturbing the solid sediments.
OR
It can be defined as.’’ The method of separation of a solid from its soluble impurities’’. This
process involves the following three steps:
1. Agitation of solids with solvent.
2. Allowing the solid to settle.
3. Removing the supernatant solvent.
This process is applied on magmas and other gelatinous products.
Pharmaceutical applications
❖ It is used to obtain solid in pure form.
❖ It is more effective than direct washing b/c it is only employed for the precipitates
free from the soluble impurities.
❖ It is used prior to filtration in order to avoid the loss of time.
Deliquescence
It is the phenomenon of taking up of water vapour from the atmosphere when exposed
to an atmosphere with higher partial pressure, than the partial pressure of the
substance to form a more hydrated liquid phase.
The property of certain solids to adsorb moisture from the atmosphere till the solid
converted in to a saturated solution (i.e. it is converted in to liquid phase) such solid
/crystals are called deliquescents.
Deliquescence is the reverse process of efflorescence. It has same principle as that of
efflorescence (i.e. difference of vapours pressure)
Examples are calcium chloride (CaCl2) potassium carbonate (k
2co
3) and potassium
hydroxide (KOH)
Hygroscopicity.
The property of certain substances to absorb moisture from the atmosphere but not
converted in to liquid phase (i.e. not forming saturated solution) is called hygroscopic
and such substances are called hygroscopic substances.
For example sodium sulphate (Na2SO4), ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), aspirin, sodium
hydroxide etc.
Elutriation
The process by which there is a separation of particles (i.e. fine and coarse particles)
from the liquids is called elutriation. In vertical elutriation, the coarse particles settle
down at the bottom due to gravity while fine particles move upward. While in
horizontal elutriation the stream of suspend particles is passed over a settling chamber.
OR
Process of separation of a substance into powder of different degree of fines by stirring,
the substance with a large volume of liquid in which it is insoluble and with drawing the
liquid at different heights
The upper layer of the liquid contains in suspension the finer particles, while the lower
layers contain the coarser particles.
It is usually used following a size reduction process with the object of separating
oversize particles which may be returned for further grinding or discarded.
Levigation
The process of particle size reduction by first forming a paste of solid by adding the
minimum amount of suitable non solvent (levitating agent) and then triturating the
paste in the mortar or on the slab by using the pestle or spatula.
The levitating agents are selected on the base of its ability to form a smooth paste
with the substance and on its compatibility with the product. The levitating agent may
be water light mineral oil and other liquids.
Only small amount of levitating agent to form the plastic paste should be used,
because excessive amount of levitating agents will affect the viscosity and the
consistency of the product.
USES OF LEVIGATION IN PHARMACY:
▪ It is used to prepare the ointments and pastes
▪ It is used to reduce the particle size.
▪ This process is also used in making suspensions.
Fusion
‘’The process of liquefying a substance by heat without the aid of a solvent is called
fusion’’.
OR
The process of heating a substance until it melt is also called fusion.
This process is performed in preparing ointments, plasters, melting of waxes and
resins. It is also used for the formation of several important compounds like
suppositories.
Ignition
‘’ The process of strongly heating on organic substance in free excess of air until the
carbonaceous matter has been burnt off as carbon dioxide and the inorganic
matter converted into ash is called ignition.’’
This process is applied to organic salts of alkali metals such as tart rates, citrates,
benzoates and salicylates etc, which after ignition leaves an ash of alkali carbonate
that can be titrated with the standard acids giving an indication as to the purity of
the organic salt.
Vaporization.
The general term used to denote the conversion of a liquid into vapour state under
any condition of temperature and pressure is called vaporization.
Precipitation.
Precipitation occurs when solutions of materials which react chemically are mixed to
form a product which is sparingly soluble in the liquid and therefore deposit out.
Substances produced by precipitation are usually microcrystalline, so precipitation
is a convenient method of producing solids in a very fine state of sub division down
to 0.1µ m in diameter.
The formation of an insoluble component from solution either by interaction of two
salts (i.e. by chemical changes) or by temperature change (i.e. physical change)
effecting solubility is called precipitation. The solid formed in this process is called
precipitation.
Nacl + AgNo3→ Agcl + NaNo3
During the process of precipitation the amount of reactant may be equal or one
reactant may be added to the other until the precipitation takes place. In some
cases order of mixing the solutions can influence the type of precipitate obtained.
For example when a solution of an iron salt is poured in to an excess of a solution
of Na2 CO3 , iron hydroxyl carbonate, which may be difficult to remove.
Nature of precipitate.
The form and purity of the precipitate depends upon the condition used for the
precipitation. Coarse a granular precipitate is resulted when the temperature of
the system is very high.
And if the temperature is very low then fine precipitate is produced which can pass
through filter paper but this process is very slow.
Vonweimern theory.
According to this theory the velocity of precipitation is equal to
Vpptn = Q –S / S
Where: Q = concentration of substance to be precipitated
S = solubility of precipitate in solution
So the concentration of precipitate can be increases by increasing the concentration of
the substance to be precipitated and decreasing the solubility of the precipitate.
Pharmaceutical applications,
Following are the some important pharmaceutical applications of precipitation
1. By this process, we can obtain solids with fine particles for example precipitation of
caco3.
2. White lotion, zinc sulphide, can be obtained when there is precipitation b/w zinc
sulphate and sulfurated and potash.
3. The most important use of the precipitation is purification of the solids i.e. Are
crystallization. By this process many solid substances are purified from their crude
form.
Sublimation
The process of converting solid substances in to vapours by heating and then
condensing it back to the solid state, without passing it through the intermediate
liquid state, is called sublimation. The condensed solid is called sublime. Usually the
solid first coverts in to liquid state before being converted in to vapour state but in
sublimation liquid phase do not exist. Thus
Heat
Solid ============================== vapours
Condensation
Triple point:
The point having a different pressure and temperature at which the solid, liquid, and
vapour phases of a chemical entity are able to co exist indefinitely is called triple
point.
Principle:
A solid sublimes only when the pressure of its vapour is below that of the triple
point for that substance. This principle can be explained by following graph.
The line OA indicates the m.p. of the substance and along this line solid and liquid is
at equilibrium. On right side of this line only liquid exists while on left side only solid
exists.
The line Ob indicates the vapour pressure of the solids vapours and this curve
is called vapour pressure curve. Above this line only liquid exists and below this only
vapour present. The line CO is called sublimation curve and represents the
conditions of temperature and pressure for the co existence of solid and vapour
phase.
To right side of this line only vapour exists and on left side of line only
solid exists.
The point O the intersection of three lines is called triple point. And the graph shows
if the vapour pressures of vapour, formed by the solid, less then the triple point, it
will directly pass from solid to vapour and vapour to solid.
Procedure
The impure substance is placed in the china dish which is then gently heated on the
stand bath. The dish is covered with the perforated filter paper over which is placed
an inverted funnel.
The surface of which may be kept wet by covering it with wet filter paper or
cotton plug. The vapour rising from, the solid pass through the holes in the filter
paper and are deposited as pure solid on the wall of the funnel. The filter paper
performs two functions
➢ It does not permit the sublime substance to drop back in to the dish.
➢ It keeps the funnel cool by cutting off the direct heat from the dish.
Pharmaceutical applications.
Sublimation is very helpful in separating volatile substances from nonvolatile
solids. In this way pure substance are obtained which are used in various
processes.
Some valuable chemical substances such as naphthalene, camphor, and benzoic
acid etc are purified by this process.
Lyophilisation
‘’ The process of drying in which water is sublimed from the product after it is
frozen is called lyophilisation’’.
Or
This is the process in which material to be dried is first frozen and then
subjected under a high vacuum to heat (supplied by condition, radiation or by
both) so that a frozen liquid sublimes leaving only the solid dried component
of the original liquids.
‘’Freeze drying is also known as lyophilisation, gelsiccation or drying by
sublimation,’’
The temperature and pressure of the substance to be freeze dried should be less
than the triple point. Freeze drying depends upon the phenomenon of
sublimation where by water passes directly from solid to vapour state without
passing through the liquid phase.
Phase diagram for water:
The graphical representation of the equilibrium relationship b/w the different
phases of a chemical compound is called phase diagram. The phase diagram
of water for the process of lyophilisation is given as below,
The above phase graph of water indicates that if the pressure is kept below
triple point and ice is heated, the ice is directly converted (sublimed) into
vapours. This principle is used in freeze drying (lyophilisation)of all the
materials. The vapour formed during this process is removed again and again
in order to stop equilibrium produced b/w the vapours and ice, this is done by
a condenser operating at a very low temperature i.e. below the freezing point
of the solids.
Stages involved in lyophilisation.
The process of lyophilisation is completed in the following stages.
1. Prefreezing.
Before applying the vacuum, the liquid is firstly frozen, this process is called
prefreezing and is done by following ways:
(A) shell freezing
In this method by liquid is taken in a bottle and is rotated slowly,
horizontally in a refrigerator bath. So that material freezes as a thin shell (layer)
along the walls of the bottle. In this way not only the surface area for sublimation
is increased but also heat transfer is increased.
(B) Vertical freezing:
In this method the bottles are first chilled and then rotated individually in
vertical position in the presence of stream of very cold air.
So, by the process small crystals of ice are formed. Moreover this process is
very rapid.
2. drying
After prefreezing, the substance is dried there are two types of drying,
1. Primary drying
2. Secondary drying.
1. Primary drying.
It means to supply the latent heat of vaporization. The apparatus used for this
purpose is ‘’vacuum oven’’ or container attached to individual out let.
The latent heat of sublimation of substance is provided and so vapours
formed are removed. By this process 99.5% moisture is removed.
2. Secondary drying:
After primary drying the substance is subjected to vacuum drying to remove remaining
0.5% moisture. And this is called secondary drying. During this drying the temperature
must be raised to 50o – 60oc.
Packaging:
The packaging of the freeze dried product is very important b/c the freeze dried
product must be protected from moisture.
For this purpose the product is packed in vacuum container or the closing is
carried out under controlled conditions of atmosphere to avoid contact with moisture.
Advantages of freeze drying:
Following are the advantages of freeze drying or lyophilisation.
o As it is carried on at very low temp so.
1.Enzyme action is inhibited
2.Decomposition particularly hydrolysis is minimized
o As porous product is produced during the process which is readily soluble.
o In free zed dried products salts can not concentrate and so denaturation of
protein does not take place
o Due to low temp: and pressure bacterial growth is less.
o As there is high vacuum, so no contact air no moisture and so no exidation.
PHARMACEUTICAL APPLIACATIONS:
1. Heat labile (sensitive) products are dried by this process.
2. Moisture sensitive products are also dried by this process.
3. Antibiotics are sensitive to water (b/c in water they are decomposed and lose their
(potency) so they are dried by Lyophilization.
4. Enzymes are also dried by this process, for example hyaluranidose.
5. Hormones like insulin are also dried by this process.
6. Various components of blood like R.B.C, plasma etc are separated by the process
of lyophilisation and administered to the patient.
7. Some micro biological preparations such as culture (bacterial culture) are
prepared by the process of lyophilisation.
8. Food products like dry milk also prepared by this process.
9. Vaccines like, yellow fever, small pox, etc are firstly dried by this method and
then given to the patient.
DIFFERENCE B/W SUBLIMATION & LYOPHILIZATION:
The main difference b/w sublimation and lyophilisation is that of kinetic energy
of the molecule.
In sublimation the K.E of the molecule is very high and so molecules are directly
converted into vapours.
While in lyophilisation in controlled temperature and pressure. The K.E of the molecule is
not sufficient to convert it in to vapours, so in this process the substance is firstly converted in
to liquid and then to vapours.
CRYSTAL
‘’Homogenous solids which possess a definite geometrical shape is called
crystal.’’
OR
A discrete solid particle bounded by definite faces inter secting at definite angels,
and showing certain symmetry characteristics is called crystals. The building
block of the crystal is called unit cell. It is the basic structural unit of crystal and
possessing all the properties of its pattern (solid).
Crystallization
‘’The process by which the crystals are formed from solutions, vapours or metals
is called crystallization.’’
OR
‘’The removal of a solid from solution by increasing its concentration above the
saturation point in such a manner that the excess solid separates out in the form of
crystals is called crystallization.
Following steps are involved in the process of crystallization.
1. formation of solution
2. nucleation
3. Growth of crystals.
1. Supersaturation of solution.
During the process of crystallization, the first step is the super saturation of the solution i.e.
the concentration: of the solute in the solution must be greater than its solubility.
There are various methods for this purpose depending upon that how the solubility of
solute varies with temp: for example, sodium chloride solution is super saturated only by the
evaporation of water, while in case of KNO3 either evaporation or cooling is used.
2. Nucleation:
The appearance of crystalline nuclei in super saturated solution is called nucleation.
According to theory of mires, that there will be spontaneous nucleation above the super
solubility curve while there will be no spontaneous nucleation in Meta stable region. Here
nucleation is started by the introduction of minute crystals of dissolved substance that act
as seed.
Nucleation may be inhibited the presence of high molecular weight impurities.
3. crystallization:
The growth of crystals from crystalline nuclei is termed as crystallization. So the
nucleation should be under control as it controls the size of the crystals:
o By the rapid cooling and frequent stirring, small sized crystals are obtained but
they are avoided b/c they are difficult to wash and less pure.
o When the solution is saturated at 60 80oc and then cooled, the medium sized
crystals are produced with out any disturbance.
o Very large size crystals are produced by slow cooling of the solution just above
the super saturation point.
COLLECTION OF CRYSTALS.
After crystallization, the solution is filtered under reduced pressure.
When whole of the mother liquor is drained out, the crystals are washed with pure
cold solvent to remove adhering impurities and then they are dried in an oven or in
vacuum desiccators.
Crystal size also depend upon solvent used, for example Grisionfulvin (antifungal)
when crystallize out from benzene, chloroform and acetone, three different size of
crystals are formed.
Pharmaceutical significance
❖ Crystallization is widely used for removing the impurities from
pharmaceutical products before they are incorporated into capsule or tablet
formulation.
❖ Very often a compound in crystalline form may be preferred for
pharmaceutical use.
❖ Crystals of procaine penicillin are used in the preparation of sterile and drug
formulation of penicillin.
DISTILLATION
‘’ Distillation is the process of separating substances which differ appreciably in
their vapour pressure.’’
OR
‘’The separation of liquid from a solid or another liquid by vaporization
followed by condensation is called distillation’’
Distillation is the process of converting a liquid in to its vapours state by
heat, then the vapours back to the liquid state.
So distillation is a two fold process of evaporation and condensation.
1. STILL: The vessel or container in which the liquid is heated is called still. It is
also called distillation flask.
2.CONDENSER: the apparatus in which the vapours are cooled by air or water
column) and converted in to liquid state is called condenser.
3.RECEIVER: The apparatus in which condenser vapours (in liquid state) are
collected is called receiver.
TYPES OF DISTILLATION
Following are the some important types of distillation
1. Simple distillation
2. vacuum distillation
3. fractional distillation
4. Steam distillation
5. Destructive distillation.
SIMPLE DISTILATION
It is process of converting a liquid in to its vapours, transferring the vapour to another
place and recovering the liquid by condensing the vapour by its confect with cold surface.
This type of simple distillation is carried out under atmospheric pressure .The apparatus
used for simple distillation consists of
1. Heating source
2. Still
3. Condenser
4. Receiver
In still, the given material is vaporized, and then these vapours are cooled in to liquid state in
the condenser. This condensed liquid is collect in the receiver.
o
During the distillation of liquids having B.P lower then 110 c air condenser is used
instead of water condenser.
In both case the condenser is used for heat exchanger. It is used to exchange the latent
heat of vaporization which is evolved in condensing the vapours.
On distilling the very volatile and inflammable liquids, the distillation flask is heated
on a water bath.
The condenser must have large surface area b/c the rate of condensation is directly
proportional the surface area of condenser.
APPLICATIONS:
❖ Simple distillation is used for separating the liquids of low B.P from liquids having
high B.P.
❖ Distilled water, used in many pharmaceuticals processes is prepared by this method.
❖ It is mainly used for the purification of organic liquids from non volatile solids.
❖ Double distilled water is also used in the prepared which on passing through special
filters (to make it free from pyrogens) is used as water for injection.
❖ This process is also used in the preparation of either, amyl nitrate`, and spirit of nitrous
either.
VACUUM DISTILLATION
Vacuum distillation or the process of distillation under reduced pressure can be defined
as,
‘’ A liquid distillation under reduced pressure (i.e. less then atmospheric pressure) for
distilling those substances which decompose before their boiling points is called
vacuum distillation.
PRINCIPLE:
The liquids begin to boils when their vapours pressure becomes equal to the
atmosphere pressure, there are some liquids which are decomposed before their boiling
point reached. For the distillation of such liquids, they are boiled under much lower
temperature and below atmosphere pressure.
SMALL SCALE DISTILLATION:
The apparatus used for this purpose consists of following components.
1. CLAISEN FLASK:
It is two necked flask in which one has thermometer and the other has capillary, in
order to prevent bumping.
2. CONDENSER:
Attached with claisen flask and receiver at its two opposite ends.
3. Manometer:
It is inserted b/w the receiver and the pump. It is used to obtain the required
pressure at which the distillation is to be carried on.
The claisen flask is heated in a water bath above 20oc above the boiling point of
liquid at this reduced pressure. Before heating a required vacuum is produced. By
vaporizing the liquid by heat under reduced pressure, followed by condensation
vapours are converted in to liquid.
LARGE SCALE VACUUM DISTILLTION
The apparatus used for vacuum distillation on large scale is modified form of
apparatus used for small scale.
This process is used for the distillation of those liquids which have high B.P at
ordinary pressure and can be decomposed before their boiling
point reached.
In this apparatus two or more receiver are used for continuous collection of
distillate.
The required pressure is obtained by means of mechanical air pump.
Pharmaceutical applications:
Following are the some important pharmaceutical application of vacuum
distillation.
➢ This process is used for the distillation if those substances which are
decomposed at their boiling point.
➢ Vacuum distillation is used for heat labile substances.
➢ Absolute alcohol is prepared by this process.
➢ Isolation and purification of plant extracts and natural products.
➢ To prevent hydrolysis of glycosides and alkaloids.
➢ To prevent racimization for example, dry extracts of belladonna.
➢ By this process, sugar juice can be concentrated under reduced pressure.
➢ This process is helpful in removing last traces of volatile solvents from the
material.
STEAM DISTILLATION.
The process in which liquids are concerted in vapours by action of steam and then these
vapours are condensed to liquids when passed through condenser is called steam
distillation.
The process of steam distillation is employed for the separation of those volatile substances
which are of high boiling points in nature.
PRINCIPLE:
When a mixture of two immiscible liquid is taken, it will boil when the average sum of V.P
of both liquids becomes equal to atmosphere pressure.
For example, mixture of water with boiling point 100oc & turpentine with boiling point 160oc
is evaporated or boiled, it will boil at 95.6oc, because the total V.P of mixture at this temp:
becomes equal to atmospheric pressure. At this temp: The vapour pressure of water is 647mm
of Hg & that of turpentine is 113mmHg in this way the total is 760mm of Hg. So the mixture
is boiled at temp: below the boiling point of each component. Thus substances with high
boiling point can be distilled with water at much reduced boiling point.
SMALL SCALE STEAM SIDTILLAYTION
The apparatus used for this purpose consists of
1. Steam generator
2. Still
3. Condenser
4. Receiver
5. Safety tube
The liquid taken in a round bottom flask (still) is evaporated by steam, which is produced in
steam generator. The safety tube in the steam generator permits the expulsion of some water
in order to prevent excessive pressure inside.
The distillate has two layers i.e. one of water and the other of liquid, which are
separated by separating funnel.
LARGE SCALE STEAM DISTILLATION
Steam distillation on large scale is used for the purification of oils. The apparatus used for
this purpose is shown in the figure. When oil is evaporated with the action of steam,
the water and oil vapours are condensed and collected in Florentine receiver. Most oils
are lighter then water and will separate from distillate as an upper layer while the water
is returned to the still.
PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS
Steam distillation has following important pharmaceutical applications:
✓ This process is used for the distillation of volatile oils, for example clove oil,
eucalyptus oil etc.
✓ It is used to determine the volatile oils in drugs.
✓ It is also used for the determination of moisture in the drugs.
✓ Steam distillation is used to distil water immiscible liquids of high boiling
point for example aniline, turpentine etc.
✓ Also used for the recovery of oils from plants and flowers etc.
FRACTIOONAL DISTILLATION
The process by which two immiscible volatile liquids having different boiling points are
separated is called fractional distillation.
For example, a mixture of alcohol and water. Alcohol is more volatile then water
therefore will evaporated at a faster rate than water. It is quite easy to separate a liquid from
non volatile solids by simple distillation but it is very difficult to separate two volatile liquids
completely from each other by simple distillation.
Such type of miscible liquids can be separated by using fractionating columns in b/w
the still & the condenser. A fractionating column is a device which increases the process of
fractional distillation by condensing most of vapours of less volatile component of the
mixture and returns it to the still:
Where as the vapours of more volatile components of the liquids are allowed to pass
the condenser. The vapours are condensed there to reform the liquid which is collected in the
receiver.
The liquid collected in the receiver may not be a pure liquid. Therefore repeated
distillation of the distillate may have to be carried out to get a pure product.
Applications.
✓ This process is used in the separation of two miscible liquids having different boiling
points.
✓ It also used in the manufacture of alcohol by means of a special form of still known as
Coffey’s still.
✓ It is used for the preparation of dry benzene.
✓ It is used for the separation of fatty acids from fats and oils.
Evaporation
The conversion of the liquid in to its vapour without any external heat is called
evaporation.
Theoretically, evaporation means simply vaporization from the surface of the liquid.
Thus no boiling occurs and rate of the vaporization depends upon the diffusion
of the vapour through the boundary layers above the liquid.
But in practice this would be too slow so that liquid is boiled causing vapours to be
liberated in the form of bubble from the bulk of the liquid.
Thus a practical definition of evaporation is the removal of liquid from a
solution by boiling the liquor in a suitable vessel and with drawing the vapours
leaving a concentrated liquid residue.
This means that heat will be necessary to provide the latent heat of vaporization
and in general the rate of evaporation is controlled by the rate of heat transfer.
Factors effecting evaporation
1. Temperature
Temperature has profound importance especially in case of thermo labile
substances such as glycosides and alkaloids are decomposed at temperature below
100oc. Similarly some hormones, enzymes and antibiotics are even more heat
sensitive. So only possible method for their preparation is freeze drying.
2. Temperature and time of evaporation:
Exposure to a relatively high temperature for a short period of time may be
less destructive of active constituents than a lower temperature with exposure for a
longer time.
3. Temperature and moisture contents:
Some drug constituents decomposed more readily in the presence of
moisture especially at a raised temperature due to hydrolysis.
4. Type of product required:
The type of product required will often decide which
method and apparatus should be employed for evaporation. Evaporating pans will
produce liquid or solid drug products but film evaporator will yield only liquid
products.
Effect of concentration
As the liquor become concentrated the increasing proportion of solids result in
the elevation of the boiling point of the solution.
This lead to great risk of damage to thermo labile constituents.
APPLICATION OF EVAPORATION:
1. It is used for drying of points plant materials are used as crude drugs. Crude
drugs are then converted in to medicine.
2. A main liquid that may be used further is desired to be used as stock solution.
Then evaporation takes place and residue or concentrate remains.
3. Enzymes and antibiotics are concentrated by evaporation process before freeze
drying.
4. Solvents are used in extraction process. They are recovered by evaporation
under reduced pressure.
Centrifugation
Centrifuging is a method of separating either two immiscible liquids or a solid from a
liquid. It has several applications in the drug manufacture where if may be used either
as a batch process or continuously.
Essentially the centrifuge consists of a bowl or basket capable of being rotated at
high speed. For small batch wise operations it is mounted vertically but for continuous
operation it is mounted horizontally.
In comparing relative performance of centrifuges it is useful to express
centrifugal force as a relative force. The relative centrifugal force (Ref) is defined as
the ratio of centrifugal force to gravitational force acting upon a given body.
Zonal centrifugation allows high resolution separation of biological cell and
viruses due to difference in density and size. In an ordinary centrifuge tube there is not
clean cut separation of particles of different sizes b/c the larger particle that have
settled out will also contain smaller particles that were initially present near the bottom
of the tube.
In Zonal centrifugation the centrifuge tube is filled with a liquid whose density
increases towards the bottom and a small sample f particles in suspension is layered
over it.
This technique gives zone of sediment particles. The rate of movement
depending on size and density of the particles.
The super centrifuge consists of a relatively long hallow. Cylindrical bowl having speed
of rotation up to 22000rev/ min with a standard motor drive or up to 50,000rev/ min
with an air turbine.
The feed is introduced in to the bottom of the bowl and the heavier liquid is thrown
out against the wall, with the lighter liquid forming an inner layer. The separated
liquids are taken off from the top of the bowl through separate out lets.
Vertical centrifuges are used for the continuous separation of two immiscible liquids
where as horizontal centrifuges are used for the continuous removal of the solids.
APPLICATIONS.
1. High speed centrifuges can be used to separate bacteria from aqueous fluids.
2. A Zonal centrifugation technique is used to separate glycogen particles present in the
liver cell and separation of viruses particles from tissue homogenates.
3. Vertical centrifuges may be used for separating crystalline drugs such as aspire from
their mother liquor.