Performance Study on use of Pulverised Plastic and Steel

Slag as a Potential Aggregate Substitute with Glass

Admixture in Brick Production

Ph.D. Research Protocol

By

BELLO, Muhammad
(16/68GE005)

Supervisor

Prof. A. A. Adedeji

Submitted to

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Ilorin
Ilorin, Nigeria

December, 2021
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this protocol has been read and approved as meeting partial

requirements of the Department of Civil Engineering and Postgraduate School,

University of Ilorin, for the award of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) in Civil Engineering.

…………………………. ………………..
Prof.A.A. Adedeji Date
Project Supervisor

…………………………. ………………..
Dr. Sholagberu Date
Postgraduate Coordinator

……………………….... ………………..
Prof. A.A. Jimoh
Date
Head of Department

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGES

TITLE PAGE………………………………………………………………………………...i

CERTIFICATION………………………………………………………………………….ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………..iii

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………..1

1.1 Background ………………………………………………………………………………1

1.2 Statement of

Problem………………………………………………………………………...5

1.3 Aim and Objectives...…………………………………………………………………….6

1.4 Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………………7

1.5 Scope of the Study………………………………………………………………………..8

LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………..9

2.1 General Review………………………………………………………………………......9

2.2 Waste Plastic Aggregate………………………………………………………………...11

2.3 Plastic………………………………………………………...………………………….13

2.4 Brick Productions ……………………………………...

………………………………..15

2.4.1 Bricks………………………………………………………………………………15

2.4.2 Chemical Compositions of Bricks (Clay, Sand and Laterite)………….…………..15

2.4.3 Materials for making bricks

………………………………………………………..15

2.4.4 Classification of Brick by Density …………………………………….…………..20

2.4.5 Types of Bricks …………………………………….…………………….………..20

2.4.6 Unburnt Bricks …………………………………….…………………….………...20

iii
 2.4.7 Burnt Bricks …………………………………….…………………….…….……..20

2.4.8 Stabilized bricks: ……………………………….……………………..……….…..22

2.5 Cement ……………………………………...…………………………………………..22

2.6 Fine Aggregate ……………………………………...…………………………………..23

2.6.1 Glass Fibre..……………………………….……………………..……….

………...23

2.7 Pulverised waste Plastic (PWP)……………………...

…………………………………..23

2.8 Slag Aggregates……………………...………………………………………………....23

2.9 Review on different plastic waste materials use in concrete ……………......

…………..25

2.10 Polymer Compounds ………………………………………………..…......

…………..34

2.10.1 Polymer Blends..………………………….…………………..……….…..……...35

2.10.2 Copolymers..………………………….…………………..……….…..……..…...36

2.10.3 Thermoplastic Elastomers..……….…………………..……….…..………....…...37

2.10.4 Two types of TPE blends are available..……….………………….………....…...39

2.11 SAFE Software Package ………………………………………..…......………..……..40

2.11.1 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)..……….………………….………………....…...41

2.11.2 Finite Element formulation of the beam..……….…………………………....

…...41

2.12 Structural Optimization …………………………………………......………..

………..45

iv
 2.12.1 Types of structural optimisation..……….……………….……………...…....

…...45

2.12.2 Linear optimisation..……….……………….……………...………………....

…...46

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………48

3.1 Study Approach ………………………………………………………………………...48

3.1.1 Assessing the past records..……….……………………......……………….....…...48

3.1.2 Collection of waste plastics..……….……………………......………………....

…...48

3.2 Griding of Waste Plastic (PWP)………………………………………………...………48

3.3 Laboratory tests……………………………………………………………………..…..49

3.3.1 Materials and their quality tests..……….……………......……………….........

…...49

3.3.2 Aggregate Quality Tests..……….……………......……………………….......…...49

3.4 Proposed Data Needed ………………………………………………….………………50

3.5 Modelling and validation …………………………………………………………...

…...51

3.6 Optimisation Approach………………………………………………………………….51

3.7 Comparison of the results ………………………………………………..……………..51

3.8 Expected Results………………………………………………………………………...52

WORK PLAN……………………………………………………………………………...47

4.1 Time Plan………………………………………………………………………………..53

4.2 Budget…………………………………………………………………………………...54

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….55
v
vi
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

As the world population grows, so do the amount and type of wastes being generated. Plastic

is universally in today’s existence. It is used for packaging, protecting, serving and even

disposing of all kinds of consumer goods. With the industrial revolution, mass production of

goods started and plastic seems to be a cheaper and effective raw material. Brick plays an

important role in the beneficial use of these materials in construction. Use of waste material in

civil engineering has a huge scope as there are many means of fulfilling the quality standards

lost due to waste usage. Using waste material reduces the load on environment as well as

reduces cost of production.

The wastage of plastic is increasing day by day, although steps were taken to reduce its

consumption. India generates 6.5 million metric tons of plastic waste annually, of which 86

per cent was collected, and 33 per cent was treated and remaining 67 per cent disposed of at

dump sites. So we took polymer industries waste for replace by sand in brick. Plastic waste’s

effect can be reduced by reusing it in other sectors. PCPW are the waste end products

obtained from the polymer industry.

The amount of Plastics consumed annually has been growing increasingly in Nigeria.

Consequently, waste plastic recycling has become one of the major challenges in recent

times. Initiatives are emerging worldwide to control and regulate the management of sub-

products, residuals and industrial wastes in order to preserve the environment from

contamination. A good solution to the problem of recycling of agro-industrial residues would

be by gridding them in a controlled process according to BS standard of fine aggregate and

use the particles waste for more noble means (Ghavami et al., 1999).

1
Burning of Plastic is not effective way forward of controlling waste as it releases dioxin gas

which is toxic in nature and cause environmental hazard to global system. Recycling method

has been adopted according to their use which is good for environment. For example: The

cloth industry which crushes plastics into small pieces and makes cloths by it. They have

their own technique which is good for our ecological system.

Nowadays we can use plastic for construction purposes. Utilization of such wastes as fine

aggregate replacement materials may reduce the cost of Brick production and also minimize

the negative environmental effects with disposal of these wastes.

Ibrahim (2018) explained that Pollution occurs when the natural environment cannot destroy

an element without creating harm or damage to itself. The elements involved are not

produced by nature, and the destroying process can vary from a few days to thousands of

years. It has negatively affected the life of both human-beings and animals. According to the

methodology of the World Health Organization, there are 26 risk factors to health, some

dating from the environment that are considered to cause many diseases in the population of

children aged 0 to 19 years (IbroSkenderovic, 2015).

Praveen et al., (2013) investigated the suitability of recycled plastic as partial replacement to

coarse aggregate in concrete mix to study effect on compressive strength, modulus of

elasticity, split tensile strength and flexural strength properties of concrete. Coarse aggregate

from plastic was obtained by heating the plastic pieces at required temperature and crushed to

required size of aggregate after cooling. Their experimental results shown that plastic

aggregate have low crushing (2.0 as compare to 28 for Natural aggregate), low specific

gravity (0.9 as compare to 2.74 for Natural aggregate), and density value(0.81 as compare

to 3.14 for Natural aggregate), as compare to Natural coarse aggregate. Their test results

were based on 20% substitution of natural coarse aggregate with plastic aggregate. Increase in

workability was reported when slump test for sample was carried out. Volumetric substitution
2
 of natural aggregate with plastic aggregate was selected best in comparison with grade

substitution.

At 400 centigrade temperature Plastic coarse aggregate shown considerable decrease in

strength as compare to normal concrete. An increase of 28% was observed in compressive

strength but decrease in split tensile strength and modulus of elasticity was observed. They

recommended that with use of suitable admixture at 0.4% by weight of cement will

improve the bonding between matrix and plastic aggregate; however they demand more

research to address the tensile behavior of concrete prepared with 20% plastic aggregate.

Plastics have become an inseparable and integral part of our lives. Its low density, strength,

user-friendly designs, fabrication capabilities, long life, light weight, and low cost are the

factors behind such phenomenal growth. Various attempts were made through

experimentation to check the feasibility of plastic waste to be use partially in brick with

respect to various properties of strength, workability, durability and ductility of brick.

A substantial growth in the consumption of plastic waste is observed all over the world in recent

Years, which has led to huge quantities of unwanted plastic product waste. These wastes are

non-biodegradable and will remain in a landfill without any degradation for a very long time

and their accumulation may provoke fire or health hazards and cause troublesome

environmental problem. Brick is by far the most widely- used man made construction material

and studies indicate that it will continue to be so in the years and decades to come. The

advances in brick have paved way for the reutilization of waste materials in brick which help to

prevent environmental pollution whilst contribution to the design of more economical building.

3
The increased consumption of construction material in the construction industry has led to the

constant demand for natural resources (mineral aggregates, sand) coupled with the set back

associated with the brittle nature of brick. The above enumerated issues capture the attention of

researchers not only to improve the performance level of brick but also to save guard our

environment from dangers associated with waste plastics and constant demand of natural

resources (Stergios and Atalia, 2016).

Research has over the years focused on the use of different shapes and size of waste tyres in

different proportion in concrete. A mixture of ordinary concrete and fibres (from glass) will be

presented in this research. The waste plastic will be obtained from landfills and pulverised into

specified size to produce modified brick.

A structural optimization technique which is regarded as rational and efficient tool will also be

implored to automate the development of optimal fibre concrete. Some of the previous studies

on concrete have attempted to generate optimal modified concrete using structural optimization

techniques, however little research efforts have been focused on testing the effectiveness of this

approach.

4
1.2 Statement of the Problem

The results of previous research indicate that complete replacement of natural aggregate with

waste materials is impractical. Decrease in both tensile and compressive has been previously

observed when plastic and steel slags are used at high replacement rates. However, there is lack

of research on combined usage of plastic and steel slag with glass fibre and its reliability in

brick production. In addition, accumulation of plastic waste over the years and the lack of

suitable disposal techniques have given rise to a crucial and unparalleled crisis where plastic

waste is clogging our water resources and waterways, overflowing the landfills, leaching into

soil and transferring through air, thus polluting every natural resource in our environment.

Although, these materials are readily available in some regions, lightweight and cheap. In this

research, glass fibre will be added to brick with natural aggregate (fine) partially replaced by

steel slag and plastic aggregates. This will be done to improve the mechanical properties of

brick.







5
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this research is to evaluate the performance of pulverized waste plastic (PWP) and

steel slag as partial substitution of fine aggregate with glass fibre in Brick production. This

would be achieved through the following objectives;

I. experimentally evaluate physical and mechanical properties of PWP, Steel Slag and glass

fibre;

II. determine the temperature distribution of the brick with respect to cracking width;

III. evaluate impact energy load on the produced bricks;

IV. evaluate the optimum percentage of PWP needed in Brick production ; and

V. carryout a reliability analysis and make comparison with the modified brick.

6
1.4 Significance of the Study

There has been a large amount of research recently on the potential pulverized waste plastic

(PWP) and steel slag as partial substitution of fine aggregate in brick production to improve its

performance but the potential of modern structural optimization techniques has not been well

explored by researchers in the use of glass fibres.

The present research attempts to explore the use of pulverized waste plastic (PWP) and steel

slag as partial substitution of fine aggregate in brick and optimize the quantity of fibres needed.

This will be a good approach for providing baseline reference which will be used for supporting

and enhancing a sound decision-making processes by Engineers and Designers in the brick

production industry. This also helps in saving energy used in blasting of rocks and dredging of

land. Groundwater contamination problems related to land fill and disposal of SCB will be

avoided.

7
1.5 Scope of the Study

The scope of the study will be limited to:

1. Collection of waste plastics (Thermoplactic, Polypropene PP) from the nearby landfill.

2. Washing of the collected waste plastic.

3. Grinding of the collected waste plastic according to BS standard of fine aggregate.

4. Experimental investigation.

5. Comparison of the results obtained from both sun dried clay bricks with burnt bricks.

6. Modelling and Validation of the laboratory results will be limited to SAFE software

only.

7. The optimization model for the structure will consider only quantity as decision

variables.

8. Comparison of the results obtained with the past similar work.

8
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General Review

Plastics have become an inseparable and integral part of our lives. Its low density, strength,

user- friendly designs, fabrication capabilities, long life, light weight, and low cost are the

factors behind such phenomenal growth. Plastics have been used in packaging, automotive

and industrial applications, medical delivery systems, artificial implants, other healthcare

applications, water desalination, land/soil conservation, flood prevention, preservation and

distribution of food, housing, communication materials, security systems, and other uses.

With so large and varying applications, plastics contribute to an ever increasing volume in the

solid waste stream. The production and consumption of plastic and the rate at which solid

plastic waste (SPW) is created have increased considerably since the first industrial scale

production of synthetic polymers Pollution Control Board, the world produces nearly 150

million tonnes of plastics per year, which is nearly 4.8 tonnes per second and a per capita

production of 25 kg/year (Al-Salem et al. 2009).

A huge number of plastics are being used for recycling and many other purposes. Different

forms of the common materials, using waste plastic granules as lightweight aggregate in the

production of lightweight concrete has attracted much attention from the researchers.

Lightweight aggregates are generally used to reduce the unit weight of concrete by replacing

the conventional aggregates. Nowadays, there are many lightweight concrete applications

made with natural or artificial lightweight aggregates are found in the literature. Several

researches have been carried out to investigated the use of recycled Polyethylene

Therephtalate (PET) as light aggregate, such as Rebeiz et al. (1991), Rossignolo and

Agnesini (2002), Silva et al. (2005), Marzouk et al. (2007) and Choi et al. (2005). Koide et

al. (2002) used PET and other plastic wastes (PE and PP) together in concrete by partially

replacing with mineral aggregates.

9
Albano et al. (2009) determined the mechanical behavior of concrete containing waste PET,

varying the water/cement ratio from 0.50 to 0.60, PET aggregate content (10 and 20 % by

volume) and the particle sizes of 2.6mm and 11.4mm. The results found that, as the volume

proportion and the particle size of PET aggregate increased, the concrete showed a decrease in

compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and ultrasonic pulse

velocity.

Moreover, the water absorption was increased. It was reported that the concrete specimens

were not fully compacted and showed the formation of honeycombs which affected the

strength characteristics significantly. Frigione (2010) attempted to substitute 5% by weight

of fine aggregate (natural sand) with an equal weight of PET aggregates manufactured from

the waste unwashed PET bottles (WPET), in concrete. The specimens were made with

different cement content and water/cement ratio.

Rheological characterization on fresh concrete and mechanical tests at the ages of 28 and 365

days were performed on the WPET/concretes as well as on reference concretes containing

only natural fine aggregate in order to investigate the influence of the substitution of

WPET to the fine aggregate in concrete. He found that the WPET concretes display

similar workability characteristics, compressive strength and splitting tensile strength slightly

lower than that of the reference concrete and a moderately higher ductility. The present work

attempted to utilize the waste PET aggregate as partial replacement of conventional coarse

aggregate in making concrete. Various physical and mechanical properties of concrete have

been evaluated incorporating different percentage of plastic aggregate by volume. The

influences of plastic aggregate on concrete properties have also been analyzed and discussed.

10
2.2 Waste Plastic Aggregate

The plastic aggregates were produced mainly from waste PET bottles. The plastic bottles

were crushed and cut into small pieces using a crushing machine. The plastic aggregates were

washed properly to make them clean and to ensure that no other dust particles were present

there Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is thermoplastic polyester with tensile and flexural

modulus of elasticity of about 2.9 and 2.4GPa, respectively, tensile strength up to 60 MPa

and excellent chemical resistance. It is a semi-crystalline polymer, with a melting point of

about 260°C and a glass transition temperature ranging from 70 to 80°C, in relation to the

amount of crystalline region enclosed in the amorphous phase. The specific gravity is around

1.3-1.4 g/cm3 (Van Krevelen, 1990). In this study, the specific gravity of plastic aggregate

used was found to be 1.4 g/cm3. The sizes of plastic aggregate were taken between 4.75 to

9.5mm, Waste plastic dumping site is shown in Figure 2.1

11
.

Figure 2.1: Waste PET bottles at a dumping site (Source: Van Krevelen, 1990)

12
2.3 Plastics

Holden et al.,(2004) reported that The word plastic itself comes from the Greek word plasticos,

which means to be able to be shaped or moulded by heat. As we will see, shaping plastics by

using heat is a basic part of nearly all plastics manufacturing processes.

He reported that like timbers, which can be divided into hardwoods and softwoods, and

metals that can be divided into ferrous and nonferrous metals, plastics can also be divided

into categories:

i. Natural plastics - these are naturally occurring materials that can be said to be

plastics because they can be shaped and moulded by heat. An example of this is

amber, which is a form of fossilized pine tree resin and is often used in jewellery

manufacture.

ii. Semi synthetic plastics - these are made from naturally occurring materials that have

been modified or changed but mixing other materials with them. An example of this is

cellulose acetate, which is a reaction of cellulose fibre and acetic acid and is used to

make cinema film.

iii. Synthetic plastics - these are materials that are derived from breaking down, or

’cracking’ carbon based materials, usually crude oil, coal or gas, so that their

molecular structure changes. This is generally done in petrochemical refineries under

heat and pressure, and is the first of the manufacturing processes that is required to

produce most of our present day, commonly occurring plastics. Synthetic and semi

synthetic plastics can be further divided into two other categories. These two

categories are defined by the ways in which different plastics react when heated.

13
 iv. Thermoplastics - these are plastics that can be softened and formed using heat, and

when cool, will take up the shape that they have been formed into. But if heat is

reapplied they will soften again. Examples of thermoplastics are acrylic and styrene,

probably the most common plastics found in school workshops.

v Thermosetting plastics - these are plastics that soften when heated, and can be
moulded when soft, and when cool they will set into the moulded shape. But if heat is
reapplied they will not soften again, they are permanently in the shape that they have
been moulded into. Why this happens we will look at later. Examples of
thermosetting plastics are polyester resins used in glass reinforced plastics work, and
melamine formaldehyde used in the manufacture of Formica for kitchen work
surfaces.

Polymers’ is a general term for all plastic materials and means that they are organic, carbon
based compounds whose molecules are linked together in long chain patterns (Hagropol,
2000), When we talk about plastics in general we will call them polymers, and when we talk
about specific plastic materials we will give them their real names, such as nylon or
polythene.

14
2.4 Brick Productions

2.4.1 Bricks

According to BIA (2014) Brick is a small rectangular block typically made of fired or sun-

dried clay, used in building. Bricks are walling units within a length of 337.5mm, a width of

225mm and a height of 112.5mm. The usual size of bricks in common use is length 215mm,

width 102.5 and height 65mm. it is usually made from clay or from sand and lime.

2.4.2 Chemical Compositions of Bricks (Clay, Sand and Laterite)

Suitable clay for bricks are composed mainly of silica in the form of grains of sand and

alumina (which is the soft part of clay) Which absorb water and make the clay plastic and melt

when burnt. Other elements in clay are lime, iron, manganese, sulphur and phosphate. The

proportions of these elements vary in clay. The composition of these elements in clay

determine to a great extent, the use of such bricks.

Sandstone - Is made of silicon dioxide, calcium carbonate and iron oxide

Laterite - compose mainly of quartz, zircon and oxide of titanium, iron, tin, aluminium

2.4.3 Materials for making bricks

Brick is made from clay, laterite, sand, straws, lime and water.

Method of preparation (according to Brick industry association)

There are two ways of making bricks. They are;

1. Traditional Method
2. Modern Method

15
The Traditional Method:

This is done by digging out clay or laterite to a place specially prepared for brick

making. This is necessary to prevent interference with other unwanted materials to

mix with the composite. The clay / laterite is tread with legs to ensure that there are

no lumps. Once desired consistence is achieved water is added to mouldable

consistence. The moulds are placed on ground already prepared and the mixture

poured into the mould and left to dry. Once dried, brick is ready for use, Used brick is

shown in Figure 2.2 and 2.3

Figure 2.2 (Source: BIA 2014)

16
Figure 2.3 (Source: BIA 2014)

17
The Modern Method:

According to BS 3921: part 2, it is made by grounding clay or laterite in the mill. Water is

added to the grounded clay and mixed very well and then moulded by machine to shape it into

size. Machine moulded are hydraulically pressed in steel mould. After moulding and shaping

firing is done in kiln. The temperature at which firing is done is regulated to ensure that the

bricks do not loss water at too fast a rate resulting in sudden shrinkage. The brick is baked to

dry out the water and burn at high temperature, which fuses its part into a hard durable unit.

When it is burnt at too high temperature, the part fuses into a glass – like mass. If it is burnt at

too low temperature, no part of the clay fuses making the brick soft. Neither over burning or

under burning is good for brick making as it will not yield desired result. When desired result

is achieved, the temperature is reduced to allow the bricks to cool down gradually. The bricks

are removed from the steel moulds and stacked ready for use or sale. Production processes

involve are mining of clay, mixing, firing and drying are shown in figure 2.4, 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7

respectively.

18
Figure 2.4: Mining of clay process (Source BIA 2014)

Figure 2.5: Mixing process (Source BIA 2014)

19
20
Figure 2.6: Firing Process (Source BIA 2014)

21
Figure 2.7: Drying Process (Source (Source BIA 2014)

22
 2.4.4 Classification of Brick by Density

Mortal industry association BIA (2014) classified bricks by weight in to three groups, namely:

3 3
a. Dense Aggregate Bricks: have a density in the range of 1800kg/m -2100kg/m

b. Light weight Aggregate/ Medium Dense Aggregate: have a density of in the range of

3 3
650kg/m -1600kg/m

3 3
c. Air Brick: have a density in the range of 400kg/m -600kg/m

2.4.5 Types of Bricks

According to BIA (2014) classified brick into two, namely;

1. Unburnt bricks

2. Burnt bricks

2.4.6 Unburnt bricks are also known as sun-dried bricks because they are dried by heat
coming from the sun. Not use in construction due to their lower strength but if required they
can be used for constructing temporary structures.

2.4.7 Burnt bricks are made by burning in the kilns. Depending upon the quality burnt
bricks can further be classified into 3 categories which are as following;

a. Common bricks
b. Facing bricks

c. Engineering bricks.

a. Common Bricks (Third class bricks): They are sufficiently safe to carry load but due to
their appearance and colour, they are used internally.

b. Facing Bricks (Second class bricks): They are hard and durable to withstand rain, wind
and frost. They are fine in appearance. They come in different shapes and designs.

23
d. Engineering Bricks ( First class bricks): They are made from selected clay / laterite
carefully crushed, moulded and with monitored burning so that they comes out hard and
solid to withstand designed load. They are used as walls carrying exceptional load or for
brick columns and general engineering works.

This type of brick does no crushing strength readily absorb water. All common brick
2
types shall have minimum average crushing strength of not less than 20N/mm (BS
5628:2,1996).

24
2.4.8 Stabilized bricks: This is made using clay / laterite and little quantity of cement mostly

Portland cement as stabilizer.

2.5 Cement

The most common type of cement used in concrete production is ordinary Portland cement.

Ordinary portland cement account for 80% to 90% of construction works (Nwofar and Sule

2010). The chemical composition of ordinary portland cement is as shown in Table 2.1.

Calcium oxide (CaO) as one of the component of cement formed hydrated CaO in the

presence of water and it is responsible for binding in cement.

Table 2.1: Chemical composition of ordinary Portland cement.

Constituents %Composition

Ferrous oxide (Fe2O3) 4.65

Silica (SiO2) 22.00

Calcium Oxide (CaO) 62.00

Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 5.03

Magnesium oxide (MgO) 2.06

Sodium oxide(Na2O) 0.19

Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.40

2-
Sulphate (SO3 ) 1.43

Source: Nwofar and Sule (2010)

25
 2.6 Fine Aggregate

The British Standard-12 classified the use of the term fine aggregate for materials that pass

through less than 4mm sieve but retained 75µm sieve.

2.6.1Glass Fibre

This is a material made from extremely fine fibre of glass which is a non-crystalline material

with short range network.

2.7 Pulverised waste Plastic (PWP)

Plastic is a non-biodegradable material in many environments that can last for thousands of

years having negative on the environment. This can be gotten by crushing and grinding of

waste plastic according to The British Standard-12 classification of fine aggregate (materials

that pass through less than 4mm sieve but retained 75µm sieve).

Therefore, incorporating plastic in brick is a top priority for the construction industry. Plastic can

be used as fine or coarse aggregate in concrete. Aggregate crushing can lead to failure in

concrete structures. Due to the low specific gravity of plastic, concrete containing plastic as

coarse aggregate is lighter than normal concrete. This reduces the dead loads applied to

structures. Different experiments have shown that the complete replacement of coarse aggregate

is infeasible, however, a certain percentage of coarse aggregate can potentially be replaced by

waste material.

26
2.8 Slag Aggregates

When metal is separated from its raw ore, the by-product is termed Slag. Slag consists of

silicon oxide, metal oxides and mixed oxides of elements such as Sulphur, phosphorus, alu

minium, and silicon. When metal melts, slag floats to the surface and protects metal from

oxidation by the atmosphere and keep it clean. The slag can be collected, cooled, and then

used as aggregate in concrete or brick.

Slag is categorized into two (2) based on the steel being produced; Carbon Steel slag and

Stainless steel slag.

27
 2.9 Review on different plastic waste materials use in concrete.

Youcef et al (2015) studied present the partial replacement of fine aggregate in concrete by

using plastic fine aggregate obtained from the crushing of waste plastic bags. Plastic bags

waste was heated followed by cooling of liquid waste which was then cooled and crushed to

obtained plastic sand having finesse modulus of 4.7. Fine aggregate in the mix proportion of

concrete was replaced with plastic bag waste sand at 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% whereas other

concrete materials remain same for all four mixes. In fresh properties of concrete it was

observed from the results of slump test that with increase of waste content workability of

Concrete increases which is favorable for concrete because plastic cannot absorb water

therefore excessive water is available.

Bulk density decreases with increase of plastic bags waste. In harden state, flexural and

compressive strength were tested at 28 days and reductions in both strengths with

increasing percentage of plastic bag waste sand in concrete mix. Plastic waste increases the

volume of voids in concrete which on other hand reduce the compactness of concrete

simultaneously speed of sound in concrete is also decreased. Strength reduction in

concrete mix was prime concern; however they recommend 10 to 20% replacement of fine

aggregate with plastic aggregate. Use of admixtures to address the strength reduction

property of concrete with addition of plastic aggregate is not emphasized.

Raghatate (2010)’s paper is based on experimental results of concrete sample casted with use

of plastic bags pieces to study the compressive and split tensile strength. He used concrete

mix by using Ordinary Portland Cement, Natural River sand as fine aggregate and crushed

granite stones as coarse aggregate, portable water free from impurities and containing varying

percentage of waste plastic bags (0%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6% 0.8% and 1.0%).

28
Compressive strength of concrete specimen is affected by the addition of plastic bags and with

increasing percentage of plastic bag pieces compressive strength goes on decreasing (20%

decrease in compressive strength with 1% of addition of plastic bag pieces). On other hand

increase in tensile strength of concrete was observed by adding up to 0.8% of plastic bag

pieces in the concrete mix afterward it start decreasing when adding more than 0.8% of plastic

bags pieces.

He concluded that utility of plastic bags pieces can be used for possible increase in split

tensile strength. This is just a basic study on use of plastic bags in concrete. More emphasis

was required by varying the shape and sizes of plastic bags to be use in concrete mixes.

29
Praveen et al. (2013) investigated the suitability of recycled plastic as partial replacement to

coarse aggregate in concrete mix to study effect on compressive strength, modulus of

elasticity, split tensile strength and flexural strength properties of concrete. Coarse aggregate

from plastic was obtained by heating the plastic pieces at required temperature and crushed to

required size of aggregate after cooling. Their experimental results shown that plastic

aggregate have low crushing (2.0 as compare to 28 for Natural aggregate), low specific

gravity(0.9 as compare to 2.74 for Natural aggregate), and density value(0.81 as compare to

3.14 for Natural aggregate), as compare to Natural coarse aggregate. Their test results were

based on 20% substitution of natural coarse aggregate with plastic aggregate.

Increase in workability was reported when slump test for sample was carried out. Volumetric

substitution of natural aggregate with plastic aggregate was selected best in comparison

with grade substitution. At 400 centigrade temperature, Plastic coarse aggregate shown

considerable decrease in strength as compare to normal concrete. An increase of 28% was

observed in compressive strength but decrease in split tensile strength and modulus of

elasticity was observed. They recommended that with use of suitable admixture @0.4%

by weight of cement will improve the bonding between matrix and plastic aggregate;

however they demand more research to address the tensile behavior of concrete prepared

with 20% plastic aggregate.

Ramesh et al. (2016) used waste plastic of low density poly ethylene as replacement to coarse

aggregate to determine its viable application in construction industry and to study the

behavior of fresh and harden concrete properties. Different concrete mix were prepared with

varying proportions (0%, 20%, 30% & 40%) of recycle plastic aggregate obtained by heat

treatment of plastic waste (160-200 centigrade) in plastic granular recycling machine. A

concrete mix design with 1: 1.5: 3 proportions was used having 0.5 water/cement ratio having

varying proportion of plastic aggregate as replacement of crushed stone.

30
Proper mixing was ensured and homogeneous mixture was prepared. A clear reduction in

compressive strength was reported with increase in percentage of replacing plastic aggregate

with crushed aggregate at 7, 14 and 28 days of casted cubes (80% strength achieved by

replacing waste plastic up to 30%). The research highlights the potential application of plastic

aggregate in light weight aggregate. Their research was narrowed down to compressive

strength of concrete with no emphasis given to flexural properties of concrete. They suggest

future research scope on plastic aggregate with regard to its split tensile strength to ascertain

its tensile behavior and its durability aspects for beams and columns.

31
Ismail et al. (2007) conducted comprehensive study based on large number of experiments

and tests in order to determine the feasibility of reusing plastic sand as partial replacement of

fine aggregate in concrete. They conducted tests on concrete samples for dry/fresh density,

slump, compressive and flexural strength and finally toughness indices on room temperature

They have collected waste plastic from plastic manufacture plant consist of 80% polyethylene

and 20% polystyrene which was crushed (varying length of 0.15-12mm and width of 0.15-

4mm).

Concrete mix were produce with ordinary Portland cement, fine aggregate (natural sand

of 4.74mm maximum size), coarse aggregate (max size below 20mm) and addition of

10%, 15% and 20% of plastic waste as sand replacement. Their test results indicate sharp

decrease in slump with increasing the percentage of plastic, this decrease was attributed to the

presence of angular and non uniform plastic particles. In spite of low slump however, the

mixture was observed with good workability and declared suitable for application. Their tests

also revealed the decrease in fresh and dry density with increasing the plastic waste ratio;

however increase was reported in dry density with time at all curing ages. Decrease in

compressive and flexural strength was observed by increasing the waste plastic ratio which

can be related to decrease in adhesive strength between plastic waste particles with cement.

However, load-deflection curve of concrete containing plastic waste showed the arrest of

propagation of micro cracks which shows its application in places where high toughness is

required. The study has shown good workability in spite of low slump but w/c content kept

constant in all samples. They should have reduced the water content in order to improve the

strength when workability was not an issue.

32
Suganthy et al (2013) investigated the application of pulverized fine crushed plastic (produce

from melting and crushing of high density polyethylene) as replacement of fine aggregate in

concrete with varying known percentages. Their main focus was on optimum replacement of

natural sand by pulverized plastic sand. Five concrete mixes were produced from specified

concrete materials having replacement of fine aggregate (sand) by 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%

respectively to study the test graph results of various concrete properties. The results showed

increase in water/cement ratio with increase replacement of sand with plastic particles to

achieve desired 90mm concrete slump. They have also observed from the results that gradual

decrease in strength of concrete specimen for plastic replacement up to 25% but afterward the

33
 decrease in strength is rapid which shows suitable replacement up to 25% of sand with plastic
pulverized sand. They have also concluded after testing of specimen (having different
proportion of plastic replacement) for Ultimate and yield strength that both strength decreases
with increase replacement of sand with pulverized plastic particles. Their study lacks detailed
testing of properties of concrete because only compressive strength and w/c ratio tests will
not be sufficient to study the matrix as a whole to be suitable for construction. No efforts
were made to explore the use of admixtures in controlling of compressive strength reduction
in a mix containing pulverized plastics.

Khilesh (2014) presented the results of addition of waste plastics along with steel fibers with
an objective to seek maximum use of waste plastic in concrete. Two different categories of
mix were casted in cubes (150mm x 150mm x 150mm), one with varying percentages of
plastic wastes (0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8% and 1% weight of cement) and another mix of
plastics waste/steel fibers (0.2/0.1, 0.4/0.2, 0.6/0.3, 0.8/0.4 and 1/0.5 % by weight of cement)
to study the compressive strength at 7 and 28 days strength. The combine mix of plastic
waste and steel fibers has shown more strength as compare to concrete mix prep only with
plastic waste. He has reached to conclusion that a plastic waste of 0.6% weight of cement
when used with steel fiber of 0.3 % (weight of cement) has shown the maximum compressive
strength. This study has really focused on addressing the issue of reduced compressive
strength with addition of plastic waste. Steel fibers when used along with plastic wastes will
affect all the properties of concrete but the researcher only focused on compressive strength
property which is insufficient to give clear picture of concrete behavior.

Bhogayata et al. (2012) studied the environment friendly disposal of shredded plastic bags in
concrete mix to be use in construction industry which have dire need for alternative material
to be use in lieu of conventional materials. Different test results were analyzed after testing
on 48 x concrete cubes (150mm x 150mm x150mm) prepared from varying percentage of
polyethylene fibers (0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 to 1.2% of volume of concrete) with conventional
concrete material to prepare mixes. Two types of plastic bag fibers were used, one cut
manually (60mm x 3mm) and another shredded into a very fine random palettes. Cubes were
tested for 7 and 28 days compressive strength and compaction. They concluded that good
workability was shown by the mix added with shredded fibers due to its uniform and higher
aspect ratio evenly sprayed in the mix. Addition of plastics up to 0.6% is considered suitable
after which reduction in compressive strength and compaction is seen affected.

34
They observed that strength loss was less in concrete having shredded fibers of plastic as
compare to hand cut macro fibers. Their research focus was only on comparative study of
compressive strength but no work was carries out on other concrete properties like
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and density of concrete.

35
Elzafraney et al. (2005) incorporated the use of recycled plastic aggregate in concrete

material for a building to work out its performance with regards to thermal attributes and

efficient energy performance in comparison with normal aggregate concrete. The plastic

content concrete was prepared from refined high recycled plastics to meet various

requirement of building construction like strength, workability and finish ability etc. Both

buildings were subject to long and short term monitoring in order to determine their energy

efficiencies and level of comfort.

It was observed that recycled plastic concrete building having good insulation used 8% less

energy in comparison of normal concrete; however saving in energy was more profound in

cold climate in building with lower insulation. They recommended that efficiency of energy

can further be increase if recycle plastic of high thermal capacity is used. They have suggested

the use of recycle plastic aggregate concrete being economical and light weights are having

high resistance to heat. The author should also incorporate the comparison of both buildings

with regards to durability and strength.

Pramod et al. (2008) presented a study on the use of plastic recycled aggregate as

replacement of coarse aggregate for production of concrete. They used forty eight specimen

and six beams/cylinders casted from variable plastic percentages (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%)

used as replacement of coarse aggregate in concrete mixes. They have conducted various

tests and observed decrease in density of concrete with increase percentage of replacement of

aggregate with recycle plastic concrete. They also reported decrease in compressive strength

for 7 and 28 days with increase in percentage of replacement of coarse aggregate with recycle

plastic aggregate. They have recommended feasibility of replacing 20 % will satisfy the

permissible limits of strength. Again these researchers limited their research to only

compressive strength property and no work was carried out to study the other important

36
properties of concrete. Their research also lacks use of various admixtures in concrete to cater

for the loss in strength.

2.10. Polymer Compounds

According to Agropol (2000) The term polymer compound summarizes materials like

polymer blends, copolymers and thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs). Polymer compounds are

physical or chemical composed from different polymers to achieve special material properties

like elasticity or fatigue strength.

37
2.10.1 Polymer Blends

Polymer blends are combinations of different polymers, usually mixed in the molten state.
After solidification the different polymeric proportions are combined by physical but not
chemical reaction. The extent to which a mixture can be achieved depends on the miscibility
of the polymers among each other. Chemical, thermal or mechanical properties of polymer,
molecule structure of polymer blends is shown in Figure 2.8

Figure 2.8: Schematic molecule structure of polymer blends.

Source: [Agropol, 2000]

38
 Table 2.2: Examples of thermoplastic polymer blends. Condition of application,
specific weight and typical mechanical strength

Resin Temperature of use [_C] Specific weight [g/cm3] Tensile strength [N/mm2]

PC/ASA <105 1.15 53–63

PPE/SB <100 1.06 52–64

Source:(Schulz, 2002)

Blends are defined by the type of different polymers used and their proportions within the
polymer blend. Polymer blends, designed from thermoplastic materials, can be joined
together by thermal processes like ultrasonic or laser welding. Examples of thermoplastic
polymer blends are PC/ABS, PC/ASA or PPE/SB.

2.10.2
Copolymers

Copolymers are built by chemical composition at least from two different monomer units.

Processes to built up copolymers are block polymerization, group transfer polymerization or

graft copolymerization. Examples of copolymers are ABS or SAN.

Beside grade of polymerization, chain-length distribution, type of end groups and chain side

branches, composition and distribution of monomer units inside the molecule chain have to be

known to achieve specific chemical, thermal, optical or mechanical properties of the copolymer.

Especially influential on the properties is the regularity of the chain composition, which means a

statistical or more regular distribution of the different monomers within the molecule chain.

39
2.10.3 : Thermoplastic Elastomers

As identified by Schulz (2002), Thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs) are elastic, flexible

polymers with similar qualities as elastomers or rubber but of a thermoplastic nature. TPEs

close the gap between stiff thermoplastics and vulcanized elastomers. Due to the

thermoplastic nature, TPEs can be processed to parts by extrusion and molding and can also be

joined together or to other thermoplastic material by adhesive bonding, solvent bonding and

welding processes or by co-extrusion and multi-component injection molding.

40
 Table 2.3: Examples of Thermoplastic Copolymers. Conditions of Application, Specific
Weight And Typical Mechanical Strength

Resin Temperature of use [_C] Specific weight [g/cm3] Tensile strength [N/mm2]

COC 50–130 1.02 46–63

SAN _20–80 1.08 70–79

Source : (Schulz, 2002)

41
Linear and non linear homogeneous heterogeneous molecule structures of polymer blend are
shown in figure 2.9a and 2.9b

42
 Schematic Build Up of Copolymers.

Figure 2.9a and b Source: Agropol 2000

In principal, the material group of TPEs consists of two different base structures as a physical

or chemical mixture, polymeric blends and block copolymers. Depending on the molecular

structure given by the thermoplastic component, both of them could be amorphous or

semicrystalline. TPE blends consist of a thermoplastic matrix, for example, PP or PE, and

softer particles, for example, EPDM, which are well dispersed in the matrix.

2.10.4: Two types of TPE blends are

available

Thermoplastic vulcanization elastomers (TPE-V): are TPE blends with a

chemically crosslinked elastomer proportion produced by dynamic vulcanization that is a

process of intimate melt mixing of a thermoplastic polymer like PP and a suitable reactive

elastomer like EPDM.

43
 Thermoplastic polyolefin elastomers (TPE-O): two-component elastomer systems
consisting of elastomers like EPR and EPDM finely dispersed in a thermoplastic polyolefin
(e.g., PP).

Schematic structure of TPE blends

Figure 2.10: Schematic structure of TPE block copolymers Source: Agropol. 2000

2.11 SAFE Software Package

SAFE is a general purpose structural analysis and optimal design system. The user oriented

input/output features and significant analysis capabilities of the software enable the practicing

engineers and researchers to readily undertake structure analysis design for even complex and

large structures. Diverse ranges of specialty finite elements in conjunction with the latest

theories of structural analyses render accurate and practical results.

SAFE employs pushover analysis, which is a nonlinear static analysis method, generally used

for the structure whose dynamic characteristics of higher modes are not predominant. It adopts

and applies simplified elements to reflect the nonlinear material characteristics, which are based

on “element model” using the load-displacement relationship of the member sections.

44
2.11.1 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a numerical system for solving complex problems. In this

method, structural elements are divided into finite elements and analysed for strain, stress,

moments and shear etc. FEA has been embedded in engineering and other sciences and it is now

essential in the solution of mathematical problems. In finite element method, the main idea is to

discrete a complex region defining a continuum into simple geometric shapes called finite

elements. The material properties and the governing relationships are considered over these

elements and expressed in terms of unknown values at element corners.

An assembly process, duly considering the loading and constraints, results in a set of equations.

Solution of these equations gives us the approximate behaviour of the continuum. The

advantages of finite element analysis includes in which the nonlinearities behaviour of material

or structure can be considered in the analysis. The term nonlinear is used in structural analysis

to describe a situation where the deformation is not proportional to the applied load. This is may

be due to geometric nonlinearities, material nonlinearities and the contact of bodies with

geometric and material nonlinearities. It also virtually may include various geometrical shapes

of structures (Ibrahim, 2016).

2.11.2 Finite Element formulation of the beam

Before we proceed with finite element formulation of beams, we should define what we meant

by a beam element. A simple beam element consists of two nodes. At each nodes, there are two

degrees of freedom, a vertical displacement and a rotation angle (slope). As shown in Figure

2.11. There are four nodal values associated with a beam element. Therefore, we will use a third

order polynomial with four unknown coefficients to represent the displacement field. Moreover,
45
we want the first derivatives of the shape functions to be continuous. The resulting shape

functions are commonly referred to as Hermite shape functions. The third-order polynomial

vj

vi
θj

θi x

Figure 2.11: Basic beam element

v=α 1+ α 2 x+ α 3 x2 + α 4 x 3 2.1

Note that the element is defined in a local coordinate system, and that the positive directions of

the translations and rotations are anticlockwise. The α constants in equation 2.1 are evaluated in

the usual manner by substitution of the boundary conditions for the element. These are

dv
v=v i ∧θ= =θi at x=0
dx

dv
v=v j∧θ= =θ j at x=L 2.2
dx

The resulting four equations can easily be solved to yield

α 1=vi , α 2=θi

3 1 2 1
2( j
α 3= v −vi ) − ( 2θ i+ θ j ) , α 4 = 3 ( v i−v j ) + 2 ( θi +θ j ) 2.3
L L L L

When these are substituted back into the original interpolation function, it can be rearranged and

expressed as

46
 {}
vi
θ
v=[ N ] i =[ N ] { U } 2.4
vj
θj

[ ( ) ( )( )( )]
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
3 x 2x 2 x 2 x 3x 2x x x
Where [ N ] = 1− + x− + − − + 2.5
2
L 3
L 2 2
L 3 2
L L L L L

As expected, the shape functions are third-order equations, the same as the interpolation

function.

The stiffness matrix for the element is calculated from the potential energy in the usual way.

The strain energy is given by the standard equation

❑
1 E
∆=∫ σ x ε x dV = ∫ ε 2x dV
v 2 2

This can also be expressed as

( ) ( ) ∫ ( ) (∫
❑ 2 2 2 2❑ 2 2
E 2 d y E d y d y
∆= ∫ y dV = ∫ y dA ) dx
2
2 v dx
2
2 dx
2
v dx
2

But the area integral equals the second moment of area I: hence the strain energy is

( )
❑ 2
EI d2 v
∆= ∫ dx 2.6
2 L dx 2

From equation 2.4, for one particular element,

d v d [N ]{
2 2 (e )

2
= 2
U (e ) }=[ B (e ) ] { U (e ) } 2.7
dx dx

Where [ B(e ) ] is simply calculated by the differentiation of the shape function matrix in equation

2.5 thus

47
 [ B( e ) ] = ([ −6L + 12L x )−( 4L + 6Lx )( L6 − 12L x )−( 2L + 6Lx )]
2 3 2 2 3 2 2.8

Substitution of equation 2.7 into equation 2.6 then gives

❑
1
∆ = ∫ {U (e ) } { B( e ) } [ D(e ) ] [ B( e ) ] {U (e ) } dx
(e ) T T
2.9
2L

Where [ D ( e ) ]=EI

Minimization of the potential energy then gives the now familiar form of the stiffness matrix,

❑
[ k (e ) ]=∫ { B( e ) } [ D(e ) ] [ B (e ) ] dx
T
2.10
L

When the [ B ] matrix is substituted into equation 2.10 and the integration carried out, the element

stiffness matrix is found to be

[ ]
12 6 L −12 6 L
[ k (e ) ]= EI3 6 L 4 L −6 L 2 L
2 2
2.11
L −12 −6 L 12 −6 L
6 L 2 L2 −6 L 4 L2

The force vector for the element comprises solely the forces and moments applied at the nodes,

namely

[ f ( e ) ] = [ Si M i S j M j ] . 2.12

Thus

[ ]{ } { }
12 6 L −12 6 L vi Si
EI 6 L 4 L2 −6 L 2 L2 θi M
= i 2.13
L −12 −6 L 12 −6 L
3
vj Sj
6 L 2 L2 −6 L 4 L2 θj Mj

Now considering three (3) nodes, the matrix becomes 6 x 6 matrix

48
 [ ]{ } { }
12
6 L −12 6 L 0 0 vi Si
6 L 4 L −6 L 2 L
2 2
0 0 θi Mi
EI −12 −6 L 24 0 −12 6L vj S
= j . 2.14
L3 6 L 2 L2 0 8 L2 −6 L 2L θj Mj
0 0 −12 −6 L 12 −6 L vk Sk
0 0 6L 2 L2 −6 L 4 L2 θk Mk

For i, j, k = 1, 2, 3

2.12 Structural Optimization

Structural optimization is an application of optimization. The purpose of this approach is to find

the optimal material distribution according to some given demands of a structure. Some

common functions to minimize are the mass, displacement or the compliance (strain energy).

This problem is most often subject to some constraints, for example geometrical restrictions

such as the height and width of the structure or behavioural restrictions such as stresses,

displacements, frequency and buckling loads (Akinpelu, 2016).

According to Akinpelu, (2016) the general formulation of an optimization problem may be

stated as presented in equation (2.1) – (2.3).

Minimise f ¿) (2.1)

Subjected to g j ( x )−g jall =0 j=1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , … … . m (2.2)

L U
xi ≤ xi ≤ xi i=1 , 2 ,3 , … … … . , n (2.3)

Where f(x) is the design function, g j ( x) is the jth design constraint, g jallis the allowable limit of

the jth constraint, m is the total number of the constraint, x Li and x Ui are the lower and upper

bound of the design variables x i and n is the total number of design variables.

Liang (2005) stated that if the objective function and constraints are linear functions of the

design variables, the optimization problem is a linear optimization problem. Otherwise, the

49
optimization problem is regarded as a nonlinear optimization problem. Structural Optimization

is usually a nonlinear optimization problem.

2.12.1 Types of structural optimisation

Based on design variable to be optimized, structural optimisation could be classified into three

types namely (i) size optimization (ii) Shape optimisation and (iii) topology optimization.

2.12.2 Linear Optimization

Ajamu and Adedeji (2013) stated that the design of statically indeterminate structures requires

the assumption of members’ dimension, followed by analysis of the whole structure, then

followed by the design of the members. If the assumed initial was smaller than the produced

design, then a redesign is necessary. However, if the assumed design was larger than the

produced design, then it is up to the designer to make the decision of whether to adopt the

design or to go through the redesign process. Each phase of design/analysis is usually lengthy

and requires a considerable amount of time and effort. The designer should repeat the process

several times in order to obtain a structure that is both safe and economical. In order to reduce

the time and effort involved in the design of economical structures, methods of optimization

have been employed and led to saving both in construction material and time.

Linear optimization is a mathematical method for determining a way to achieve the best

outcome in a given mathematical model for some list of requirements (constraints) represented

as linear relationships.

Linear programming is a specific case of mathematical programming (mathematical

optimization). In the solution of linear optimization, “given a finite number of linear inequality

constraints there can only be a finite number of basic or basic feasible solutions”.

Linear programs are problems that can be expressed in the form:

50
 T
Maximize C xsubject ¿ Ax ≤ b ; x ≥ 0

Where x represents the vector of variables (to be determined), c and b are vectors of known

coefficients, A is a known matrix of coefficients, and (.) T is the matrix transpose. The expression

to be maximized or minimized is called the objective function (CTx in this case). The

inequalities Ax ≤ b are the constraints which specify a convex over which the objective function

is to be optimized.

Linear programming can be applied to various fields of study. It is used in business and

economics, but can also be utilized for some engineering problems. Industries that use linear

programming models include transportation, energy, telecommunications, and manufacturing. It

has proved useful in modeling diverse types of problems in planning, routing, scheduling,

assignment, and design.

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Approach
3.1.1. Assessing the past records on the understanding of the performance of pulverized waste
plastic with steel slag and glass fibre in brick production.

 Reviewing of similar works on modified bricks

3.1.2 Collection of waste plastics

Waste plastic: Waste Plastic WP will be obtained locally in the area of Ibadan city with

variety of plastic like bottles and broken plastic chairs, and washed to free from other

materials and later pulverized at Ashi junction of Ojoo/ iwo road Express way of Ibadan

metropoly, Oyo state.

Laterite (fine aggregate) will be collected from the vicinity of locality Oopo Yeosa Ibadan by

Dredging down the soil, Proper inspection will be carried out to ensure that it is free from

51
deleterious materials. The fine aggregate will be clean, pure clay material and free from

sand and organic matters.

Water: Pipe borne water free from contaminants to be collected from localty of Sango

Ibadan, Oyo state to be used for mixing.

3.2 Griding of Waste Plastic (PWP)

The grinding will be done at Ashi junction of Iwo road/ Ojoo Express way of Ibadan Oyo

State with the aid of Grinding Machine specially set to conform with BS standard of

fine Aggregate.

3.3 Laboratory tests

3.3.1 Materials and their quality tests:

It is very important to know the properties and characteristics of constituent materials of brick,

as we know, brick is a composite material made up of several different materials such as

aggregate, sand, water, and other additions (glass fibres). These materials have properties and

different characteristics such as unit weight, specific gravity, size gradation and water content

and so on. Therefore, it is necessary to tests these components and that to know the unique

characteristics and their impact on the strength of brick.

3.3.2 Aggregate Quality Tests

52
 i. Unit Weight of Aggregate (ASTM C 566): Unit weight ( γ ) can be defined as the weight

of a given volume of graded aggregate. It is thus a measurement and is also known as

bulk density, but this alternative term is similar to bulk specific gravity, which is quite a

different quantity, and perhaps is not a good choice. The unit weight effectively

measures the volume that the graded aggregate will occupy in concrete and includes

both the solid aggregate particles and the voids between them. Coarse aggregate of

maximum size of 20mm will be used in concrete

ii. Specific Gravity of Aggregate (ASTM C127): Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of

the weight of a unit volume of aggregate to the weight of an equal volume of water.

Specific gravity expresses the density of the solid fraction of the aggregate in concrete

mixes as well as to determine the volume of pores in the mix.

density of solid
Specific Gravity (S.G) =
density of water

iii. Moisture content of Aggregate (ASTM C128): Aggregates are porous to some extent

and therefore can absorb moisture. They are generally not dry and therefore the

aggregates moisture contents will affect the water content and thus the water-cement

ratio.

iv. Sieve Analysis of Aggregate (ASTM C136): The size of aggregate particles differs

from aggregate to another, and for the same aggregate the size is different. So in this test

we will determine the particle size distribution of fine and coarse aggregate by sieving.

v. Water: Drinking water was used in all concrete mixtures and in the curing all of the test

samples.

vi. Glass Fibers (GF): Brick industry is one of the major consumers of natural resources.

The main aim of sustainable development is to find alternative resources, which could

53
 decrease negative effect of brick industry on environment and contribute to preservation

of natural resources. Huge amounts of waste tyres accumulated all over the world are

recognized as good supplement for natural resources in brick.

3.4 Proposed Data Needed

Modelling of the bricks requires some data inputs. For this study, these data will be obtained

from experimental studies carried out on the brick specimen.

The data are as follows:

a) Geometric data of the brick specimens: depth and width

b) Mechanical properties of the brick: compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and

poisson ratio of the brick.

c) Size of the glass fibre to be used.

3.5 Modelling and validation

To achieve part of the objectives of the proposed study, SAFE modelling tool will be used to

simulate the experimental behaviour of the brick specimen. SAFE are suites of powerful

engineering simulation programs, based on the finite element method, which can solve

problems ranging from relatively simple linear analysis to the most challenging nonlinear

simulations. They contain an extensive library of elements that can model virtually any

geometry. It has an equally extensive list of material models that can simulate the behaviour of

most typical engineering materials including metals, glass, polymers, composites, reinforced

concrete, crushable and resilient foams, and geotechnical materials such as soils and rock.

54
Designed as a general-purpose simulation tool, SAFE can be used to study more than just

structural (stress/displacement) problems. It can simulate problems in such diverse areas as heat

transfer, mass diffusion, thermal management of electrical components (coupled thermal-

electrical analyses), acoustics, soil mechanics (coupled pore fluid-stress analyses), piezoelectric

analysis, electromagnetic analysis and fluid dynamics. In this study, the SAFE will be used to

study the behaviour of brick.

3.6 Optimisation Approach

The optimal design problem formulation will be carried out to minimize the weight of the brick

that will be subjected to stress constraints due to loading.

3.7 Comparison of the results:

i. with similar past project on derived concrete (Compressive strength).

ii. with another software for certainty.

3.8 Expected Results

This study is expected to expose the effect of steel slag and glass fibre in a brick as mentioned

in the objectives. The structural optimisation process is expected to automatically produce

optimized model for the cube by distributing the available materials effectively within the

design domain without comprising the overall stiffness of the brick. It is hoped that the work

presented will provide a sound basis for future theoretical modelling of modified brick and

benefit the brick industry at large.

55
 4.0 WORK PLAN

4.1 Time Plan

Months
S/ Year
Activities 1
N s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12
0

1 Literature Review 2019

2 Literature Review contd. 2020

3 Proposal Presentation 2020

4 Data Collection 2020

56
 5 Production of the specimen 2020

6 Laboratory tests 2020

7 Model Validation 2020

8 Seminar Presentation 2021

9 Size Optimization 2021

10 Structural Analysis 2021

11 Seminar Presentation 2021

12 Report Writing 2021

13 Final Defense 2022

4.2 Budget

S/N Stage Execution Operation and

Material Cost
1 Proposal writing Internet and Libraries Nil
2 Preliminary assessments Proposal, books, internet, 40,000.00
(review and revisit of journals and proceedings
proposals
3 Data collection Internet, journals, design 500,000.00
standards and laboratory tests
4 Modelling and Simulation Acquisition, installation, and 250,000.00
learning of the software
(SAFE)

57
 HP Laptop (1T- hard drive, 8G- 250,000.00
RAM, Core i5)
5 Report writing (Seminars, Printers, black and color 120,000.00
first and Second draft and cartridge and Papers
final)
6 Conference and journal Local and International 850,000.00
publication conferences/journals
7. Others Miscellaneous Expenses 50,000.00
Total N2,060,000.00

REFERENCES

Akinpelu, M. A. (2016). Optimal Strut and Tie Model Design of Reinforced Self Compacting

Concrete Deep Beam using Evolutionary Procedure. Unpublished Ph.D. Research Protocol

Submitted to Department of Civil Engineering University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Albano C, Camacho N., Hernandez M., Matheus A., Gutierrez A. (2009). Influence of
content and particle size of waste pet bottles on concrete behavior at different
w/c ratios. Waste Management, 29, 2707–2716.

58
Al-Salem S, Lettieri P, Baeyens J (2009). Recycling and recovery routes of plastic solid
waste (PSW): a review. Waste Management, 29(10), 2625-43.

British Standard Code of practise,(1996) Specifications for Minimum Concrete Strength.

London. BS5628:2

Bhogayata, K. D. Shah, B. A. Vyas, Dr. N. K. Arora, (2012). Performance of concrete by

using Non Recyclable plastic wastes as concrete constituent”, International Journal of
Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT). 1(4).

Elzafraney M., Soroushian P. and Deru M., ( 2005). Development of energy Efficient
Concrete Buildings Using Recycled Plastic Aggregate” Journal of Architectural
Engineering © ASCE/ December.

Frigione M, (2010). Recycling of PET bottles as fine aggregate in concrete. Waste

Management,30, 1101–6 IS 1199-1959(10). Determination of changes in length on
drying and wetting (initial drying shrinkage, drying shrinkage, moisture movement).

59
 Ghavami, K., and Toledo, R.D, Barbosa, N.P (1999) Behaviour of Composite
Soil

Reinforced with Natural Fibres, Cement, Brick and Concrete Composites.

Hagropel C. (2000) Copolymerization, spring press

Holden, G., Kricheldorf, H. R., and Quirk R. P. (2004) Thermoplastic Elastomers, 3rd edn.

Hanser ver lag.

IbroSkenderovic, Becir, K. and Suad B., (2015). Environmental pollution and waste

management. Balkan Journal of Health Science International University of Novi Pazar, Novi

Pazar, Serbia.

Khilesh S. ( 2014). Study of Strength Property of Concrete Using Waste Plastics and Steel
Fibers. Department of Civil Engineering, Jabalpur Engineering College, Jabalpur,
India. The International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES). 3(5) Page 9-11

Koide H., Tomon M., Sasaki T. (2002). Investigation of the use of waste plastic as
an aggregate for lightweight concrete. Sustainable Concrete Construction,
London,177–

186.

Marzouk O.Y., Dheilly R. M, Queneudec M. (2007). Valorization of post-consumer waste

plastic in cementitious concrete composites. Waste Management, 27, 310–318.
Pramod S. Patil, J.R.Mali, Ganesh V. Tapkire, H. R. Kumavat, (2008). Innovative
Techniques of Waste Plastic Used in Concrete Mixture. International Journal of
Research in Engineering and Technology.

Praveen M., Shibi V., Thomas P., Eldho V. (2013). Recycled Plastic as Coarse
Aggregate for Structural Concrete. International Journal of Innovative Research in
Science, Engineering and Technology 2(3).

Rossignolo JA, Agnesini MVC (2002). Mechanical properties of polymermodi fied

lightweight aggregate concrete. Cement Concrete Research,32, 329– 334.

60
Raghatate A. M. (2013). Use of plastic in a concrete to improve its properties” International

journal of Advance engineering Research and studies. http://www.technical journals

online.com

Schulz, J. E. (2002) material process and component investigations at laser beam welding of

polymers, thesis RWTH Aachen.

Stergios, M. and Ataria, R. B., (2016). Effect of Waste Tyre Rubber Additive On Concrete

Mixture Strength. British Journal of Environmental Sciences.4 (4), pp.11-18

Suganthy P., Dinesh C., Sathish K. P. (2013). Utilization of Pulverized Plastic in Cement
Concrete as Fine Aggregate. 2 (6)

Van Krevelen DW (1990). Properties of Polymers, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The

Netherlands,

1990.

Youcef G., Bahia R., Brahim S. and Rabah C., 2015. Use of Recycled Plastic Bag Waste In
The Concrete. Journal of International Scientific Publications: Materials, Methods and
Technologies Volume 8, ISSN 1314-7269 (Online), Published at: http://www.scientific-
publications.net

61