Hindawi

Mathematical Problems in Engineering

Volume 2019, Article ID 5026316, 13 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5026316

Research Article
Suppression of Current Fluctuations and the Brake Torque for
PMSM Shutoff in Electric Vehicles

Ke Lu,1,2 Yuan Zhu ,1,2 Zhihong Wu,1,2 and Mingkang Xiao2

1
Sino-German School for Postgraduate Studies, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
2
School of Automotive Studies, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China

Correspondence should be addressed to Yuan Zhu; yuan.zhu@tongji.edu.cn

Received 7 May 2019; Accepted 10 August 2019; Published 2 September 2019

Academic Editor: Yongheng Yang

Copyright © 2019 Ke Lu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
When a safety-related fault in the motor controller is detected, the torque output of the motor cannot be effectively shut off in time
and an overcurrent occurs at the moment of switching. The advantages and disadvantages of the open circuit and active short-
circuit methods are analyzed. Combining the advantages of these two operations, this paper proposes a new mixed voltage
modulation method. It introduces a voltage modulation ratio that represents the duty cycle of the open circuit operation during a
PWM period. This ratio is first set to a fixed value and gradually reduced to zero. The inverter is switched at a mixed operation and
finally remains in the active short-circuit mode. The current can be quickly converged by a freewheeling diode of open circuit.
After switching to active circuit, the brake torque is safety. The effectiveness of this shutoff method was verified by simulations and
experiments. It shows that current fluctuations are suppressed and the torque output is also within a safety range. In addition, this
shutoff method does not require any additional sensor information and is simple to implement.

1. Introduction functional safety concept development for powertrains of

hybrid vehicles and electric vehicles [11]. Christiaens
In order to solve the environmental problem caused by au- presented functional safety concept of PMSM controller for
tomobile exhaust emissions, vehicle manufacturers have vehicles based on the E-Gas architecture, and the imple-
spared no effort to develop new energy vehicles, especially mentation of the motor control system was monitored by
electric vehicles [1]. And among the different motor types, an independent functional layer [12]. Li put forward an
permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs), especially online torque monitoring method for the motor and
internal PMSMs, have been widely used in electric vehicles pointed out that when a critical failure is detected, the
and hybrid vehicles, due to their high power density, high shutoff path could be triggered to allow the motor to enter a
efficiency, and small size [2, 3], and the design and devel- safe state to ensure that the vehicle is controlled or does not
opment of motor controllers for electric vehicles has also been cause harm to the occupants [13].
extensively studied [4–9]. And in order to switch the motor into the safe state, two
However, as the electrification of automobiles has methods are commonly used, i.e., the open-circuit oper-
become the main direction of automobile development, the ation or active short-circuit (ASC) operation method
so-called “sudden unintended acceleration” of electric [14–16]. The main drawback of the open circuit operation is
vehicles has been reported frequently, and the safety of the that a strong brake torque will be generated when the motor
electric vehicles has drawn more attention. Nowadays, operates at high speed, which may lead to rear collision
most of the auto manufacturers have required their sup- accident [17, 18]. And for the active short-circuit operation,
pliers to develop motor control systems according to the the main disadvantage is that the excessive current may
functional safety standards for vehicles ISO 26262 [10], and occur when entering the safe state [17–21], which means
related studies are reported in [11–13]. Wu studied the that if this method is applied, the controller requires IGBTs
2 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

with higher current tolerance. It will not only increase the 2. Mathematical Mode of PMSMs
costs of the hardware but will also enlarge the size of the
inverter. Two types of PMSMs are widely used in the automotive
There have been some studies comparing these two industry, i.e., the round rotor PMSMs and the salient-pole
methods in fault diagnosis and IGBT protection. Bin analyzed PMSMs. The salient-pole PMSMs model can be expressed as
more than 20 methods for open-circuit fault and 10 methods did Rs ωLd 1
for short circuit [22]. The modified normalized DC current ⎡⎢⎢⎢ ⎤⎥⎥⎥ ⎡⎢⎢⎢⎢ − L L ⎤⎥⎥⎥ ⎡⎢⎢⎢ L 0 ⎤⎥⎥⎥
d ⎥ ⎥⎥⎥
method was proved to be very effective in detecting faults with ⎢⎢⎢⎢ dt ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ d
⎥⎥⎥⎥⎡⎢ id ⎤⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢ d ⎥⎥⎥⎡⎢⎢
ud
⎤⎥⎥⎥⎦, (1)
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ � ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎢⎢⎣ ⎥⎥⎦ + ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎢⎣
high resistivity to false alarms among the open-circuit fault ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎣ diq ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢⎣ ωLd Rs ⎥⎥⎦ iq ⎢⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎥⎦ uq − ωψ f
methods [23, 24]; however, the open-circuit operation will not − − 0
be used as a general shutoff method because it will output dt L q Lq Lq
strong brake torque when the motor rotates at high speed,
which will violate the requirement from safety side. In short- where ud and uq are the stator voltage of d-axis and q-axis,
circuit operation, various IGBT fault failure detection and respectively, id and iq are the stator current of d-axis and q-
protection strategies have been studied during the last decade. axis, respectively, Ld and Lq are the inductance in d-axis and
Rothenhagen pointed out that the induced voltage across q-axis, respectively, Rs is the stator resistance, ω is the
the stray induction between the Kelvin emitter and the electrical angular velocity of the rotor and ωm � ω/pn is the
power emitter can be used to monitor the fault current. mechanical angular velocity of the rotor, pn is the number of
When failure occurred, a slower turnoff mechanism was pole pairs of motor, and ψ f represents the flux generated by
trigged to control the fault current change rate di/dt [25]. the rotor permanent magnet.
Protection by two-step gate pulse was proposed to detect The torque equation of salient-pole PMSMs is
fault in the inverter, and the gate voltage was reduced from Te � 1.5pn 􏽨ψ f iq + 􏼐Ld − Lq 􏼑id iq 􏽩. (2)
its normal value to a lower value. It kept the di/dt low and
avoided interference issues [26]. In [27], IGBTs were slowly And the model of round rotor PMSMs can be expressed
turned off using additional passive components in fault as
conditions. Either a high value gate resistance or a high value did Rs 1
of external capacitor was switched in parallel with the IGBT ⎡⎢⎢⎢ ⎤⎥⎥⎥ ⎡⎢⎢⎢⎢ − L ω ⎤⎥⎥⎥⎥ ⎡⎢⎢⎢ L 0 ⎥⎥⎤⎥
⎢⎢⎢ dt ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ s ⎥⎥⎥ id ⎢⎢ s ⎥⎥⎥ ud
gate input capacitance. However, most of the above- ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢
� ⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎡⎢⎢⎢⎣ ⎤⎥⎥⎥⎦ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎢⎡⎢⎢
⎥ ⎣ ⎤⎥⎥⎥⎦, (3)
mentioned methods are hardware circuit-based, and algo- ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ diq ⎦ ⎢⎣ R ⎥⎥⎦ iq ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ uq − ωψ f
rithms-based researches are few. −ω − s 0
In previous studies, the selection of shutoff methods was dt Ls Ls
generally based on field experience or experimental results
where Ls is the rotor inductance.
and there was no theoretical analysis and comparison of
The torque equation of round rotor PMSMs is
these two methods. In this paper, the motor current and
torque output of these two shutoff methods will be compared Te � 1.5pn ψ f iq . (4)
and theoretically analyzed.
In addition, very few studies have been published in As shown in Figure 1, this paper adopts the field-ori-
shutoff method studies for reducing current fluctuation. ented control (FOC) strategy. When a safety-related fault in
Bosch has proposed a patent method for suppressing the a motor controller is detected, a separate programmable
current generated in the ASC operation [28]. However, this device is activated to output PWM signal and the motor can
method relied on the rotor position, and the position sensor be reliably switched to a safety state. Two methods are
might not be available when a critical fault happens. This commonly used to switch the motor into safe state, i.e., the
paper proposes a new shutoff method with a special voltage open-circuit operation or ASC operation method. The open-
modulation ratio. It shows that the current fluctuation can circuit operation means turning off all IGBTs in the inverter
be suppressed and the torque output can be also switched off shown in Figure 2. In this case, T1–T6 are all switched off
without the risk to damage the IGBTs; additionally, no and diodes D1–D6 are used for freewheeling; ASC operation
additional sensor information is required. means that by switching on T2, T4, and T6 and switching off
This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the T1, T3, and T5, three phases of the motor are short circuited
mathematical model of PMSMs is introduced. Section 3 via the low-side IGBTs.
derives the mathematical formula of the open-circuit op-
eration and ASC and then analyzes and compares the 3. Derivation and Comparison of Current and
advantages and disadvantages of these two methods. Sec- Torque Response in Open Circuit and Active
tion 4 introduces a special voltage modulation ratio and Short Circuit
proposes a new shutoff method. Section 5 presents the
simulation and experimental results of ASC operation and 3.1. Analysis of Open-Circuit Current and Torque Response of
the proposed method. The effectiveness of the method is PMSM. According to the inverter topology shown in Fig-
compared with the short-circuit method and verified by ure 1, in the open circuit operation, the IGBTs are switched
simulations and experiments. In Section 6, the paper is off and the current is fed back to the DC power supply via the
summarized. freewheeling diode. The conduction sequence of the diode in
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 3

i∗q
n∗ uq uα
+– PI +– PI dq Separate
id∗ ud uβ SVPWM Inverter programmable
+– PI device
αβ
Fault detected
iA iB iC
iq
αβ ABC

id dq αβ
n θ
PMSM

Normal operation

Figure 1: Control schematic diagram of PMSM.

T1 D1 T3 D3 T5 D4
V1
udc uA uB M
uC

T2 4 D2 T4 D5 T6 D6

Figure 2: Topological structure of three-phase voltage type inverter.

this process mainly depends on the direction of the three- enters a stable state. In order to solve the steady-state
phase current of PMSMs. The voltages applied on the motor current, the model of PMSM is simplified as follows:
phases can be expressed as
(1) Only the fundamental component of the input
− sign ia 􏼁Udc voltage is under consideration
⎢
⎡
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎤
⎢
⎢
⎢ 2 ⎥⎥⎥ (2) The motor speed changes slowly and is regarded as a
ua ⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ constant during analysis
⎢
⎡ ⎤⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎥⎥⎥ � ⎢ − sign ib 􏼁Udc ⎥ ⎥⎥⎥, In steady state, the three-phase current changes with sine
⎢
⎢
⎢ ub ⎥
⎥ ⎢ ⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ (5)
⎣ ⎥⎥⎦ ⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
2 ⎥⎥⎥ and in the stationary coordinate system can be expressed as
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
uc ⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ iα
⎣ − sign ic 􏼁Udc ⎥⎥⎦
⎢
⎢ is cos β
⎡⎣ ⎤⎦ � 􏼢 􏼣, (6)
2 iβ is sin β
where udc represents the bus voltage of PMSMs; ua , ub , and where β is the stator current vector angle and is represents
uc are the three-phase voltage of PMSMs; and ia , ib , and ic are the current vector.iα and iβ are the current in α-axis and
the three-phase current of PMSMs. β-axis, respectively.
In the open-circuit operation, ua , ub , and uc can make up The three-phase stator currents can be described as
six basic voltage vectors and the magnitudes of these six follows:
voltage vectors are constant. The directions are directed to
the 0°, 60°, 120°, 180°, 240°, and 300°, respectively, and are is cos β
⎡⎢⎢⎢ ⎤⎥⎥⎥
opposite to the directions of the sectors in which the motor ia ⎢
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎡⎢⎢⎢ ⎤⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
current vectors are located. ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ i cos􏼒β − 2π􏼓 ⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎢ ib ⎥⎥⎥ � ⎢⎢⎢ s ⎥
According to equation (5), the input voltage of the motor ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3 ⎥⎥⎥⎥. (7)
is a nonlinear function of the motor current and the ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎣ ⎥
mathematical model of the motor itself is also a coupled ic 4π ⎥⎥⎦
system, so the solution to the time-domain response is very is cos􏼒β − 􏼓
3
difficult to obtain. However, in the process of transition, the
direction of voltage applied on the motor is always opposite According to equation (5), the three-phase voltages of
to the direction of current, so the current can be quickly the motor also change with the direction of the current. The
converged. After a short period of fluctuation, the current three-phase voltages can be expressed as
4 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

⎪
⎧ Udc π 3π 2Udc
⎢
⎡ ⎪
⎪ if β ∈ 􏼒 , 􏼓 ⎤⎥⎥⎥ ⎡⎢⎢⎢ − π cos β ⎤⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ 2 2 2 ⎥⎥⎥ uα ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎨ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎡⎢⎢⎢⎣ ⎤⎥⎥⎥⎦ � ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥.
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ (10)
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎣ 2U ⎥⎥⎦
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ uβ
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ U π 3π − dc
sin β
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎩ − dc if β ∈ 􏼒0, 􏼓 ∨ β ∈ 􏼒 , 2π􏼓 ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ π
⎢
⎢
⎢ 2 2 2 ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ Also, it can be described as
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎧ U π 7π ⎥⎥⎥ 2Udc
ua ⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ − dc if β ∈ 􏼒 , 􏼓 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎡⎢⎢⎢ π cos(β + π) ⎤⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎡⎢ ⎥⎥⎤⎥ ⎢ ⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ 2 6 6 ⎥⎥⎥ uα ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎪
⎨ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎡⎢⎢⎢⎣ ⎤⎥⎥⎥⎦ � ⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥.
⎢⎢⎢ ub ⎥⎥⎥ � ⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥. (8) ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥⎥ (11)
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎪ ⎥⎥⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ uβ ⎢⎢⎣ 2U
dc
⎥⎦
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ U π 7π ⎥⎥⎥ sin(β + π)
uc ⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎩ dc if β ∈ 􏼒0, 􏼓 ∨ β ∈ 􏼒 , 2π􏼓 ⎥⎥⎥ π
⎢
⎢
⎢ 2 6 6 ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ It can be seen that under steady-state conditions, the
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎧ U 5π 11π ⎥⎥⎥ fundamental component of the stator voltage has a constant
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ − dc if β ∈ 􏼒 , 􏼓 ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ 2 6 6 ⎥⎥⎥ amplitude. By comparing equation (6) with equation (11),
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎨ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ the direction of the voltage vector is opposite to the direction
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢ ⎪ of the steady-state current vector. Simultaneously, the
⎣⎪
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪
⎪ U 5π 11π
⎥⎥⎦
voltage vector rotates with the rotor coordinate system, so
⎩ dc if β ∈ 􏼒0, 􏼓 ∨ β ∈ 􏼒 , 2π􏼓
2 6 6 the steady-state current response can be obtained using a
vector diagram. The round rotor PMSMs and the salient-
According to the Clark transformation, the three-phase pole PMSMs will be analyzed, respectively.
stator voltages in the stationary coordinate system can be
calculated as follows:
3.1.1. Round Rotor PMSMs. If only the fundamental com-
⎪
⎧ 2Udc 5π 7π ponent of the input voltage is considered, from equation (3),
⎢
⎡ ⎪
⎪ if β ∈ 􏼒 , 􏼓 ⎤⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ 3 6 6 ⎥⎥⎥ the vector diagram of the round rotor PMSM is shown in
⎢⎪
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ Figure 3.
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ And according to Figure 3, the corresponding trigo-
⎢
⎢⎪
⎢ ⎪ − 2Udc if β ∈ 􏼒0, π􏼓 ∨ β ∈ 􏼒11π, 2π􏼓 ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎪
⎢ ⎪ 3 ⎥⎥⎥ nometric equation can be established:
⎢
⎢ ⎪ 6 6 ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎪
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎨ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎪
⎧ us iq
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎪
⎪ − 􏽱����� � Rs iq + ωψ f + ωLs id ,
⎢
⎢ ⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎪
⎪
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎪
⎪
⎪ U π π 3π 11π ⎥⎥⎥ ⎪
⎪ i2d + i2q
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪
⎪ − dc if β ∈ 􏼒 , 􏼓 ∨ β ∈ 􏼒 , 􏼓 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎪
⎨
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪ 3 6 2 2 6 ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ (12)
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎪
⎪
⎢
⎢⎪
⎢ ⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎪
⎪ us id
uα ⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎪
⎪
⎢
⎡ ⎢
⎤⎥ ⎢ ⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎪ − 􏽱����� � Rs id − ωLs iq .
⎣ ⎥⎥⎦ � ⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪ Udc if β ∈ 􏼒π, 5π 􏼓 ∨ β ∈ 􏼒7π, 3π 􏼓
⎪
⎩ ⎥⎥⎥. ⎪
⎩ i2d + i2q
⎢
⎢
⎢ 3 2 6 6 2 ⎥⎥⎥
uβ ⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ √� ⎥⎥⎥ By solving equation (12), the steady current response in
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎧ 3 Udc π 5π ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ − if β ∈ 􏼒 , 􏼓 ⎥⎥⎥ the open circuit operation can be obtained. The root depends
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ 3 6 6 ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎪
⎢ ⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ on the electrical angular speed and the turning speed can be
⎢⎪
⎢ ⎪ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢⎪⎪ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎪
⎢
⎢ ⎪ √� ⎥⎥⎥ calculated as follows:
⎢ ⎪ 􏽳��������
⎢ ⎨ 3 Udc
⎢
⎢ 7π 11π ⎥⎥⎥
⎥⎥⎥
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪ if β ∈ 􏼒 , 􏼓 4U2dc R2s
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ 3 6 6 ⎥⎥⎥ ∗
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥ ω � − . (13)
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎥⎥⎥
⎥⎥⎥ π2 ψ 2f L2s
⎢
⎢
⎢ ⎪
⎪ ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎪
⎢
⎢
⎣ ⎪
⎪
⎪ π 11π 5π 7π ⎥⎥⎦
⎩ 0 if β ∈ 􏼒0, 􏼓 ∨ β ∈ 􏼒 , 2π 􏼓 ∨ β ∈ 􏼒 , 􏼓 Since Rs is small and Rs /Ls is close to 0, it can be ignored.
6 6 6 6 Thus, equation (13) can be simplified as
(9)
2U
ω∗ � dc . (14)
For a motor in a star connection scheme, the even and πψ f
third harmonics of the stator voltage cancel each other and it Equation (12) does not have a real number solution when
mainly includes the fundamental component, the 5th and the electrical angular speed is lower than the turning speed.
7th harmonics. To simplify the analysis, the remaining 5th In that case, the diode of the inverter maintains the voltage
and 7th harmonics are ignored. By performing the Fourier balance by switching the conduction direction and the
decomposition on the stator voltage in the stationary co- motor current response is close to zero. When the electrical
ordinate system according to equation (9), the fundamental angular speed is greater than the turning speed ω∗ , the
component of the voltage can be expressed as steady-state response of the motor current is
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 5

q q

is · Rs e0
i s · Rs
e0
jωLdid
jωLsis jωLqiq

d ωs d ωs
us
us
β β
θr θr
id id
Space reference axis A Space reference axis A

iq is
is iq

Figure 3: Vector diagram of the round rotor PMSM in open-circuit Figure 4: Vector diagram of salient-pole PMSM in open circuit
operation. operation.

4U2dc ψ
id � − f, (15) current of the d-q axis is negative in order to satisfy the
π2 ψ f Ls ω2 Ls
vector relationship, which means that the torque output of
􏽱��������������� the motor is also negative.
2Udc ω2 − 􏼐4U2dc /π2 ψ 2f 􏼑 Therefore, a simulation was made to obtain the brake
iq � − . (16)
πLs ω2 torque at different mechanical speed in the open-circuit
operation. The result is shown in Figure 5. It can be seen
Below the turning speed, since the current response is 0, that when the speed is higher than turning speed, the
the torque output of the motor is also equal to 0. Above brake torque increases rapidly to a large value. In this case,
turning speed ω∗ , according to equations (4) and (16), the brake torque occurs when the motor is operating at a high
electromagnetic torque can be calculated as follows: speed, which is extremely dangerous for the electrical
􏽱���������������
3ψ f Udc pn ω2 − 􏼐4U2dc /π2 ψ 2f 􏼑 vehicle.
Te � − . (17) Based on the analysis of round rotor PMSM and salient-
πLs ω2 pole PMSM in open-circuit operation, it can be seen as
follows:
(1) The motor speed has a great influence on the current
3.1.2. Salient-Pole PMSMs. Similar to the analysis of round and torque responses of the motor. At low speeds
rotor PMSMs, salient-pole PMSMs in the open circuit are (below the turning speed), the steady-state response
analyzed as follows. The vector diagram is shown in of the current of d-axis and q-axis is zero and the
Figure 4: motor has no torque output. At high speeds (above
According to the trigonometric function relationship, a the turning speed), the steady-state response of the
function of the current can be obtained as follows: current of d-axis and q-axis is less than zero and the
⎪
⎧ us iq motor outputs brake torque.
⎪
⎪ − 􏽱����� � Rs iq + ωψ f + ωLd id ,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ i2d + i2q (2) In the transient state of the current, the direction of
⎪
⎨ voltage applied on the motor is always opposite to
⎪ (18) the direction of current, so the convergence of the
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ us id current can be accelerated and the motor can quickly
⎪
⎪ − 􏽱����� � Rs id − ωLq iq .
⎪
⎩ enter to a steady state.
i2d + i2q
(3) When the motor rotates above the turning speed,
Although the analytical solution of equation (18) cannot large brake will occur, which violates the safety
be directly obtained, it can be quantitatively analyzed and requirements.
solved by numerical methods. From Figure 3, it can be seen
that the vector relationship can be established when the
rotation speed is sufficiently high, i.e., the back electromotive 3.2. Analysis of Active Short-Circuit Current Response and
force is sufficiently large. This means that for a salient-pole Torque Response of PMSM. After switching into ASC state,
motor, there is also a turning speed. Below the turning speed, the motor inputs ud and uq become 0. By solving equation
the current response of the motor is approximately 0. When (1), the current response in salient-pole PMSMs can be
the speed is higher than the turning speed, the steady-state calculated as
6 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

⌢ ⌢
0 inductance of the motor is not big enough, id0 and iq0 are
⌢ ⌢
the main factors. Equation (20) indicates that id0 and iq0
–10 represent the difference between the initial current at the
moment of entering ASC and the steady-state current. The
–20
closer the initial current and steady-state current are, the
–30 smaller the amplitude of the fluctuation is.
Torque (Nm)

⌢ ⌢
–40 Ld id0 cos(ωt) + Lq iq0 sin(ωt)
A(t) �
Ld
–50
􏽶������������� (21)
􏽴
–60 2
⌢2 L q⌢
� id0 + 􏼠 iq0 􏼡 sin(ωt + φ),
–70 Ld

–80 ⌢ ⌢
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
where φ can be expressed as φ � arctan(Ld id0 /Lq iq0 ).
By substituting the steady-state current response into the
Mechanical speed (rpm) ×104
torque equation (2), the torque output of the motor can also
Torque be obtained:
Figure 5: Brake torque in open-circuit operation in simulation (the
PMSM parameters used in this simulation include the inductance ωe Rs ψ 2f ω3e Lq Rs ψ 2f 􏼐Ld − Lq 􏼑
⎜
Te � − 1.5pn ⎛
⎝ − ⎟
⎞
⎠.
in d-axis and q-axis Ld � 0.1425 mH and Lq � 0.3359 mH, the stator Ld Lq ω2e + R2s 2
phase resistance Rs � 0.016 Ω, the flux generated by the rotor 􏼐Ld Lq ω2e + R2s 􏼑
permanent magnet ψf � 0.0566 Wb, and the pole pairs pn � 4). (22)
It can be seen from equation (22) that the motor speed
⌢ ⌢
􏼐Ld id0 cos(ωt) + Lq iq0 sin(ωt)􏼑 − Rs t Ld +Lq 􏼁/2Ld Lq 􏼁 has a significant influence on the torque: when the motor
⎜
⎛
⎜
⎜ e ⎟
⎞
⎟
⎟ speed is high (Ld Lq ω2 ≫ R2s ), the motor torque equation can
⎜
⎜
⎜ Ld ⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎟ be simplified as:
i(t) ≈ ⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜ 􏼐Lq ⌢
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⌢
iq0 cos(ωt) − Ld id0 sin(ωt)􏼑 −
⎟
⎟
⎟
Ld +Lq 􏼁/2Ld Lq 􏼁 ⎟
⎠ ⎝ Rs ψ 2f Rs ψ 2f 􏼐Ld − Lq 􏼑
⎠.
e Rs t Te � − 1.5pn ⎛ − ⎞ (23)
Lq Ld Lq ω L2d Lq ω

ω2 Lq ψ f Equation (23) indicates that the output torque of the

⎜
⎛
⎜
⎜ − ⎟
⎞
⎟ motor is inversely proportional to the rotation speed. The
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜ 􏼐Ld Lq ω2 + R2s 􏼑 ⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎟ higher the rotation speed is, the smaller the torque output is.
⎜
+⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟ ,
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎟ As the motor speed gradually decreases, the brake torque
⎜
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜
⎝− ωRs ψf ⎟
⎟
⎠ gradually increases. 􏽱�������
􏼐Ld Lq ω2 + R2s 􏼑 In the case of a very low speed (ω ≪ R2s /Ld Lq ), the
(19) torque equation can be expressed as
⌢ ⌢
where id0 and iq0 are the initial auxiliary variable of d-axis ⎝ ωψ 2f ω3 Lq ψ 2f 􏼐Ld − Lq 􏼑⎠
Te � − 1.5pn ⎛ − ⎞. (24)
and q-axis and can be expressed as Rs R3s

⌢ ω2 Lq ψ f As shown in Figure 6, a simulation is made to study the

id0 � id (0) − ⎝
⎛− ⎠,
⎞
􏼐Ld Lq ω2 + R2s 􏼑 relationship between the mechanical speed and the brake
(20) torque. It can be seen that only at extremely low speed, the
torque response is obvious, but the speed is very low at this
⌢ ⎝− ωRs ψ f ⎠.
iq0 � iq (0) − ⎛ ⎞ time and it has little possibility to cause damage. In a wider
􏼐Ld Lq ω2 + R2s 􏼑 speed range, the brake torque is close to 0 in the ASC mode.
Thus, this torque output method is safe.
According to equation (19), the current response of the Since the inductance in d-axis is same as in q-axis, the
d-q axis is composed of a steady-state response and a analysis in round rotor PMSM is similar to in salient-pole
transient-state response. Transient response is related to PMSM.
current fluctuation in transition process. In the transient Based on the analysis above, it can be concluded that
part of the current, the transient current is gradually con-
vergent in an elliptic spiral curve in the d-q coordinate (1) In a wide mechanical speed range, the brake torque
system. According to equation (21), the fluctuation mag- is close to 0. Only at extremely low speed, the
nitude of the transient current amplitude A(t) mainly de- torque response is obvious, but the speed is very
pends on the inductance of the motor and initial current at low at this time and it has little possibility to cause
⌢ ⌢
the moment of entering ASC, i.e., id0 and iq0 . Since the damage.
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 7

0 voltage modulation method is proposed in this paper. Before

switching into ASC operation, this special voltage modu-
–10 lation operation is switched on.
In this method, a special voltage modulation ratio is
–20
introduced as follows:
–30 TFW
Torque (Nm)

M� , (25)
TFW + TASC
–40
where TFW and TASC represent time in open-circuit and in
–50 short-circuit operation, respectively.
This special modulation method can be regarded as a
–60
mixture of “open-circuit” and “short-circuit” operation. In
–70 this case, the voltage equation on the motor can be expressed
as
–80 → → →
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 u s � (1 − M) u ASC + M u FW . (26)
Mechanical speed (rpm) ×104
When M � 0, PMSMs operate in the short-circuit mode.
Torque
When M � 1, PMSMs operate in the open-circuit mode.
Figure 6: Brake torque in active short-circuit operation in sim- When 0 < M < 1, PMSMs rotate in the mixture of “open-
ulation (the PMSM parameters used in this simulation include the circuit” and “short-circuit” operation.
inductance in d-axis and q-axis Ld � 0.1425 mH and In this proposed method, IGBT drive signal waveform is
Lq � 0.3359 mH, the stator phase resistance Rs � 0.016 Ω, the flux shown in Figure 7, i.e., by turning off the upper bridges (or
generated by the rotor permanent magnet ψf � 0.0566 Wb, and the lower bridges) and switching on lower bridges (or upper
pole pairs pn � 4).
bridges) in a PWM manner.
Similar response analysis as the open-circuit operation
(2) Large transient current will be generated at the can be applied. Stable current responses with different duty
moment of switching. The amplitude of transient cycles are shown in Figure 8. As can be seen, the smaller the
current mainly depends on the difference of initial duty cycle is, the closer the steady-state current of the
current at the moment of entering ASC and the proposed method to the steady-state current of ASC op-
steady-state current. The smaller the difference is, the eration is. Therefore, in the proposed shutoff operation, the
smaller the amplitude of the fluctuation is. ratio of the open- and short-circuit time is first set to a fixed
value. The purpose is to allow the current to quickly con-
4. A New Shutoff Method of Suppressing verge to a value close to the short-circuit steady-state current
Transient Current and Brake Torque and the duty cycle of open-circuit operation is gradually
reduced to switch the inverter to the ASC mode smoothly
Although ASC can be used as a general shutoff method and finally the motor state remains in ASC.
because it will not violate the requirement from safety side, Another benefit of this approach is that it does not rely
the transient current caused at the instant of switching may on any additional sensors. As long as the duty cycle is set, the
exceed the maximum current that the IGBT can withstand, current suppression can be achieved. In case of a serious
resulting in a shortened lifecycle or even direct burnout of error in the motor controller unit (MCU), a separate pro-
the device. grammable device is activated to realize PWM output.
From the analysis results of equations (20) and (21), it
can be found that the magnitude of the transient fluctuation
of the short-circuit current is related to the current at the 5. Simulation and Experiment Verification
moment the short circuit is activated. The closer the initial
current and steady-state current are, the smaller the am- 5.1. Experimental Setup. Simulations and experiments were
plitude of the fluctuation is. If possible, control the current conducted to verify the effectiveness of the proposed
close to the stable current of short-circuit operation in method. The experimental platform shown in Figure 9 in-
advance and then switch to ASC operation. So in this way, cludes the tested PMSM, a load motor, a MCU, two personal
the transient current in ASC can be suppressed. Afterwards, computers (PCs), a signal conversion device (Kvaser), a data
because the brake torque is close to 0 in a large range of collection device (Vector VX1060), a speed sensor, and a
speed in ASC operation, the motor can not only generate torque sensor. MCU contains a controller and an inverter.
smaller transient current fluctuation but also output safety The core of the control board is an Infineon digital signal
brake torque. microprocessor (Infineon TC1782). Two PCs are used in this
According to the analysis in the open-circuit mode, it experiment. The first one is used to control the load motor,
can accelerate the convergence of transient current. This which provides various load torques for PMSM. The second
advantage can be used to keep the initial current quickly one sends out CAN control signal to MCU, which will also
close to the steady-state current in order to suppress the collect data through VX1060 and then feed back to the
fluctuation of transient current in ASC. Therefore, a special second PC.
8 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

U phase V phase W phase

1.5 1.5 1.5

1 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5

0 0 0

–0.5 –0.5 –0.5

0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7: IGBT drive signal waveform: upper bridges (blue) and lower bridges (red).

0
In the experiment, it can be seen from Figure 12(a) that
–50 in the proposed method, the current in d-axis can drop
–100 rapidly to a steady-state current and fluctuate slightly within
–150 0.002 s. Compared with the ASC strategy, the maximum
Current (A)

–200
amplitude is less than 500 A and the current amplitude is
reduced by 46%. Figure 12(b) also shows that the current in
–250
q-axis first decreases and then rapidly gets close to the
–300
steady-state current within 0.01 s, while under the traditional
–350 ASC operation, the current fluctuates greatly and the am-
–400
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
plitude is large until it reaches the steady-state current at
Mechanical speed (rpm)
3
×10 0.04 s. Similarly, the suppression effect using the proposed
id M = 0 id M = 0.2 id M = 0.4 method at 3000 rpm is also obvious. The current ripple is
iq M = 0 iq M = 0.2 iq M = 0.4 significantly reduced compared to systems in ASC mode.
id M = 0.1 id M = 0.3 id M = 0.5 From Figure 11(a), the amplitude of the q-axis current is
iq M = 0.1 iq M = 0.3 iq M = 0.5
reduced from 853.7 A to 509.2 A. Although the current in q-
Figure 8: Steady-state current at different voltage modulation axis indicates a large drop at the instance of switching, which
ratios (the PMSM parameters used in this simulation include the is still 60 A smaller than the ASC method, it can rapidly
inductance in d-axis and q-axis Ld � 0.1425 mH and reach the steady state and the fluctuation amplitude is
Lq � 0.3359 mH, the stator phase resistance Rs � 0.016 Ω, the flux
limited to 50 A. Figures 10(a) and 10(b) show that there are
generated by the rotor permanent magnet ψf � 0.0566 Wb, pole
pairs pn � 4). also some suppression effects at 1000 rpm.
Figures 13 and 14 show a comparison of current am-
plitude responses at different speeds. The orange and the
The PMSM parameters used in this simulation include red lines indicate that the current amplitudes of d-axis and
the output power Pe � 45 KW, rated voltage Ue � 330 V, q-axis are small. The difference in amplitude between the
rated speed ne � 3300 rpm, the inductance in d-axis and q- proposed method and ASC is large at high speeds, which
axis Ld � 0.1425 mH and Lq � 0.3359 mH, the stator phase means that the suppression effect is better at high speeds.
resistance Rs � 0.016 Ω, the flux generated by the rotor In addition, the proposed method can speed up the
permanent magnet ψ f � 0.0566 Wb, and pole pairs pn � 4. convergence. Figure 11 shows at 5000 rpm, this method can
The motor speed is set at 1000 rpm, 3000 rpm, and approach the steady-state current of ASC in just 0.01 s, while
5000 rpm, respectively, and the current and torque responses the ASC time lasts 0.05 s. As can be seen from Figures 9 and
in ASC and the proposed method are analyzed and com- 10, the proposed method can achieve a better convergence
pared both in simulations and experiments. The motor performance than ASC at two other different speeds.
output torque before switching is 50 Nm. In the proposed The experimental verification is consistent with the
method, the PWM period is 100 μs and duty cycle, i.e., the simulation results. However, according to the waveform, a
voltage modulation ratio, is initially set to 40% and reduced difference in steady-state current can be observed, which is
by 0.4% in every PWM cycle until it reaches 0. caused by a change in parameters during motor operation.
This difference is not large enough, and the experiment
5.2. Current Fluctuation Suppression. Figures 10–12 show results of the proposed method can satisfy the safety
the current response of ASC and the proposed method at requirements.
three different speeds. Simulation and experiment results are Theoretically, the open-circuit mode takes up a large
compared and analyzed as follows. duty circle at the beginning of shutoff process. Since the
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 9

Load motor

PMSM
Kvaser

1 PC

Speed sensor and torque sensor

2

MCU VX 1060

(a)

MCU

CAN signal
Kvaser
PC Controller
VX 1060
Data collection
PWM Resolver
signal

A Torque
Load
DC24V

V Inverter PMSM motor

Speed

(b)

Figure 9: PMSM test platform: (a) experimental platform; (b) block diagram of test platform.

150
100 100
0
50
–100
0
Current (A)
Current (A)

–200
–50
–300
–100
–400
–500 –150

–600 –200

–700 –250
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time (s) Time (s)

Experiment/ASC Simulation/ASC Experiment/ASC Simulation/ASC

Experiment/proposed method Simulation/proposed method Experiment/proposed method Simulation/proposed method

(a) (b)

Figure 10: Current response at 1000 rpm: (a) d-axis and (b) q-axis.

voltage vector and current vector are in opposite directions, the proposed method in restraining current amplitude and
the excessive current can be quickly and effectively sup- accelerating convergence speed, which is consistent with
pressed. To sum up, experiments verify the effectiveness of theoretical analysis.
10 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

200 150

100
0
50
–200
0

Current (A)
Current (A)

–400 –50

–100
–600
–150
–800
–200

–1000 –250
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time (s) Time (s)

Experiment/ASC Simulation/ASC Experiment/ASC Simulation/ASC

Experiment/proposed method Simulation/proposed method Experiment/proposed method Simulation/proposed method

(a) (b)

Figure 11: Current response at 3000 rpm: (a) d-axis and (b) q-axis.

200

0 150
100
–200 50
Current (A)

Current (A)

–400 0
–50
–600 –100

–800 –150
–200
–1000 –250
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time (s) Time (s)

Experiment/ASC Simulation/ASC Experiment/ASC Simulation/ASC

Experiment/proposed method Simulation/proposed method Experiment/proposed method Simulation/proposed method

(a) (b)

Figure 12: Current response at 5000 rpm: (a) d-axis and (b) q-axis.

1000rpm 1000 rpm

Current (A) 1000 Current (A) 260

900 240

800 220

700 200

600 180

500 160

400 140

5000rpm 3000rpm 5000 rpm 3000 rpm

Experiment/ASC Experiment/ASC
Experiment/proposed method Experiment/proposed method
Simulation/ASC Simulation/ASC
Simulation/proposed method Simulation/proposed method
(a) (b)

Figure 13: Comparison of amplitude of current response at different speeds: (a) d-axis and (b) q-axis.
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 11

100 150
100
50
50
0
0
Torque (Nm)

Torque (Nm)
–50 –50

–100 –100
–150
–150
–200
–200
–250
–250 –300
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time (s) Time (s)

Experiment/ASC Simulation/ASC Experiment/ASC Simulation/ASC

Experiment/proposed method Simulation/proposed method Experiment/proposed method Simulation/proposed method

(a) (b)
200
150
100
50
Torque (Nm)

0
–50
–100
–150
–200
–250
–300
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time (s)

Experiment/ASC Simulation/ASC
Experiment/proposed method Simulation/proposed method

(c)

Figure 14: Torque response at different speeds: (a) 1000 rpm; (b) 3000 rpm; (c) 5000 rpm.

260

240

220
Torque (Nm)

200

180

160

140

120

100 Simulation/proposed method

1000 Simulation/ASC
Experiment/proposed method
3000
Experiment/ASC
Mechanical speed (rpm) 5000
Figure 15: Comparison of brake torque amplitude at different speeds.

5.3. Brake Torque Suppression. Figure 14 shows the response torque is close to 0, indicating that the motor torque can be
of brake torque using the proposed method and ASC at three effectively cut off under both the ASC and the proposed
different speeds. method. Although the steady-state brake torque at 1000 rpm
From Figures 14(b) and 14(c), it shows that at 3000 rpm is close to 50 Nm, which is shown in Figure 14(a), this torque
and 5000 rpm, when the system is stable, the stable brake will not cause harm to the PMSM because the speed is not
12 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

fast enough. Therefore, the proposed method can also output inverters through suppressing overcurrent fluctuations.
safe brake torque without violating safety requirements. IGBTs in inverters are also widely used in other fields of
Figure 15 shows a comparison of brake torque ampli- electric traction, for example, in railway traction. Therefore,
tudes at different speeds. The red and orange lines represent the reliability and low cost of IGBTs play an important role
the amplitude of brake torque under the proposed operation, in development of these industries. Future research will aim
which is less than the amplitude of ASC shown in blue and to find more effective suppression strategies at low speeds
green lines. At 5000 rpm, the torque is reduced from 261 Nm and extend the range of optimizations that can suppress the
to 133 Nm experimentally, and the amplitude at 3000 rpm is excessive current and brake torque.
also 120 Nm less than in ASC. The smaller the amplitude of
brake torque at the instance of switching is, the higher the Data Availability
degree of safety is.
Moreover, from Figure 14(a), at 1000 rpm, the proposed The simulation and experimental data used to support the
method indicates the same convergence rate as the ASC. findings of this study are available from the corresponding
However, as can be seen in Figures 14(b) and 14(c), it takes author upon request.
only 0.02 s (at 3000 rpm) or 0.01 s (at 5000 rpm) to suppress
the brake torque close to 0, while the convergence time lasts Conflicts of Interest
0.04 s under the ASC mode, which means the proposed
method can accelerate the convergence at high speed. It can The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
be seen that, as the speed increases, the convergence effect
will also be improved. Acknowledgments
The experiment verification is in agreement with the This research was funded by the National Key Research and
simulation results. The improvement is reflected in the Development Program of China (2016YFB0100804).
smaller brake torque amplitude and faster convergence
speed.
References
6. Conclusions [1] M. R. Mehrjou, N. Mariun, N. Misron, M. A. M. Radzi, and
S. Musa, “Broken rotor bar detection in LS-PMSM based on
This paper focuses on the shutoff methods commonly used startup current analysis using wavelet entropy features,”
in the functional safety development of PMSM controllers Applied Sciences, vol. 7, no. 8, p. 845, 2017.
for electric vehicles, i.e., open-circuit operation and ASC [2] G. Pellegrino, A. Vagati, P. Guglielmi, and B. Boazzo, “Per-
operation. formance comparison between surface-mounted and interior
The open-circuit operation will not be switched as a PM motor drives for electric vehicle application,” IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 59, no. 2,
general shutoff method due to the large brake torque output
pp. 803–811, 2011.
above turning speed. For the ASC mode, large excessive [3] G. Pellegrino, A. Vagati, B. Boazzo, and P. Guglielmi,
currents will exceed the maximum limit that IGBT can “Comparison of induction and PM synchronous motor drives
withstand, which will damage the IGBT and shorten the for EV application including design examples,” IEEE Trans-
lifecycle of the inverter. In order to improve the reliability of actions on Industry Applications, vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 2322–2332,
the inverter, IGBTs with large current capacity and high 2012.
quality are selected, which will increase the cost of the device. [4] K.-T. Nam, H. Kim, S.-J. Lee, and T.-Y. Kuc, “Observer-based
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Mathematical Problems in Engineering 13

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