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HEALTH MONITORING OF STRUCTURES
A Thesis submitted to
Faculty of Civil Engineering, GITAM
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
MASTER OF ENGINEERING
IN
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING & NATURAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT
By
V.SANNIDHA
Under the esteemed Guidance of

Dr. K. V. G. D. BALAJI, Ph. D.
Professor,
And
Sri. S. S. S. V. GOPAL RAJU, M.E, (Ph.D).
Asst. Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
GITAM
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, GITAM
VISAKHAPATNAM
(2006 – 2008)
CERTIFICATE
This is certify that the thesis entitled “HEALTH

MONITORING OF STRUCTURES“, has been submitted by
Miss. V. SANNIDHA in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of the degree of Master of Engineering in Civil Engineering
with specialization in Structural Engineering & Natural Disaster
Management, College of Engineering, GITAM.
Prof Y.S.PRABHAKAR, Dr. K.V.G.D. BALAJI,

Head of the Department, Professor & Project Guide,
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
College of Engineering, College of Engineering,
GITAM. GITAM.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, GITAM
MASTER OF ENGINEERING THESIS EVALUATION REPORT

This thesis entitled “HEALTH MONITORING OF
STRUCTURES”, submitted by Miss. V. SANNIDHA Regd. No.
97041504 of 2006 – 2008 batch in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of degree of Master of Engineering
with specialization in Structural Engineering and Natural Disaster
Management, College of Engineering, GITAM has been approved.
EXAMINERS
1. ____________________ PROJECT GUIDE

(Dr. K. V. G. D. BALAJI)
2. ____________________ PROJECT GUIDE

(Sri. S. S. S. V. GOPAL RAJU)
3. ____________________ EXTERNAL EXAMINER
4. ____________________ HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

(Prof Y.S.PRABHAKAR) GITAM
5. ____________________ HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY
6. ____________________ CHAIRMAN BOARD OF STUDIES

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and

indebtedness to Dr. K.V.G.D. BALAJI, Professor, for his guidance
and encouragement through out the process of completion of my
project work.
I am also thankful to Sri. S. S. S. V. GOPAL RAJU, Asst.

Professor, for his support and the Faculty of Civil Engineering.
I am very thankful to Prof D.Prasada Rao, Principal, College

of Engineering, GITAM for his cooperation.
I also thank Mr. K. Ananda Rao, Lab Technician, Mr. P.V.S.S.N

Murthy, Lab Attender and other supporting staff for their help
rendered in the Concrete Laboratory, GITAM.
I am very grateful to my parents and friends for their

cooperation in completing the project work.
I wish to thank one and all that gave support in completion of

the project.
Miss. V. SANNIDHA
DECLARATION
I here by declare that the theoretical work and its interpretation

of the project work entitled “HEALTH MONITORING OF
STRUCTURES” or part of there of has not been submitted for any
other degree or diploma of any University or Scientific Organization.
The sources of materials used and all assistance received during the
course of investigation have been duly acknowledged.
Place: Visakhapatnam
Date: (Miss. V. SANNIDHA)

Contents
Abstract III
List of figures IV
List of tables V
1 Introduction 1–3
2 Literature Review 4 – 15
2. 1 Tests that are involved in determining concrete strength
2. 2 Role of NDT in determining concrete strength
2. 3 Impact of age on concrete strength
2. 4 Impact of environment on concrete strength
2. 5 Some case studies
3 Experimental Methodology 16 – 37
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Rebound Hammer
3.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester
4 Case study – 1: 38 – 46
Damage estimation of a fire affected building
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Investigation procedure
4.3 Observations
5 Case study – 2: 47 – 55
Ceiling plaster failure of a building located in coastal area
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Possible reasons for failure of plaster in present case
5.3 Opinion
5.4 Future plan of action
I
6 Results and discussions 56 – 60
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Procedure
7 Conclusion 61 – 62
7.1 Case Study – 1
7.2 Case Study – 2
7.3 Laboratory test
8 References 63 – 67
9 Photo Gallery 68 – 71
II
Abstract
In the present thesis work main focus is thrown on the study of Health
Monitoring of structures. Case study on a building affected with fire accident is
selected and condition assessment is carried out using Non-Destructive Testing.
The Non-Destructive tests used were Rebound Hammer and Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity Tester. The observations were taken and the extent of damage to the
building is estimated. Along with this a laboratory test is carried out with concrete
cubes exposed to fire. Compression testing machine, Rebound Hammer, Ultrasonic
Pulse Velocity Tester is used in determining the strength of concrete at varying
temperatures. Another case study is also included on ceiling plaster failure of a
building located in coastal area. The causes of failure of the building and
corresponding future plan of action were carried out.
III
List of Figures
3.1.1) Project methodology

3.2.1) (a): Constructed in 1950
(b): Present Rebound Hammer
3.2.2) Cutaway view of the rebound hammer
3.2.3) Rebound Hammer in Use
3.3.1) Pulse Velocity Measurement Setup
3.3.2) TICO ultrasonic instrument
3.3.3) Display unit
3.3.4) Method of propogating and receiving pulses
3.3.5) Indirect Pulse Velocity Measurement
3.3.6) Effects of defects on travel time of ultrasonic pulse
4.3.1) Plan of the building
5.1.1) Application of plaster
6.2.1) Temperature Vs Rebound values
6.2.2) Temperature Vs UPV values
6.2.3) Temperature Vs %ge Residual Compressive Strength
9.1) 200T Compression Testing Machine
9.2) Rebound hammer test for concrete cubes, held in Compression Testing
Machine
9.3) UPV test for concrete cubes, held in Compression Testing Machine
9.4) Fire affected slab in the room
9.5) Fire affected beam
9.6) Fire effected walls and shelves in the room
9.7) Extent of damage of various items in the room
IV
List of Tables
3.1.1) Impact Energy for Rebound Hammers for Different Applications

3.3.1) Velocity Criterion for Concrete Quality Grading
4.3.1) Test results (Rebound Hammer & UPV)
4.3.2) Rebound and UPV values for beam and slab panels of un-affected portion
5.2.1) Permissible limits of Chloride content as per IS: 456-2000
6.2.1) Test results (Rebound Hammer, UPV and Compression testing)
V
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
Structures cannot last forever. All structures, whatever materials used,

will sooner or later degrade. Testing and inspection of the structural performance
of structures such as bridges, dams, buildings, etc, have been conducted ever
since mankind started to build larger constructions. Structural Health
Monitoring (SHM) originates from the airplane and space industry. The idea is to
continuously monitor the behavior of critical parts and get early warnings that
can be attended to immediately or at a regular maintenance occasion depending
on the severity of the problem. Deterioration of a structure may occur due to a
host of factors such as poor workmanship, improper maintenance, atmospheric
effects, abuses, accidents, natural calamities etc. certain factors like
environmental effects, natural calamities etc, cannot be controlled. In any
effective structural management program, strategies for life extension, upgrade
and replacement strategies must be developed.
Concrete gains strength over time when there is a chemical reaction
between cement and water which is known as the heat of hydration. Concrete
attains its designed strength in 28 days. Thereafter the strength continues to
increase but at a lower pace. The chemical reaction is expected to continue upto 2
to 3 years from the time of mixing.
In the recent past, various methods and techniques, called as Non-
Destructive Evaluation (NDE) techniques, are being used for Structural Health
Monitoring (SHM). These techniques have their own advantages as well as
limitations, when compared to conventional strength estimation and damage
detection tests. The use of nondestructive techniques could provide invaluable
information to the engineers in evaluating the structural integrity and
serviceability of an existing structure. Nondestructive testing of concrete includes
methods of test on concrete structure or structural members which do not reduce
1
the functional capability of the structure. Nondestructive test may be used to
locate areas of unsound concrete or concrete suspected of being significantly
below the specified level of strength required by the design or the required level
of durability.
Non - destructive test methods are applied to concrete construction for
four primary reasons:
1. Quality control of new construction;
2. Troubleshooting of problems with new construction;
3. Condition evaluation of older concrete for rehabilitation purposes; and
4. Quality assurance of concrete repairs.
Nondestructive testing technologies are evolving and research continues
to enhance existing methods and develop new methods.
Nondestructive testing may also be used to indicate changes with time in
characteristic of concrete. Rebound hammer together with Ultrasonic pulse
velocity method gives good result in estimating the strength of concrete.
The Rebound Hammer test is the quickest, simplest, and least expensive
method for nondestructive testing. The rebound hammer test (also known as the
Schmidt rebound hammer) measures the hardness of a concrete surface through
the use of the rebound principle. The rebound principle states that the amount
(distance) that an elastic mass rebounds after impact depends on the hardness of
the surface against which the mass strikes. Studies show a reasonably good
correlation between rebound number and the compressive strength of a structure
and most ideally suited to the measurement of material uniformity over large
area of a structure. The main advantage of the Rebound hammer is its extreme
portability so that many tests may be made easy in a short period of time.
Ultrasonic scanning is a recognized non – destructive evaluation test to
quantitatively assess the homogeneity and integrity of concrete. An ultrasonic
test measures the travel time over a known path length of a pulse of ultrasonic
compressional waves through a concrete member or sample. By determining the
2
wave speed at different locations in a structure, it is possible to make inferences
about the uniformity of the concrete. The compressional wave speed is
determined by measuring the travel time of the stress pulse over a known
distance.
The present Case study deals with a building affected with fire accident.
Condition assessment of the building is carried out using Non-Destructive
Testing. The Non-Destructive tests used were Rebound Hammer and Ultrasonic
Pulse Velocity Tester. The observations were taken and the extent of damage to
the building is estimated.
A laboratory test is carried out with concrete cubes exposed to fire at
different temperatures. Compression testing machine, Rebound Hammer,
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester is used in determining the strength of concrete at
varying temperatures.
Another case study is included on ceiling plaster failure of a building
located in coastal area. The causes of failure of the building and corresponding
future plan of action were carried out.
3
CHAPTER - 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1) Introduction:
This chapter deals with the review of previous works on the tests that are
involved in determining the concrete strength with an impact of age and
environmental conditions. Also deals with the role of NDT in determination of
concrete strength. Different case studies have also been included.
2.2) Tests that are involved in determining the concrete strength –

An introduction:
James R. Clifton[1] et al (1982) a review of methods developed for the non-
destructive evaluation (NDE) of building materials is presented. The generic
features of NDE methods are discussed. This is followed by descriptions of
specific methods. The principles underlying the operation of the methods are
described, along with their typical applications, advantages, and limitations. A
table is included summarizing the characteristics of various NDE methods.
V. Ramakrishnan[2] et al (2002) this paper traces the past history of the

development of nondestructive testing, reviews current practices such as
resonant and pulse velocity methods, surface hardness methods including
rebound, probe penetration, pull-out and break-off tests, maturity method,
radioactive, electrical and chemical analysis methods, and briefly mentions the
following recent advances: impact echo, short-pulse radar, infrared
thermographic techniques, and acoustic emission methods. Major fields where
these methods could prove to be superior to traditional methods are
determination of in-situ material conditions for quality assurance, forensic
(problem trouble shooting) repair/ rehabilitation investigations, quality control
4
in the construction of structural members, both precast and cast-in-place, and
monitoring strength development.
Robert T. Ratay[3] et al (2006) this paper is an introduction to a series of

eight papers on structural condition assessment delivered at the 2006 Structures
Congress in St. Louis, Missouri, and published in the Proceedings of the
Congress. It is based heavily on the Preface written by the author in the book,
Structural Condition Assessment, Robert T. Ratay, Editor, John Wiley & Son,
2005. The authors of these papers are the authors and co-authors of the
corresponding eight of twenty-one chapters in the book. The seven topics were
selected for this series of papers because they represent the most frequently
assessed building-type structures and construction materials.
Yasukatsu Yoshida[4] et al (2006) this paper reports on the macroscopic

ultrasonic method, which allows measurement of concrete thickness, crack depth
and other characteristics using the concrete surface sonic speed. The macroscopic
ultrasonic method is a revolutionary technology for eliminating high noise levels
caused by scattered waves inside concrete. The addition of automated parameter
settings and waveform pattern recognition to this technology has been confirmed
to enable highly accurate measurement.
2.3) Role of NDT in determining concrete strength

Kheder[5] et al (1999) made a research using results of two non-
destructive tests (UPV & Hammer tests), the research was in two stage, the first
one was to determine the compressive strength by using different mixing ratios
and densities for dry and wet conditions, and develop mathematical
relationships by using multiple linear regressions. Whereas in the second stage
determined linear correlation between the predicted compressive strength made
5
in the first stage and the actual strength taking from limited number of cores
cutting from the same structure.
Facaoaru[6] et al (1999) the pioneer researchers in this field, apply this

method in a wide range in Romania. His method summarized by taking average
of three readings for the UPV and average of six readings for Rebound No. and
determines the compressive strength by using three dimensional curves.
Reo'f[7] et al (1999) made wide experiments covered standard concrete

cubes, there compressive strength ranged between (10-15) kN/mm2, and made
the three tests on them in many ages. Then, for each cube, took an average of
rebound no. of Schmidt hammer and UPV, and from these three test results
determined a combined relationship between the non-destructive tests and the
crushing strength.
Giovanni Pascale[8] et al (2000) this paper deals with Non Destructive

Testing (NDT) of High Strength Concrete (HSC). An experimental research was
carried out, involving both destructive and non destructive methods applied to
different concrete mixes, with compressive strength varying from 30 up to 150
MPa. Both cubic and cylindrical standard specimens and bigger blocks were cast.
Correlation curves were derived for different methods employed, as pulse
velocity, rebound hammer, surface hardness, pull out, probe penetration,
microcoring and combined methods. The results shows good behaviour for some
methods, like pulse velocity, surface hardness and combined methods, also if
new correlations are to be established in some cases, respect to the ones already
established for normal concrete. Some problems arose for other methods, like
pull out and probe penetration, for which the available commercial testing
systems appeared not adequate to high strength concrete.
6
Sudhir Misra[9] et al (2004) based on survey data from some building and
industrial projects in and around Kanpur, authors have tried to throw light on
variation in compressive strengths on account of poor quality control and local
conditions. The survey revealed that the variation in the compressive strength
values obtained in cases where strict measures for mixing, batching etc, are not
adopted could be greater than those assumed in the codes. It has also been
concluded that there could be significant reduction in the compressive strength
of concrete if it passes through congested reinforcement, on account of
segregation and lack of proper vibration. Based on laboratory studies, authors
have also concluded that Schmidt rebound hammer and ultra sonic pulse
velocities are sensitive to different degrees to the extent of cracking in the
concrete and results of compressive strength estimation from these methods
should be viewed with caution.
Rakesh Kumar[10] et al (2005) two of the most commonly used NDT

methods for the approximate estimation of strength of concrete in structures are
rebound hammer and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV). It is also possible to assess
in-situ strength of structural grade concrete indirectly through the knowledge of
its pore structural characteristics obtained from mercury intrusion porosimetry
(MIP). Hence, in this study the in-situ strength of structural grade concrete in
laboratory-cast beam specimens was assessed using MIP, rebound hammer and
UPV test methods. A comparative study among these three methods of strength
assessment carried out by using suitable statistical parameters suggests that the
mercury intrusion porosimetery technique of strength assessment of concrete is
as reliable as the rebound hammer and UPV test methods.
Dr. Isam H. Nash't[11] et al (2005) This research aim to find unified

relationship connect the results of these tests and correlate them with the results
of crushing strength of cubes by using statistical methods in the analyzing
7
process depending on laboratory tests carried on concrete cubes with different
mixing ratios and different curing conditions, and finding correlation curves to
predict the strength of concrete much better. Two Non-Destructive tests (Schmidt
hammer and UPV) are carried out to find the correlations. The research covers
161 test results taking from 161 concrete cubes with 150x150 mm out of which
155 cubes were made of Ordinary Portland cement and 6 were made of Sulphate
Resisting Portland cement. The age of the cubes in the two groups ranged
between 7 to 138 days. Size of the coarse aggregate ranged between (5-19) mm.
correlation between crushing strength, rebound no. and UPV were obtained
from concrete cubes, which presented by the good coefficient of determination R-
square. The correlation equation determines the concrete strength in situ for any
structure member by just determining rebound no. and UPV for that member.
P.F. Castro[12] et al (2005) the paper analyses the effectiveness of the

rebound test and ultrasonic pulse velocity in evaluating the strength variability
of concrete structural elements, expressed by: confidence interval, colours
“contour” plots showing areas of equal strength and ANOVA technique. The
paper also shows criterion for concrete variability analysis. However, test results,
is still small, and these criteria should not be used at random.
Raffaele Pucinotti[13] et al (2006) in this paper a series of non-destructive

tests has been performed with the purpose to investigate on the mechanical
properties of the concrete employed in the civil buildings. A series of specimens
were prepared in order to correlate the “in situ” concrete strengths obtained by
multiple combinated non-destructive methods with the cubical and cylindrical
strength obtained by destructive methods. The multiple combined methods
(SonReb Methods + Windsor Probe Tests) were used to quality control and
strength estimation of the concrete. In particular, a series of specimens by
aggregates having various Mohs’Hardness (inert of fluvial origin) and by
8
aggregate with only a class of Mohs’Hardness (crushed aggregate) has been
prepared. During the concrete casting a series of cubical specimens has been
prepared. The comparison among non-destructive tests, cubical strength and
Cores strength was carried out. The use of Windsor methods is generally
justifiable only if a reliable correlation for a particular type of concrete is
developed. The Windsor Probe Systems assessment of concrete strength is
adequate in the case of aggregate with only a class of Mohs’Hardness (equal to
3.15). The SonReb-Win method gives resistance values close to actual ones. The
advantages in the use of SonReb as well as of SonReb-Win techniques is that the
variation of some properties of concrete produces opposite effects on the result of
each component test.
Ir CW Law[14] et al (2007) Rebound hammer test and core test are used as
routine tests for inspection of concrete quality on site. Lot of resources was
wasted in site supervision and project management. A preliminary study is
carried out to examine the pattern and characteristic of site data of the Hammer
test and core test and to develop an empirical statistic model for routine QA of
concrete quality for HA buildings.
2.4) Impact of age on concrete strength:

N. Mohamed Sutan[15] et al (2002) tests were performed to evaluate the
feasibility of using Impact-Echo Method and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method in
detecting discontinuity and determining its depth during the early age concrete.
Two reinforced concrete (RC) slabs grade 30 and 40 specimens at day 3, 7, 14 and
28 with a fabricated void at a known location were used. The results obtained
were compared to determine the accuracy of both methods hence the
effectiveness of each method. Both methods detect discontinuities in specimens
during the early age. Tests were also performed to examine the relationship
between the porosity and strength of concrete at each stage with the accuracy of
9
void depth detected. Both methods showed better accuracy with stronger
concrete detect discontinuities with the accuracy ranging from 55.75-99.05% from
day 3-28 (full strength) respectively.
P. Turgut[16] et al (2004) in this study, a relationship is determined

between concrete strength and UPV (Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity) by using the data
obtained from many cores taken from different reinforced concrete structures
having different ages and unknown ratios of concrete mixtures. Also, a
correlation is set up so as to find concrete strength-UPV relationship between the
data obtained from the earlier laboratory researches on the concrete specimens
with various mixture ratios. Therefore, with this study, a general concrete
strength-UPV formula is developed without taking the concrete mixture ratios
into consideration. This new formula enables to find concrete strengths
practically in existing concrete structures that their records of concrete mixture
ratios are not available or not present. It can also be used in conditions that the
number of the structures is too many and the time of the examination of them is
too restricted.
Garziera R[17] et al (2007) in this work a technique of monitoring the

structural integrity of historical buildings by a non-contact and non-destructive
analysis is presented and discussed. The damage of a structure, in terms of
cracks and overall structural degradation, is detected throughout the
measurement of its dynamic characteristics by a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV).
This technique can show the frequency spectrum of the structure with high
accuracy and reliability. The results are computationally elaborated to identify
the modal response of the structure and to detect the evolution of any damaged
zone by calculating mass and stiffness changes in reverse based on changes in
mode shapes. Since this technology is fairly new, the presented method needed
10
to be validated on well know data, and this has been carried out comparing some
results related to plates.
2.5) Impact of environment on concrete strength:

G Shoef[18] et al (2004) the aim of the present paper is to detail the entire
monitoring process, from the decisions concerning the methods used the
validation of the various parameters, and the actual performance. It was shown
that a system composed of eight strain gauges and four accelerometers is
sufficient for the monitoring of a building during the preparation for
displacement and during the actual movement up to the resting on the
foundations at the new site. The information obtained enabled full control of the
movement process and the displacement mission was fulfilled successfully. The
accumulated information provided data for further reinforcement of the
buildings.
G. Uva[19] et al (2006) the research work presented is focused on the

diagnostic and rehabilitation of historical structures in reinforced concrete,
After a detailed survey of the deterioration, a program of ND testing has been
carried out:
Chemical and physical characterization of the concrete mixture;
Appraisal of the corrosion level for reinforcement bars;
Appraisal of in situ properties and homogeneity for the concrete (by
means of rebound hammer and ultrasonic testing, extraction of samples

in order to provide the correlation curves).
By processing the data correlation curves have been obtained that will be
used, in the future, the monitoring of the structure by only using ND

investigations and reducing length, cost and invasiveness of inspections.
11
Velu Saraswathy[20] et al (2007) Reinforced concrete structures have the
potential to be very durable and capable of withstanding a variety of adverse
environmental conditions. However, failures in the structures do still occur as a
result of premature reinforcement corrosion. The maintenance and repair of
bridges and buildings for their safety requires effective inspection and
monitoring techniques for assessing the reinforcement corrosion. This paper
reviews all the electrochemical and Non-destructive techniques from the point of
view of corrosion assessment and their applications to bridges, buildings and
other civil engineering structures.
2.6) Some case studies:

J.K Chege[21] et al (2000) this paper deals with a bomb blast affected
building suffered extensive damage to structural elements and other areas of a
building. Major and crucial information necessary in the evaluation included the
mapping of the extent of damage which calls for both visual examination and
extensive use of Non Destructive Testing Equipment and skilled personnel
capable of checking for cracks, materials damage, and reinforcement bars
condition including location sizing and strength measurement of critical
structures elements.
B R Limaye[22] et al (2002) in this paper using a range of Non-destructive

Test (NDT) methods an attempt has been made to determine the loss in
durability in existing structures. The study was conducted on different types of
structures built during different periods. Hence a load bearing residential
structure about 60 years old, a RCC residential structure about 25 years old & a
RCC commercial structure about 40 years old were taken for the study. It was
seen that the reinforcement had undergone corrosion & that had primarily led to
cracking of cover concrete. In some places, it had resulted in spalling of concrete,
cover concrete actually falling down. A combination of two NDT methods(UPV
12
and electrical resistivity method) was preferred for assessment of concrete
quality. half-cell potential method indicated probability of corrosion. Depth of
carbonation ranged from 29-73 mm which was more than the cover.
Satoko Watanabe[23] et al (2003) this paper presents the results obtained in

the framework of maintenance procedure that could be followed in the
inspection and maintenance of structures. A 3m long piece from a 1.2m high
sidewall removed from its location during highway realignment was moved to
the laboratory and extensively studied using various nondestructive methods.
W. P. S. Dias et al (2003) this paper describes the condition assessment of a 30
year old cement works, where some of the structures were clearly deteriorated. It
was carried out for the purpose of obtaining material properties needed for
evaluating strength and integrity, and for establishing durability. This was done
by sampling the structures using the nondestructive techniques of visual
inspection, perusal of drawings, ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements,
covermeter surveys, and core testing. Core testing gave information not only
about strength but also about sorptivity, carbonation, chlorides, and sulfates, and
about the variation of some of these properties with depth from the concrete
surface. Some new approaches were used to estimate the grade of concrete and
the partial safety factor for reinforcement. The use of ‘‘twin cores’’ (surface and
internal) indicated that the surface quality of the concrete was actually better
than the internal quality. Recommendations for repair and maintenance dealt
with (1) accumulated cement dust; (2) concrete deterioration; (3) areas
experiencing elevated temperatures; and (4) waterproofing of the concrete
surface.
M.Z. Mohamed Firdows[24] et al (2005) 34-year old industrial building was

investigated to assess the extent of damage and the cause(s) of deterioration. This
study involved visual inspection, non-destructive testing, and laboratory
13
analysis for materials collected from the building. Besides rebound hammer and
ultrasonic pulse velocity tests, cores were also extracted from select locations and
a detailed analysis of the hardened concrete was carried out. Half-cell potential
and concrete resistivity measurements were also conducted. The results of the
testing and analysis indicated that the structural members were affected due to
chlorine gas emission and carbonation. This paper describes details of the
investigations carried out, evaluation of test results and recommendations on
measures for strengthening the building.
J. Prabakar[25] et al (2005) the paper presents a case study in which

ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements survey was undertaken to assess the
uniformity and integrity of concrete in TG foundation and monitor changes in
the same. The results of survey are presented.
S. Bhaskar[26] et al (2006) this paper discusses a case study, the assessment

of 30 years old overhead Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) reservoir by NDT
and PDT methods. The main aim of the paper is to highlight the importance and
significance of different test methods employed to assess the present condition of
RCC structure. A rational and systematic approach for the interpretation of test
results based on NDT and PDT is presented for arriving at an economical repair
procedure and rehabilitation measures. Necessary repair measures are suggested
to enhance the service life of the structure. Repair measures were proposed for
the columns, brace beams and container of the overhead reservoir.
Azlan Adnan[27] et al (2006) this study is aimed to determine bridge

strength through nondestructive testing and thus establish correlation between
visual inspection rating and the nondestructive testing results. 75 concrete
bridges under the supervision of Public Works Department (Malaysia) have been
14
selected for the preliminary testing which includes the Rebound Hammer test,
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, and electromagnetic cover meter.
Eung Ha Cho[28] et al (2006) Corrosion rates were measured at the exposed

spots of rebars near three corners of Muddy Creek Bridge located in northern
West Virginia using a 3LP device. Also, chloride contents of the concrete samples
taken from the vicinity of the spots were analyzed using a wet chemical method
that had been developed in this study. The average corrosion rate over the three
spots was 4.66 mA/m2, which is in the range of corrosion damage possible in
10–15 years. The average chloride content of the concrete over the three spots
was 703 parts per million (ppm), which is well above the threshold limit value of
260 ppm. Although the corrosion rate measurement method using a 3LP device
is by manual operation, it is found to be reliable and effective, and, thus,
recommended for future studies of this kind of research. The wet chemical
method developed in this study is found to be effective.
F W Y Chan[29] et al (2006) this paper presents the approach and results

adopted in a proactive quality assurance testing technique which was used to
inspect, in a non-destructive manner, the integrity and homogeneity of over 200
different in-situ cast concrete foundation elements (ie bored piles, concrete
barrette piles and diaphragm wall panels) in various Hong Kong construction
sites. The test results were obtained from both public and private buildings and
civil engineering projects in Hong Kong. These results show the effectiveness of
the use of the Cross-hole Sonic Logging (CSL) method in revealing the different
kinds of defects (such as honeycombing, voids, soil inclusions etc.) found during
the construction process which under other forms of testing would otherwise
remain undiscovered.
15
CHAPTER - 3
EXPEREMENTAL METHODOLOGY
Project
Methodology
Case Studies Experimental study
Damage Ceiling Results and

estimation of plaster failure Discussions
a fire affected of a building
building located in
coastal area
Conclusion
Fig 3.1.1: Project methodology
16
3.1) Introduction:
In this chapter, the description of instruments Rebound Hammer and

ultrasonic pulse velocity tester are mentioned along with brief information.
Various aspects like the history, principle, method of testing, etc are discussed.
Influence of various test conditions on the test data is also explained.
3.2) Rebound Hammer:

The quality of concrete is mainly judged by its compressive strength
directly affecting the load-bearing capacity and durability of concrete structures.
In order to assess its compressive strength, rebound hammer is used.
3.2.1) Historical background:
The Romans were aware of the fact that good mortar is hard and of a high
compressive strength. They tested its quality subjectively by scratching the
surface with an iron nail. But only in the mid-20th century was this know-how
utilised. A device was invented which made non-destructive compressive
strength testing feasible. It was and is the Original SCHMIDT concrete test
hammer
In 1948 a Swiss engineer, Ernst Schmidt developed a test hammer for
measuring the hardness of concrete by the rebound principle. Results of his work
were presented to the Swiss Federal Materials Testing and Experimental
Instruments of Zurich, where the hammer was conducted and extensively tested.
About 50,000 Schmidt rebound hammers had been sold by 1986 on a worldwide
basis.
Further, Kolek has attemped to establish a correlation between the
hammer rebound number and the hardness as measured by the Brinell method.
17
Fig 3.2.1(a): Constructed in 1950 Fig 3.2.1(b): Present Rebound Hammer
3.2.2) Object:
The rebound hammer method could be used for:
i) Assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of
suitable correlations between rebound index and compressive strength
ii) Assessing the uniformity of concrete.
iii) Assessing the quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements,
and
iv) Assessing the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another.
NOTE – The rebound hammer method can be used with greater confidence for
differentiating between the questionable and acceptable parts of a structure or
for relative comparison between two different structures.
18
3.2.3) Principle:
The Schimidt rebound hammer is principally a surface hardness tester
with little apparent theoretical relationship between the strength of concrete and
rebound number of the hammer. However, within limits, empirical correlations
have been established between strength properties and the rebound number.
3.2.4) Description:
The Schmidt rebound hammer is shown in the figure. Test hammers are
available in four basic varieties; Type L, Type N, Type NR, and Type LR; which
are distinguished primarily by their impact energy. For types N and L the
Rebound number or Rebound index R are read from dial, for types NR and LR
they are recorded as bar chart on a paper strip. Types L and LR are used for
testing thin walled (<100mm). A schematic cutaway view of the rebound
hammer is shown in the (Fig 3.2.2). The main components include the outer
body, the plunger, the hammer mass, and the main spring. Other features
include a latching mechanism that locks the hammer mass to the plunger rod
and a sliding rider to measure the rebound of the hammer mass. The rebound
distance is recorded as a “rebound number” corresponding to the position of the
rider on the scale.
3.2.5) Method of testing:

To prepare the instrument for a test, release the plunger from its locked
position by pushing the plunger against the concrete and slowly moving the
body away from the concrete. This causes the plunger to extend from the body
and the latch engages the hammer mass to the plunger rod (Fig 3.2.2A). Hold the
plunger perpendicular to the concrete surface and slowly push the body toward
the test object. As the body is pushed, the main spring connecting the hammer
mass to the body is stretched (Fig 3.2.2B). When the body is pushed to the limit,
the latch is automatically released, and the energy stored in the spring propels
19
the hammer mass towards the plunger tip (Fig 3.2.2C). The mass impacts the
shoulder of the plunger rod and rebounds. During rebound, the slide indicator
travels with the hammer mass and records the rebound distance (Fig 3.2.2D). A
button on the side of the body is pushed to lock the plunger in the retracted
position, and the rebound number is read from the scale.
The test can be conducted horizontally, vertically, upward or downward,
or at any intermediate angle. Due to the different effects of gravity on the
rebound as the test angle is changed, the rebound number will be different for
the same concrete and will require separate calibration or correction charts.
Fig 3.2.2: Cutaway view of the rebound hammer
For testing, smooth, clean and dry surface is to be selected. If loosely

adhering scale is present; this should be rubbed of with a grinding wheel or
stone. Rough Surfaces resulting from incomplete compaction, loss of grout,
spalled or tooled surfaces do not give reliable results and should be avoided. The
20
points of impact on the specimen must not be nearer an edge than 20 mm and
should be not less than 20 mm from each other. The same points must not be
impacted more than once.
Around each point of observation, six readings of rebound indices are
taken and average of these readings after deleting outliers as per IS 8900: 1978
becomes the rebound index for the point of observation. Hammer held against
the concrete in a perpendicular position is shown in (Fig 3.2.3).
Fig 3.2.3: Rebound Hammer in Use
3.2.6) Performance check:

Each test hammer should be checked after 1000 test impacts. A testing
anvil is used to check whether the rebound test mechanism is working correctly.
The testing anvil should be of steel having Brinell hardness of about 5000
N/mm2. In case of values beyond the tolerance (due to contamination by very
fine cement, wear or defects) cleaning or inspection will be required. The
21
supplier/manufacturer of the rebound hammer should indicate the range of
readings on the anvil suitable for different types of rebound hammers.
Currently, different models of the instrument are available, which differ in
the mass of the hammer and the stiffness of the spring. Thus different impact
energies can be used for different materials.
Table 3.1.1: Impact Energy for Rebound Hammers for Different Applications
Approximate Impact
S.No. Application Energy Required for the
Rebound Hammers (Nm.)
(i) For testing normal weight concrete. 2.25
(ii) For light-Weight concrete or small 0.75

and impact sensitive parts of concrete
(iii) For testing mass concrete, for 30.00

example in roads, air-fields
pavements and hydraulic structures.
3.2.7) Limitations:
Although the rebound hammer provides a quick, inexpensive means of
checking the uniformity of concrete, it has serious limitations and these must be
recognized. The results of the Schmidt rebound hammer are affected by:
1. Type of cement
2. Type of aggregate
3. Surface and internal moisture condition of concrete
4. Curing and age of concrete
5. Carbonation of concrete surface
22
These limitations are discussed in the foregoing order.
1. Type of Cement:
High alumina cement concrete can have actual strengths 100% higher than
those obtained using a correlation curve based on concrete made with ordinary
Portland cement. Also, supersulfated cement concrete can have 50% lower
strength than obtained from the ordinary cement concrete correlation curves.
2. Type of Aggregate:
Different types of aggregate used in concrete give different correlations
between compressive strength and rebound numbers. Normal aggregates such
as gravels and crushed rock aggregates give similar correlations, but concrete
made with lightweight aggregates require special calibration. The presence of a
void under the plunger would result in a very low rebound number. The
presence of a large piece of aggregate under the plunger would result in an
excessively high rebound number.
3. Surface and internal moisture condition of concrete

The degree of saturation of the concrete and the presence of surface
moisture has a decisive effect on the evaluation of test hammer results. The
rebound hammer method is suitable only for close texture concrete. Open texture
concrete typical of masonry blocks, honeycombed concrete or no-fines concrete
are unsuitable for this test. All correlations assume full compaction, as the
strength of partially compacted concrete bears no unique relationship to the
rebound numbers. Trowelled and floated surfaces are harder than moulded
surfaces, and tend to overestimate the strength of concrete.
A wet surface will give rise to under estimation of the strength of concrete
calibrated under dry conditions. In structural concrete, this can be about 20
percent lower than in an equivalent dry concrete.
23
4. Curing and Age of Concrete:
The relationship between hardness and strength varies as a function of
time. Variations in initial rate of hardening, subsequent curing and conditions of
exposure also influence the relationship. Separate calibration curves are required
for different curing regimes but the effect of age can generally be ignored for
concrete between 3 days and 3 months old.
5. Carbonation of Concrete Surface.

The influence of carbonation of concrete surface on the rebound number is
very significant. Carbonated concrete gives an overestimate of strength which in
extreme cases can be up to 50 percent. It is possible to establish correction factors
by removing the carbonated layer and testing the concrete with the rebound
hammer on the un-carbonated concrete.
3.2.8) Procedure of Obtaining Correlation between Compressive Strength of

Concrete and Rebound Number:
The most satisfactory way of establishing a correlation between
compressive strength of concrete and its rebound number is to measure both the
properties simultaneously on concrete cubes. The concrete cube specimens are
held in a compression testing machine under a fixed load, measurements of
rebound number taken and then the compressive strength determined as per
IS 516: 1959. The fixed load required is of the order of 7 N/mm2 when the impact
energy of the hammer is about 2.2 Nm. The load should be increased for
calibrating rebound hammers of greater impact energy and decreased for
calibrating rebound hammers of lesser impact energy. The test specimens should
be as large a mass as possible in order to minimize the size effect on the test
result of a full scale structure. 150 mm cube specimens are preferred for
calibrating rebound hammers of lower impact energy ( 2.2 Nm ), whereas for
rebound hammers of higher impact energy, for example 30 Nm, the test cubes
24
should not be smaller than 300 mm. If the specimens are wet cured, they should
be removed from wet storage and kept in the laboratory atmosphere for about 24
hours before testing. To obtain a correlation between rebound numbers and
strength of wet cured and wet tested cubes, it is necessary to establish a
correlation between the strength of wet tested cubes and the strength of dry
tested cubes on which rebound readings are taken. A direct correlation between
rebound numbers on wet cubes and the strength of wet cubes is not
recommended. Only the vertical faces of the cube as cast should be tested. At
least nine readings should be taken on each of the two vertical faces accessible in
the compression testing machine when using the rebound hammers.
3.2.9) Interpretation of results:

The rebound hammer method provides a convenient and rapid indication
of the compressive strength of concrete by means of establishing a suitable
correlation between the rebound index and the compressive strength of concrete.
The procedure of obtaining such correlation is given above. In general, the
rebound number increases as the strength increases but it is also affected by a
number of parameters as mentioned. It is also pointed out that rebound indices
are indicative of compressive strength of concrete to a limited depth from the
surface. If the concrete in a particular member has internal micro cracking, flaws
or heterogeneity across the cross-section, rebound hammer indices will not
indicate the same.
As such, the estimation of strength of concrete by rebound hammer
method cannot be held to be very accurate and probable accuracy of prediction
of concrete strength in a structure is ± 25 percent. If the relationship between
rebound index and compressive strength can be checked by tests on core samples
obtained from the structure or standard specimens made with the same concrete
materials and mix proportion, then the accuracy of results and confidence
thereon are greatly increased.
25
3.3) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity:
Ultrasonic scanning is a recognized non – destructive evaluation test to
qualitatively assess the homogeneity and integrity of concrete.
3.3.1) Historical background:

The application of ultrasound to non-destructive testing was first made
possible by the discovery of the piezoelectric effect by the brothers Pierre and
Jacques Curie in 1880. However, it was not until the discovery of radar, that any
effective progress was possible. Sokolov studied the use of ultrasonic waves in
detecting metal objects. Mulhauser obtained a patent for using ultrasonic waves,
using two transducers to detect flaws in solids. Then, Firestone in the USA and
Sproule in the UK, working independently of one another, developed the pulse-
echo ultrasonic flaw detector. The first ultrasonic instruments used an “A-mode
presentation” with blips on an oscilloscope screen. That was followed by a “B-
mode presentation” with a two dimensional, gray scale imaging. The rapid
advances in digitization and computing capabilities have totally changed the
faces of many instruments and the type of algorithms that are used in processing
the resulting data.
3.3.2) Objective:
The ultrasonic pulse velocity method could be used for:
i) The homogeneity of the concrete.
ii) The presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections,
iii) Changes in the structure of the concrete which may occur with time.
iv) The quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements.
v) The quality of one element of concrete in relation to another, and
vi) The value of dynamic elastic modules of the concrete.
26
3.3.3) Principle:
The ultrasonic pulse is generated by an electroacoustical transducer.
When the pulse is induced into the concrete from a transducer, it undergoes
multiple reflections at the boundaries of the different material phases within the
concrete. A complex system of stress waves is developed which includes
longitudinal (compressional), shear (transverse) and surface (rayleigh) waves.
The receiving transducer detects the onset of the longitudinal waves, which is the
fastest.
Because the velocity of the pulses is almost independent of the geometry
of the material through which they pass and depends only on its elastic
properties, pulse velocity method is an convenient technique for investigating
structural concrete. The underlying principal of assessing the quality of concrete
is that comparatively higher velocities are obtained when the quality of concrete
in terms of density, homogeneity and uniformity is good. In case of poorer
quality, lower velocities are obtained. If there is a crack, void or flaw inside the
concrete, which comes in the way of transmission of the pulses, the pulse
strength is attenuated and it passes around the discontinuity, thereby making the
path length longer. Consequently, lower velocities are obtained. The actual
pulse velocity obtained depends primarily upon the materials and mix
proportions of concrete. Density and modulus of elasticity of aggregate also
significantly affect the pulse velocity.
3.3.4) Description:
The pulse velocity measurement set consists of a pulse generator, a
transmitter, a receiver, a amplifier, a circuit that measures the elapsed time, a
time display unit, and connecting cables. Note that the pulse generator, receiver,
amplifier, timing circuit, and time display unit are all incorporated in the velocity
meter shown in the schematic diagram of the pulse velocity measurement set
(Fig 3.3.1). A TICO ultrasonic instrument is shown in (Fig 3.3.2).
27
Fig 3.3.1: Pulse Velocity Measurement Setup
Fig 3.3.2: TICO ultrasonic instrument
3.3.4.1) Transducer:
Any suitable type of transducer operating within the frequency range of
20 kHz to 150 kHz (Table 3.3.1) may be used. Piezoelectric and magneto-strictive
28
types of transducers may be used, the latter being more suitable for the lower
part of the frequency range.
3.3.4.2) Electronic Timing Device:

It shall be capable of measuring the time interval elapsing between the
onset of a pulse generated at the transmitting transducer and the onset of its
arrival at the receiving transducer. The following measurement image appears as
shown in (Fig 3.3.3). Two forms of the electronic timing apparatus are possible,
one of which uses a cathode ray tube on which the leading edge of the pulse is
displayed in relation to the suitable time scale, the other uses an interval timer
with a direct reading digital display. If both the forms of timing apparatus are
available, the interpretation of results becomes more reliable.
Fig 3.3.3: Display unit
3.3.5) Performance of the Assembly of Apparatus:

The apparatus should be capable of measuring transit times to an
accuracy of + 1percent over a range of 20 microseconds to 10 milliseconds. For
this, it is necessary to check the overall performance by making measurements
29
on two standard reference specimens in which the pulse transit times are known
accurately. The two reference specimens (Usually steel bars) should have pulse
transit times of about 25 microseconds to 100 microseconds respectively; these
times being specifies by the supplier of the equipment to an accuracy of + 0.2
microsecond. The shorter of the reference specimens should be used to set the
zero for the apparatus and the longer one should be used to check the accuracy
of transit time measurement of the apparatus. The measurement obtained
should not differ from the known value for the reference specimen by more than
+ 0.5 percent.
The electronic excitation pulse applied to the transmitting transducer
should have a rise time of not greater than one quarter of its natural period. This
is to ensure a sharp pulse onset.
The interval between pulses should be low enough to ensure that the
onset of the received signal in small concrete test specimens is free from
interference by reverberations produced within the preceding working cycle.
The apparatus should maintain its performance over the range of ambient
temperature, humidity and power supply voltage stated by the supplier.
3.3.6) Method of testing:

Pulse velocity tests measure the transit time of an ultrasonic pulse
between two transducers, a transmitter and a receiver. The velocity of the pulse
can be determined from the transit time and the distance between the transmitter
and the receiver. The equation for the calculation of pulse velocity is:
Distance between transmitter and receiver

Pulse Velocity =
Transmit time
30
There are three ways in which the transducers may be arranged, as shown
in (Fig 3.3.4):
Fig 3.3.4: Method of propogating and receiving pulses
(a) Direct transmission through opposite faces

(b) Semi-direct transmission through adjacent faces
(c) Indirect transmission at the same face.
Since the maximum pulse velocity is transmitted at right angles to the face
of the transmitter, the direct method is the most reliable from the point of view of
transmit time measurement. Also, the path is clearly defined and can be
31
measured accurately, and this approach should be used wherever possible for
assessing concrete quality.
The semi-direct method can sometimes be used satisfactorily if the angle
between the transducers is not too great, and if the path length is not large. The
disadvantage of this transmission is that the path length is less clearly defined. It
is generally regarded as adequate to take this from center to center of transducer
faces.
The indirect method is definitely the least satisfactory, since the received
signal amplitude may be less than 3% that for a comparable direct transmission.
The received signal is dependent upon scattering of the pulse discontinuities and
is thus highly subject to errors. The pulse velocity will be predominantly
influenced by the surface zone concrete, which may not be representative of the
body, and the exact path length is uncertain.
3.3.6.1) The following procedure is necessary to account for this lack of precision
of path length.
A series of readings with the transmitter fixed and the receiver being
located at a series of fixed stations along a chosen line (Fig 3.3.5). The results are
plotted and the mean pulse velocity is given by the slope of the best straight line
through the data points.
Fig 3.3.5: Indirect Pulse Velocity Measurement
32
The ultrasonic transducer must be in contact with the material in such a
way that the air voids should be filled and permit the transmission of the waves.
The material (gel or grease) used between the transducer and the test material is
called “couplants”. The couplant may form a layer between a transducer and a
test material causing errors in the measurement of ultrasonic velocity by
increasing the path length and causing attenuation. Therefore, couplant should
be applied as a thin layer as possible.
Since size of aggregates influences the pulse velocity measurement, it is
recommended that the minimum path length should be 100 mm for concrete in
which the nominal maximum size of aggregate is 20 mm or less and 150 mm of
concrete in which the nominal maximum size of aggregate is between 20 to 40
mm.
In view of the inherent variability in the test results, sufficient number of
readings are taken by dividing the entire structure in suitable grid markings of
30 x 30 cm or even smaller. Each junction point of the grid becomes a point of
observation.
3.3.7) Influence of test condition:
Fig 3.3.6: Effects of defects on travel time of ultrasonic pulse
33
3.3.7.1) Influence of Surface Conditions and Moisture Content of Concrete:
Smoothness of contact surface under test affects the measurement of
ultrasonic pulse velocity. For most concrete surfaces, the finish is usually
sufficiently smooth to ensure good acoustical contact by the use of a coupling
medium and by pressing the transducer against the concrete surface. When the
concrete surface is rough and uneven, it is necessary to smoothen the surface to
make the pulse velocity measurement possible.
In general, pulse velocity through concrete increase with increased
moisture content of concrete. This influence is more for low strength concrete
than high strength concrete. The pulse velocity of saturated concrete may be up
to 2 percent higher than that of similar dry concrete. In general, drying of
concrete may result in somewhat lower pulse velocity.
3.3.7.2) Influence of Path Length, Shape and Size of the Concrete Member:
As concrete is inherently heterogeneous, it is essential that path lengths be
sufficiently so long to avoid any error introduced due to its heterogeneity. In
fieldwork, this does not pose any difficulty as the pulse velocity measurements
are carried out on thick structural concrete members. However, in the laboratory
where generally small specimens are used, the path length can affect the pulse
velocity readings.
The shape and size of the concrete member do not influence the pulse
velocity unless the lease lateral dimension is less than a certain minimum value.
3.3.7.3) Influence of Temperature of Concrete:

Variations of the concrete temperature between 5 and 30oC do not
significantly affect the pulse velocity measurements in concrete. At temperatures
between 30 to 60oC, there can be reduction in pulse velocity up to 5 percent.
Below freezing temperature, the free water freezes within concrete, resulting in
an increase in pulse velocity up to 7.5 percent.
34
3.3.7.4) Influence of Stress:
When concrete is subjected to a stress which is abnormally high for the
quality of the concrete, the pulse velocity may be reduced due to the
development of micro-cracks. This influence is likely to be the greatest when the
pulse path is normal to the predominant direction of the plants of such micro-
cracks. This occurs when the pulse path is perpendicular to the direction of a
uni-axial compressive stress in a member. This influence is generally
insignificant unless the stress is greater than about 60 percent of the ultimate
strength of the concrete.
3.3.7.5) Effect of Reinforcing Bars:

The transit velocity is influenced by the density of the concrete, moisture
content, amount of aggregate, and presence of reinforcing steel. If the
reinforcement steel runs parallel to the direction of wave propagation, the
ultrasonic pulse will travel through the steel at a velocity that is 1.2 to 1.9 times
greater than the pulse velocity in concrete.
The apparent increase in pulse velocity depends upon the proximity of the
measurements to the reinforcing bar, the diameter and number of the bars and
their orientation with respect to the path of propagation. The increased pulse
velocity in the reinforcement steel will reduce the time required for the pulse to
travel between the transmitter and the receiver, indicating an inaccurate pulse
velocity by the test set.
3.3.7) Interpretation of Results:

The quality of concrete in terms of uniformity, incidence or absence of
internal flaws, cracks and segregation, etc, indicative of the level of workmanship
employed, can thus be assessed using the guidelines given in Table3.4.2, which
have been evolved for characterizing the quality of concrete in structures in
terms of the ultrasonic pulse velocity.
35
Table 3.3.1 - Velocity Criterion for Concrete Quality Grading
S.No. Pulse Velocity by Cross Concrete Quality Grading
Probing (km/sec)
1. Above 4.5 Excellent
2. 3.5 to 4.5 Good
3. 3.0 to 3.5 Medium
4. Below 3.0 Doubtful
Note: In case of “doubtful” quality it may be necessary to carry out further tests.
3.3.8) Combined use of Rebound hammer and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Method:
In view of the relative limitations of either of the two methods for
predicting the strength of concrete, both ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and
rebound hammer methods are sometimes used in combination to alleviate the
errors arising out of influence of materials, mix and environmental parameters
on the respective measurements. Relationship between UPV, rebound hammer
and compressive strength of concrete are available based on laboratory test
specimen. Better accuracy on the estimation of concrete strength is achieved by
use of such combined methods. However, this approach also has the limitation
that the established correlations are valid only for materials and mix having
same proportion as used in the trials. The intrinsic difference between the
laboratory test specimen and in-situ concrete (e.g. surface texture, moisture
content, presence of reinforcement, etc.) also affect the accuracy of test results.
Combination of UPV and rebound hammer methods can be used for the
assessment of the quality and likely compressive strength of in-situ concrete.
Assessment of likely compressive strength of concrete is made from the rebound
indices and this is taken to be indicative of the entire mass only when the overall
quality of concrete judged by the UPV is ‘good’. When the quality assessed is
36
‘medium’, the estimation of compressive strength by rebound indices is extended
to the entire mass only on the basis of other collateral measurement e.g. strength
of controlled cube specimen, cement content of hardened concrete by chemical
analysis or concrete core testing. When the quality of concrete is ‘poor’, no
assessment of the strength of concrete is made from rebound indices.
37
CHAPTER - 4
CASE STUDY – 1:
DAMAGE ESTIMATION OF A FIRE AFFECTED
BUILDING
4.1) Introduction:
When reinforced concrete is subjected to high temperature as in a fire,
there is deterioration in its properties. Of particular importance are loss in
compressive strength, loss of elastic modulus, cracking and spalling of the
concrete and reduced yield strength, ductility, tensile strength and loss of bond
with any steel reinforcement. To ascertain whether a structure can be repaired
rather than demolished after a fire, an assessment of structural integrity must be
made. As part of this process it is necessary to assess the extent of deterioration
of the concrete itself.
Assessment of fire damaged concrete usually starts with visual
observation of colour change, cracking and spalling. On heating above 300˚C, the
colour of concrete can change from normal to pink (300 - 600˚C), whitish grey
(600 - 900˚C), and buff (900 - 1000˚C). The pink discolorations results from the
presence of iron compounds in the fine and coarse aggregate. The change of
colour from normal to pink at around 300˚C is useful since it coincides with the
onset of significant loss of concrete strength as a result in heating. Thus in
practice any concrete which has turned pink after a fire is regarded as being
suspect of deterioration. Cutting back the concrete should give a good idea as to
the depth to which temperatures >300˚C have been exceeded. The colour change
to pink is more prominent with siliceous aggregates; calcareous and igneous
aggregates being less susceptible to this affect. Thus just because the concrete is
not visibly pink does not mean that the concrete is undamaged.
38
4.1.1) Spalling:
One of the most complex and hence poorly understood behavioural
characteristics in the reaction of concrete to high temperatures or fire is the
phenomenon of ‘explosive spalling’. This process is often assumed to occur only
at high temperatures. Severe spalling can have a deleterious effect on the
strength of reinforced concrete structures, due to enhanced heating of the steel
reinforcement. Spalling may significantly reduce or even eliminate the layer of
concrete cover on the reinforcement bars, thereby exposing the reinforcement to
high temperatures, leading to a reduction of strength of the steel and hence a
deterioration of the mechanical properties of the structure as a whole. Spalling on
the base of a slab may have a significant effect, however. When a slab is heated
and the concrete loses some of its strength the slab can often go into “tensile
membrane action” where the load is supported on the tension steel. However, if
spalling has taken place to a large degree, the tension steel may not have retained
sufficient strength to allow this.
4.1.2) Cracking:
The processes leading to cracking are generally believed to be similar to
those which generate spalling. Thermal expansion and dehydration of the
concrete due to heating may lead to the formation of fissures in the concrete
rather than, or in addition to, explosive spalling. These fissures may provide
pathways for direct heating of the reinforcement bars, possibly bringing about
more thermal stress and further cracking. Under certain circumstances the cracks
may provide pathways for fire to spread between adjoining compartments.
The type of occupancy, the size of building and its position on the
property all affect the fire resistance ratings required of various building
elements.
39
4.2) Investigation procedure:
Visual Observations : To assess the likely maximum temperature

and duration of exposure to fire
: Effect on concrete
: Effect on Reinforcement
: Relative comparison of affected & unaffected
portion
: Extent and intensity of portion affected
: Structural damage indications such as large
deflections, cracks, partial destruction.
: Design features of the building in general
Non-Destructive Testing Equipment: Rebound Hammer

Date of Testing : 09-09-07
Time of Testing : 10.45.am - 11.45 am
Surface of the concrete : Dry
Accessibility : Normal
Non-Destructive Testing Equipment: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester

Surface of the concrete : Dry
Accessibility method : Difficult-for testing of Beams affected by
direct
Date of Testing : 09-09-07
Time of Testing : 11.45.am - 1.15 pm
40
4.2.1) In-situ testing of concrete:
The most important effect of fire on RC structures is reduction in the
strength of concrete due to heating. To estimate the strength of the in-situ
concrete in the affected structure, following non-destructive tests were
performed:
i) Schmidt Hammer
ii) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester
i) Schmidt Hammer:
Schmidt Hammer test is a quick method of assessing the quality of
concrete based on the rebound. Since in fire it is the surface which is most
affected and if the concrete after necessary chipping (removal of damaged
concrete) is found to be sound, it may then be concluded that the concrete is
acceptable.
ii) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester:
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity technique is extensively used to assess the
quality of concrete. The method has been recommended to assess the damage
due to fire including crack detection. The common practice is to take the UPV
measurements on sound undamaged concrete and compare with the values of
damaged concrete.
4.3) Observations:
The fire accident took place on 18th August 2007 at midnight/early hours
of 19th August 2007.The material burnt, de-lamination of plaster of slab, No
change of concrete color, no exposure of reinforcement, no effect on concrete
cover in slab or beams in the fire affected room, twisted rolling shutter away
from it indicates that the maximum temperature reached will be of the order of
2000 C – 5000 C varying widely depending upon the combustible material
available and distance from source of fire. The estimated maximum duration of
the fire could be of the order of 1 hour. From the observations it appears that the
41
maximum temperature reached out side the fire affected room is of the order of
1000 C – 5000 C. The affect of the fire appears to be local with more damage in the
room it broke out and diminishing gradually as the distance increases from the
source. At about 8 m from the source the affect of fire is minimal and could be
practically treated as non-affected from the structural damage assessment point
of view. The plan of the building is shown in figure below.
42
43
Fig 4.3.1: Plan of the building
R olling Shutter
Beam 3
Beam 2
Beam 4
Slab Panel P2 Slab Panel P1
Beam 5 Beam 1
Slab Panel P3
DIAGRAM OF TEST LOCATIONS (Not to Scale)

Beam 6
MAIN ROAD
Beam 7
Beam 8
Slab Panel 4
Unaffected
Unaffected Beam
Table 4.3.1: TEST RESULTS (REBOUND HAMMER& UPV)
SI.N0 Description Method Recorded Readings Average

R.H 21 28 26 24 26 24 24.8
1 Beam 1
UPV 2180 2230 2850
R.H 28 26 26 28 28 24 26.7
2 Beam 2
UPV 2350 2440 2100
R.H 28 24 26 28 26 28 26.7
3 Beam 3
UPV 1950 2120 2070
R.H 26 28 26 28 25 24 26.2
4 Beam 4
UPV 2250 1900 2180
R.H 26 28 24 22 24 26 25
5 Beam 5
UPV 1850 2080 2150
R.H 22 26 24 22 28 26 24.7
6 Beam 6
UPV 2280 2010 2110
R.H 28 22 28 24 24 26 25.3
7 Beam 7
UPV 2030 1980 1990
R.H 25 26 25 26 28 26 26
8 Beam 8
UPV 2050 2150 1970
Slab Panel R.H 28 22 20 22 18 18 21.3
9
P1 UPV 1870 1990 1780
Slab Panel R.H 19 23 24 24 25 24 23.2
10
P2 UPV 2020 2160 2030
Slab Panel R.H 24 23 24 24 22 24 23.5
11
P3 UPV 1980 2270 2110
NR – Not Recorded
Table 4.3.2: Rebound and UPV values for beam and slab panels of un-affected portion
R.H (Beam) 28 27 31 28 26 28 28.0

Un -
affected UPV (Beam) 3540 3890 3670
12
portion P4 R.H (Slab) 28 28 30 26 28 26 27.7
UPV (Slab) 4040 3910 3850
44
4.3.1) Fire Affected Room (P1)
i) The slab exposed to fire appears black in color and could be attributed
mainly to smoke.
ii) De-lamination of large portion (about 50%) of the plaster
iii) Concrete Cover in tact al all locations in the fire affected room.
iv) No exposure of reinforcement
v) No excess deflections have been found.
vi) The Rebound hammer results are of the same order to that of the non-
affected portion. This could be attributed to dry and hardened surface due
to fire. Further the maximum temperature reached is of the order of 4000 C
to 5000 C in the fire affected room. The intensity and duration of this
temperature do not cause serious damage to the concrete which is reflected
in the observations.
vii) The UPV has readings recorded in the slab, beams in this panel indicates
that it has been mostly affected.
4.3.2) Adjacent Room (P2)

mainly to smoke
ii) De-lamination of some portion (about 25%) of the plaster
iii) Concrete Cover in tact al all locations
v) No excess deflections have been found
to 5000 C in the fire affected room. The intensity and duration of this
temperature do not cause serious damage to the concrete which is reflected
45
that the effect of fire is less when compared to the slab panel 1 which is
mostly affected
4.3.3) Panel (P3)

mainly to smoke
ii) De-lamination of some portion (about 25%) of the plaster
iii) Concrete Cover in tact al all locations
v) No excess deflections have been found
to 5000 C room. The intensity and duration of this fire do not cause any
damage to the concrete and may be treated as unaffected, which is reflected
that the effect of fire diminished from the structural point of view.
46
CHAPTER - 5
CASE STUDY – 2:
CEILING PLASTER FAILURE OF A BUILDING
LOCATED IN COASTAL AREA
5.1) Introduction:
Plastering: Plaster means an internal or external application of solid
material comprising sand, lime and various additives, applied wet in one or
more coats to produce a smooth, hard surface finish.
5.1.1) History:
The history of plaster dates back to ancient times. Early civilizations used
clay and mud plasters in the external rendering of their structures. This use
developed into the wattle and daub method, which consists of mud or clay,
strengthened by straw, being hand-worked over woven wood. Lime plaster
came into use beginning in the first century with sand frequently being used as
the aggregate. In the mid-thirteenth century, gypsum plaster was developed and
is still used generally today. At that time, hair began to be used as reinforcement
in plasterwork. Other types of plaster developed since the thirteenth century
includes scagliola (an imitation marble consisting of hard plaster colored by
powdered dyes), selenitic plaster (a patented formula developed in 1870, which
is a mixture of plaster with hydraulic lime), and sirapite (a substitute for lime
and hair plaster made from coarse, dark, hard gypsum). There have also been
several developments in the methods used in plastering, such as pargeting (solid
decorative plastering formed either freehand or by stamp moulds), fibrous
plastering (making lightweight casts from reverse moulds), and the inclusions of
hemp, jute, sawdust, and galvanized iron as reinforcement.
47
5.1.2) Composition of Plasters:
Clay plasters are the most varied of the plasters. The components vary
greatly from place to place and from application to application. Possible
components include clay, mud, sand, manure, chopped straw, and any other
material readily available at the time of construction. Traditional lime plaster
consists of three basic materials: lime, sand, and hair. Mixtures of these three
ingredients, in varying quantities and qualities, can produce any number of
textures and consistencies for plasterwork. Lime is traditionally derived by “the
burning or ‘calcining’ of limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) … to produce
‘quicklime’ (calcium oxide, CaO) which is then ‘slaked’ with water to produce
‘lime putty’ (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2)”. At this point, sand is added to the
putty to produce either coarse or fine plaster. Hair was also mixed into the
plaster to provide reinforcement. Gypsum plaster comes in various types,
distinguished as “classes.” All four classes are derived from gypsum, CaSO4
2H2O, that is either heated or burnt. Class A gypsum plaster is Plaster of Paris, a
hemihydrate, and manufactured from gypsum which is “crushed and heated so
that three-quarters of the water content is given off … [and] when water is
added, the formation of interlocking crystals causes the fluid to set into a solid
mass.” Class B is a “retarded hemihydrate,” which is made from “a coarser
gypsum and with the addition of a retarder by the manufacturer.” Classes C and
D are both finish plasters, with class D being heated more.
5.1.3) Application Methods:

Plaster is applied with a trowel in three or more coats according to
traditional practice. The first coat (called the render, scratch coat or coarse stuff)
is an average of 9mm thick designed to fill voids and even the surface. The next
coat of similar but finer material is referred to as the levelling or float also
averages a 9mm thickness, as it is finished with a wooden float ready to accept a
finish of fine stuff. Finishing coats of lime and plaster of Paris (called setting stuff
48
or fine stuff) are applied which is an average of 3mm thickness with a steel
trowel and can be worked up to a very smooth and glassy finish.
Coarse stuff was traditionally reinforced with animal hair or chopped
grass. Its proportions are three parts aggregate (sand) to one part of binder (lime
and reinforcing material, often with cement added). The first coat is roughly
trowelled on and its surface is scored to provide a key to accept the next coat.
The floating coat may contain a higher proportion of sand aggregate than
the render and a small proportion of fine reinforcing material such as animal
hair. It is ruled off with a long, true levelling batten to set up a perfectly regular
finish to receive the finishing coat.
Finish coats are finer again, and contain lime and a small amount of very
fine sand, a little gypsum to overcome crazing during the setting of the lime and
often a pigment for integral colour. Generally, it is better not to apply a coat of
render to a background weaker than the following render coat.
Fig 5.1.1: Application of plaster
49
5.1.4) Uses:
Uses of plaster are decorative and protection in nature. Early plasters,
such as clay and mud, had more utilitarian functions such as providing
insulation or protection, but plaster as we know it today is used for aesthetic
purposes. These decorative purposes can range from simply creating a smooth
wall or ceiling surface to ornate and intricate moldings and ornaments. As early
as in Ancient Greece, lime plaster was used to coat both the interiors and
exteriors of structures. This practice was continued and improved upon through
the Renaissance and beyond, where interior rooms were covered in ornate ceiling
medallions, mirror and window frames, cartouches, friezes, columns, and
innumerable other decorative elements.
5.1.5) Common Problems:

There are several defects, faults, or problems that commonly occur in
plasterwork:
1) Blistering – formation of blisters on finished plasterwork caused by air
trapped in the plaster.
2) Bond failure – breakdown of the bond between the background (lath) and
the render coat caused by either a poorly prepare background or poor
application.
3) Case hardening – when the surface hardens before the rest of the plaster and
is caused by heat and can result in cracking.
4) Cracking – caused by either movement of the structure or shrinkage of the
undercoat.
5) Efflorescence – deposits of soluble salts on the surface from the plastering,
background, or the earth when there is insufficient damp-proofing.
6) Flaking – peeling or scaling of the finish coat caused by lack of adhesion
between coats.
7) Fungal Growth – caused by the unwanted presence of moisture.17
50
8) Grinning – the appearance of the pattern of background joints on the surface
caused by variations in suction.
9) Popping – small conical hollows in the plaster surface caused by the
presence of a reactive material such as unslaked lime.
10) Spalling – the expansion of a material causes portions of the surface to blow
off.
11) Staining – when foreign matter either from the background or in the backing
penetrates through the surface.
12) Separation of Coats – delamination caused by excessive moisture or
insufficient keying.
13) Sweat Out – softening of plaster due to excess moisture often caused by
premature sealing of the surface with paint.
5.2) Possible Reasons for Failure of plaster in present case:

5.2.1) Poor Workmanship:
The thickness of plaster in the failure location is as high as 50 mm. The
thickness of plaster as per the specifications should be 20 mm. The thickness of
plaster provided is much higher than the specified thickness and not at all
acceptable. This indicates unskilled workmen not having a proper understanding
of the work being carried out.
Under the usual circumstances the slab deflects at the center. To make the
bottom of the slab a level surface the plaster required along the edges is more
and at the centre is very less. It is quite surprising to note in the present situation
is quite different and the thickness of plaster provided is more in the central
region and less along the edges. This will increase the chances many folds for the
ceiling plaster being detached and fall down.
51
5.2.2) Presence of Chloride:
As there is a failure chemical examination for the presence of chloride has been
carried out. The chloride content is as high as 1.23 Kg/m3. Chloride content
might have been likely associate with any of the construction material i.e., sand,
Water and cement. The possibility of association of chloride content in the
descending order with the materials used is Sand, Water and Cement.
Table: 5.2.1 – Permissible limits of Chloride content as per IS: 456-2000

Maximum Total Acid
Sl.No. Type of use of concrete Soluble Chloride content
(Kg/m3)
1. Concrete containing metal and
steam cured at elevated
0.4
temperature & Pre-stressed
concrete
2. Reinforced concrete or plain
concrete containing embedded 0.6
metal.
3. Concrete not containing
embedded metal or any material
3.0
requiring protection from
chloride.
5.2.3) Temperature variations:

It may be observed that there is a vast difference in the temperature on the
previous three days. On the previous day of the failure the temperature even fell
down due to rain. This vast difference of temperature accelerates and worsens
the situation further.
5.2.4) Location:
Top most storey is always the worst affected portion when compared to
other storey. Due to direct exposure to all atmospheric conditions (Temperature
variations, susceptible to sea weather, stagnation of water, less attention and
maintenance as it directly does not affect the functionality of the building) the
52
effects are maximum on the top most slab. Further the portion of the building on
the west portion gets affected by temperature). In the present situation it can be
observed that the failure portion is towards the west portion of the building.
5.2.5) Ready Mix Concrete (RMC):

A closer examination revealed that at a number of portions the cracks are
present mostly parallel to one of the beams at a distance of about 1/3rd length of
span from the beam. The crack patterns are not matching well with the possible
structural failure patterns. The actual dead load and live load on the slab is much
less as there are no instances where the roof of the dental college has been over
loaded (usually occur during a function with a big gathering when celebrated on
the roof top or in an emergency where the roof portion has been given for
cyclone relief operations). RMC has to be used with caution, as it consists of
chemical admixtures to delay the setting and hardening process during the
process of transit and of its semi fluid nature required for the pumping purpose.
The short and long term effects of these chemicals on the characteristics of
concrete are still not yet well established.
5.3) Opinion:
The failure of the ceiling plaster may likely be due to a combination of
reasons such as Poor Workmanship, Presence of Chloride, Temperature
variations, Location and Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) as explained above. There
may be a good number of other reasons which are beyond our comprehension
and understanding also.
5.4) Future Plan of Action:

Quality Assurance Document: A quality assurance document needs to be
prepared along with each tender. Quality does not come by chance. It is only
through sustained intelligent effort. Quality is always associated with lot of
53
additional costs in terms of testing, supervision with check lists, monitoring, and
skilled workforce. Additional man power, training, coordination, safety
measures, mechanism for the dissemination of information at the appropriate
levels, document maintenance etc.,
5.4.1) Testing of Materials:

The materials used for concrete need to be tested on regular basis. The
testing of materials is to be made an integral part of the tender while awarding
the work and the contractor is to be made responsible for collecting and sending
the samples in the presence of supervisors/Engineers for regular testing. Initially
the samples may be tested as per the following guide lines and may be modified
from time to time depending on the requirement.
Sand : for every load as and when supplied.
Aggregates : for every load as and when supplied
Cement : as per the specification
Water : as per the quality assurance document
5.4.2) Supervision with Check list:

Supervision is to be carried by physical observation in general. In addition
each visit must be associated with specific check list depending on the work
being executed. Any modifications and changes need to be recorded and
information needs to be disseminated to the appropriate authorities.
5.4.3) Monitoring:
The work is to be monitored by the concerned Engineer from time to time
from the reports received and through regular visits. Any modifications and
deviations need to be verified and certified. The need for the modification and
deviation need to be specified clearly and the impact of it is to be mentioned.
54
5.4.4) Skilled Workforce:
Skilled workforce is a very important component to achieve quality. The
total number of persons employed and the quality of the persons need to be
examined.
5.4.5) Training:
Training is an essential component to all the concerned. As the technology
is changing very rapidly, there is a need to train and upgrade the skilled
workforce from time to time.
5.4.6) Coordination:
Coordination among the various activities plays a very crucial role for the
successful completion of the projects. The needs of the various players need to be
understood and coordinated.
5.4.7) Safety Measures:

Safety is buzzword in the present day scenario. The importance of safety
must be understood by one and all and need to be enforced right from the
inception of the project. One must realize that to ensure proper safety additional
costs are involved.
5.4.8) Mechanism for the dissemination of the information:

The information need to be properly disseminated to the appropriate
authorities at the appropriate time to achieve overall functionality.
5.4.9) Document Maintenance:

The documents related to the entire project need to be maintained (soft
and hard copies) along with modifications, deviations and other correspondence.
This is of great help and need to examine any further issues in the future.
55
CHAPTER – 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
6.1) Introduction
In this chapter, an experiment is carried out with concrete cubes exposed
to fire, and the corresponding outcome of the test results is being discussed.
6.2) Procedure:
Cube specimens are of size 15 x 15 x15 cm. Mix ratio of 1:1½:3 (M20) is
adopted with largest nominal size of aggregate as 20mm. The test specimens
were stored in place free from vibration, in moist air of at least 90% relative
humidity and a temperature of 27° ± 2° C for 24 hours from the time of addition
of water to dry ingredients. After this period, the specimens were marked and
removed from the moulds. They were then submerged in water and renewed
every seven days, with a constant temperature maintained at 27° ± 2° C. The
specimens were not allowed to get dry at any time until they have been tested i.e,
after 28 days. The test covered around 16 concrete cubes. Out of which one is
tested under room temperature and the other 15 are tested under varying
temperatures as given below.
The following are the specifications of the oven

Company: IF Industrial Furnace and Controls
Power rating – 10kw × 3
Supply voltage – 440
Maximum temperature – 1000°C
15 cubes are placed in an oven and exposed to heat at various
temperatures ie, 100°C, 200°C, 300°C, 400°C, 500°C respectively. The duration of
heating in the oven is for 1hour.
56
Capacity of compression testing machine is 200T
The cubes are held in the compression testing machine under a fixed load
of 20 Mpa. Measurements of Rebound Hammer are taken on the cube specimens
using an N-type Schmidt hammer with impact energy of 2.207 Nm. Three
readings were taken ensuring a minimum distance of 20mm between two
successive points and not nearer an edge than 20 mm. Finally, average of these
readings was taken as the representative rebound number for the concrete of that
cube.
After testing with Rebound Hammer, Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test was
conducted on pre-selected points on every cube by arranging transducer of the
instrument in direct transmission mode. Before measuring the pulse velocity
using the transducers, a thin layer of grease was applied to them so as to act as
acoustic coupling between the transducers and the concrete surface. After
traversing a known path length (L) in the concrete, the pulse of vibrations is
converted into an electrical signal by the second transducer held in contact with
the other surface of the concrete member and an electronic timing enables the
transit time (T) of the pulse to be measured. The pulse velocity is calculated by
the formula:
Distance between transmitter and receiver
Pulse Velocity =
Transmit time
The procedure is repeated for all the other cubes and the corresponding
Rebound hammer and UPV reading are taken by holding the cubes in a
compression testing machine under the fixed load. One cube is tested at room
temperature. After testing with Rebound hammer and UPV, the load is further
increased and the maximum compressive strength of the specimen is noted.
The average of the readings of Rebound numbers, UPV, Compressive
strength for the corresponding constant temperatures is being taken.
The following Rebound hammer and UPV reading have been noted
57
Table 6..2.1 Test results (Rebound Hammer, UPV and Compression testing
Duration UPV Avg Compressive Avg
SI.No Temperature (°C) Rebound values Avg Avg
(Hrs) (m/s) (m/s) strength (Mpa) (Mpa)
1 Room Temperature 30 32 31 31 31 4250 4250 42 42
2 100 1 26 28 28 27 3260 42
3 100 1 32 36 38 35 32 4030 3723 42 42
4 100 1 34 32 30 32 3880 42
5 200 1 32 33 30 32 3890 44
6 200 1 34 33 30 32 33 3220 3647 38 41
7 200 1 34 37 30 34 3830 41
58
8 300 1 30 32 31 31 3050 40
9 300 1 32 29 32 31 31 3500 3270 40 40
10 300 1 33 32 30 32 3260 40
11 400 1 30 30 31 30 2550 37
12 400 1 28 30 32 30 30 2770 2553 38 38
13 400 1 31 30 32 31 2340 40
14 500 1 27 28 28 28 1960 34
15 500 1 28 29 27 28 28 1940 1950 36 35
16 500 1 26 28 28 27 1950 35
The following graphs have been obtained with the results obtained
34
33
32
Rebound values
31
30
29
28
27
0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature (°C)
Fig 6.2.1: Temperature Vs Rebound values
6000
UPV values (m/sec)
4000
2000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Tem perature (°C)
Fig 6.2.2: Temperature Vs UPV values
59
%ge Residual Compressive Strength 105
100
95
90
85
80
0 100 200 300 400 500
Temparature (°C)
Fig 6.2.3: Temperature Vs %ge Residual Compressive Strength
60
CHAPTER - 7
CONCLUSIONS
7.1) Case Study – 1:

The estimated maximum duration of the fire could be of the order of 1
hour. The affect of the fire appears to be local with more damage in the room it
broke out and diminishing gradually as the distance increases from the source.
At about 8 m from the source the affect of fire is minimal and could be practically
treated as non-affected from the structural damage assessment point of view.
The following are the conclusions reported regarding the Damage estimation of a
fire affected building
1. The duration of fire in the room is of one hour and the estimated
temperature is of the order of 4000C to 5000C.
2. Spalling of ceiling plaster is observed for slab panels in most of the
locations.
3. The slab panel 1 got affected severely than the other rooms. The slab panel
2 and slab panel 3 is also affected but not to that extent.
4. Exposure of reinforcement is not observed in beams and slabs.
5. Rebound hammer results are of the same order to that of unaffected
portion. This may be due to hardening of surface of concrete at 1000C to
5000C which is subjected to fire.
6. The effect of fire is clearly observed in UPV values i.e, the UPV readings of
Un – affected portion is higher than the effected portion.
7. The damage is not structurally severe, but regular maintenance and
surface treatment may be required.
61
7.2) Case Study – 2:
Spalling of ceiling plaster was recorded in a building located in coastal area and
the following are the conclusions reported regarding the failure.
1. Poor workmanship is one of the main causes for the failure of plaster in
the present situation.
2. Top most storey is the worst affected portion when compared to other
storey, due to direct exposure to all atmospheric conditions
3. The failure of the ceiling plaster may likely be due presence of Chloride.
4. Vast difference in the temperature on the previous three days. On the
previous day of the failure the temperature even fell down due to rain.
This vast difference of temperature worsened the situation further.
5. The effect of use of Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) is unknown.
7.3) Laboratory test:

An experiment is carried out with concrete cubes exposed to fire at
different temperatures. The test covered around 16 concrete cubes. Out of which
one is tested under room temperature and the other 15 are tested under varying
temperatures as given below.
The following are the conclusions drawn from the laboratory tests
1. As the temperature increases there is an increase in the Rebound value i.e
upto 200°C and with further increase in temperature the Rebound value
decreases gradually. The reason for this may be due to hardening of
surface of concrete which is subjected to fire.
2. As the temperature increases from 1000C to 5000C there is a gradual
decrease in the UPV values i.e from 4250m/sec to 1950m/sec indicating a
decrease in strength of concrete.
3. As the temperature increases from 1000C to 5000C there is a decrease in the
percentage Residual Compressive Strength i.e. from 100% to 83%.
62
CHAPTER - 8
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63
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64
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65
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ASCE, november 2003.
29. F W Y Chan and S W F Tsang, “Quality assurance of concrete foundation

elements using an ultrasonic evaluation technique”, The Hong Kong
Institution of Engineers, Jun 2006.
66
30. Indian railway institute of civil engineering “Non destructive testing of
bridges”, june 2005, Pune.
31. “Handbook on Repairs and Rehabilitation of RCC Buildings”, General Public

Works Department.
32. IS 13311: 1992 (Part 1), “Indian Standard Non-Destructive testing of

Concrete-Methods of Test”, Part 1-Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.
33. IS 13311: 1992 (Part 2), “Indian Standard Non-Destructive testing of

Concrete-Methods of Test”, Part 2-Rebound Hammer.
34. BS 6089: 1981, Guide to Assessment of concrete strength in existing

structures.
35. BS 1881 Part 201:1986, British Standard Testing Concrete, Part 201-Guide to
the use of Non-Destructive Methods of Test for Hardened Concrete.
36. BS 1881 Part 202:1986, British Standard Testing Concrete, Part 202-
Recommendations for Surface Hardness Testing by Rebound Hammer.
37. ACI 228.1R-95, In-Place Methods to Estimate Concrete Strength, Reported by

ACI Committee 228.
38. ACI 228.2R-98, Nondestructive Test Methods for Evaluation of Concrete in

Structures, Reported by ACI Committee 228.
39. IS: 456 – 2000, Bureau of Indian Standard “Plain and Reinforced Concrete –
Code of Practice” (Fourth Revision).
67
CHAPTER – 9
PHOTO GALLERY
Fig 9.1: 200T Compression Testing Machine
68
Fig 9.2: Rebound hammer test for concrete cubes, held in
Compression Testing Machine
Fig 9.3: UPV test for concrete cubes, held in

Compression Testing Machine
69
Fig 9.4: Fire affected slab in the room
Fig 9.5: Fire affected beam
Fig 9.6: Fire effected walls and shelves in the room
70
Fig 9.7: Extent of damage of various items in the room
71
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Health Monitoring of Concrete Structures

Thesis · May 2009

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Under the esteemed Guidance of

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

This is certify that the thesis entitled “HEALTH

Prof Y.S.PRABHAKAR, Dr. K.V.G.D. BALAJI,

MASTER OF ENGINEERING THESIS EVALUATION REPORT

1. ____________________ PROJECT GUIDE

2. ____________________ PROJECT GUIDE

3. ____________________ EXTERNAL EXAMINER

4. ____________________ HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

5. ____________________ HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

6. ____________________ CHAIRMAN BOARD OF STUDIES

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and

I am also thankful to Sri. S. S. S. V. GOPAL RAJU, Asst.

I am very thankful to Prof D.Prasada Rao, Principal, College

I also thank Mr. K. Ananda Rao, Lab Technician, Mr. P.V.S.S.N

I am very grateful to my parents and friends for their

I wish to thank one and all that gave support in completion of

I here by declare that the theoretical work and its interpretation

Date: (Miss. V. SANNIDHA)

3.1.1) Project methodology

3.1.1) Impact Energy for Rebound Hammers for Different Applications

Structures cannot last forever. All structures, whatever materials used,

2.2) Tests that are involved in determining the concrete strength –

V. Ramakrishnan[2] et al (2002) this paper traces the past history of the

Robert T. Ratay[3] et al (2006) this paper is an introduction to a series of

Yasukatsu Yoshida[4] et al (2006) this paper reports on the macroscopic

2.3) Role of NDT in determining concrete strength

Facaoaru[6] et al (1999) the pioneer researchers in this field, apply this

Reo'f[7] et al (1999) made wide experiments covered standard concrete

Giovanni Pascale[8] et al (2000) this paper deals with Non Destructive

Rakesh Kumar[10] et al (2005) two of the most commonly used NDT

Dr. Isam H. Nash't[11] et al (2005) This research aim to find unified

P.F. Castro[12] et al (2005) the paper analyses the effectiveness of the

Raffaele Pucinotti[13] et al (2006) in this paper a series of non-destructive

2.4) Impact of age on concrete strength:

P. Turgut[16] et al (2004) in this study, a relationship is determined

Garziera R[17] et al (2007) in this work a technique of monitoring the

2.5) Impact of environment on concrete strength:

G. Uva[19] et al (2006) the research work presented is focused on the

Appraisal of the corrosion level for reinforcement bars;

Appraisal of in situ properties and homogeneity for the concrete (by

means of rebound hammer and ultrasonic testing, extraction of samples

used, in the future, the monitoring of the structure by only using ND

2.6) Some case studies:

B R Limaye[22] et al (2002) in this paper using a range of Non-destructive

Satoko Watanabe[23] et al (2003) this paper presents the results obtained in

M.Z. Mohamed Firdows[24] et al (2005) 34-year old industrial building was

J. Prabakar[25] et al (2005) the paper presents a case study in which

S. Bhaskar[26] et al (2006) this paper discusses a case study, the assessment

Azlan Adnan[27] et al (2006) this study is aimed to determine bridge

Eung Ha Cho[28] et al (2006) Corrosion rates were measured at the exposed

F W Y Chan[29] et al (2006) this paper presents the approach and results

Case Studies Experimental study

Damage Ceiling Results and